Cronicon O P EN A C C ESS EC PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY

Systematic Review

Nutritional Status and Toxicological Characteristics:

Review on Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia

Ahmed Hassen*
Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural and Computational Sciences, Woldia University, Ethiopia

*Corresponding Author: Ahmed Hassen, Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural and Computational Sciences, Woldia University,
Ethiopia.

Received: May 25, 2021; Published: July 30, 2021

Abstract

Most of the rural communities depend on wild edible plants for fulfilling their dietary requirements. They believe that all wild
edible plants are safe to them. This is because the awareness about available nutrients and toxic ingredients is known little. Some of
these incredible food sources may have toxic elements. A better sympathetic on the nutritional status and toxic elements are required
to enhance agricultural development, natural resource management, and food security policies in alleviating malnutrition. Therefore,
this review literature compiled the scientific findings on the potential WEPs nutritional values and toxicological characteristics. Nu-
merous scientific research findings were assessed from electronic databases. Thus, 65 locally available wild edible plant species were
included in the review. Most plants were a good source of nutrients and energy. Scholars recommended further processing (cooking,
drying, roasting etc.) to reduce the high contents of toxic elements for few vegetables and fruits. WEPs were found significant to com-
bat deficiency diseases in food-insecure rural areas. It will use as the basis for policymakers in drafting sustainable food programs to
alleviate food insecurity and malnutrition in the future.

Keywords: Malnutrition; Nutritional Value; Rural Community; Toxic Elements; Wild Edible Plants

Introduction

Ethiopia has a wide range of topography, edaphic factors, rainfall and spectrum of habitats enhanced the diversity of over 6500 higher
flora species [1]. It is one of the 34 global hotspot areas [2] and the fifth largest floral country in tropical Africa [1]. Wild edible plants
(WEPs) are the available food in the wildlife but not cultivated as a crop in the agricultural field [3]. Human beings have been used over
7000 wild edible plants in history as rituals, spiritual, cultural and sources of food [4]. WEPs are survival guarantees of macronutrient and
micronutrient sources during drought and famine seasons [5]. However, its richness in biodiversity, citizens faces the challenge of food
insecurity and malnutrition in each year [6].

Fruits and vegetables are used to treat various diseases; cardiovascular disease, stroke, diabetes, cancer, and other chronic diseases
[7]. Many scholars noted the nutritional value of Amaranthus, Opuntia, Utrica, and Ficus species. The leaves of Nasturtium officinale and
Mentha spicata L. are used to enhance blood circulation and lower blood pressure respectively. The leaves of Urtica species alleviate
tuberculosis [8]. Fruits from Opuntia are known for the treatment of chronic diseases [9]. Amaranthus species are rich with exclusive

Citation: Ahmed Hassen. “Nutritional Status and Toxicological Characteristics: Review on Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia”. EC
Pharmacology and Toxicology 9.8 (2021): 81-91.
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nutritional compositions of micronutrients and macronutrients [10]. Among this genus, Amaranthus spinosus is a nutritious plant that
contains nearly all essential nutrients [11]. The high content of nutrients and bioactive in Urtica dioica L. is used to treat various diseases.
This includes anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, immune-stimulatory, anti-infectious, hypotensive, antiulcer ac-
tivities, and cardiovascular disease [12].

Various rural communities inherent all chemical constituents of fruits, vegetables, seeds, tubers, or others are safe for health [13].
However, an excessive intake of certain minerals can lead to health-related problems [10]. A deficiency of a single mineral can lead to
lethal to health [14]. These can saponins, oxalates, glycosides, flavonoids, tannins, phytate, anthocyanin, cyanogen, and enzyme inhibitors
[15]. Secondary metabolites and toxic elements have attracted scholars’ attention in recent years [16]. Many of them are not harmful to
the organisms themselves but toxic to humans. They interfere with absorption, digestion, utilization, or overall processes in our body [15].

Higher oxalate content interferes with the absorption of calcium ion. It results in kidney stones [17]. Like Oxalic acid, Phytate reduces
calcium and iron absorption and form insoluble salts in our body. The consumption of saponin-containing plant foods reduces the uptake
of certain nutrients and membrane destabilization. High Protease and tannin content inhibits the absorption of digestive end products in
the small intestine. Cyanide also inhibits the respiratory system [18]. Flavonoids cause inflammatory stress in our body [19]. Polyphenols
have antioxidant activity in the body [20]. Certain plant alkaloids in our food can cause infertility [21]. Likewise, several wild edible plants’
accidental poisoning has been recorded in Ethiopia [22]. Therefore, a better sympathetic on the nutritional status and toxic ingredients
in WEPs are required to enhance agricultural development, natural resource management, and food security policies in the community.

Methods

Search strategy

This Systematic Review was carried out under the guideline of PRISMA [23]. Studies that reported on the nutritional value and toxicity
level of WEPs in Ethiopia were considered for this systematic review.

Data collected from journals, published books, and different electronic databases. The author searched many databases to get ap-
propriate studies published in Web of Science, ProQuest, PubMed Central, Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, and others
using titles related to WEPs in Ethiopia. After identification and downloaded, the author screened all known WEPs reference lists as much
as possible by giving prime emphasis on local research findings. The gray literature of unpublished duplicated articles and that did not
go ahead with the title were removed. Full text of articles screened that were eligible on locally available wild edible plant species. This
review excluded studies that are unavailable in the local. Lastly, the author approved full-text studies for the final synthesis until 22, 08,
2020.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

This systematic review was compiled on the most common WEPs (n = 65) and excluded those that were unavailable in the local. For
unavailable research data on the exact species found in local, the author subjected to search studies carried outside the country. The au-
thor included studies published in the English language for simplicity and clarity.

Data extraction and quality assessment

The author used an extraction format and containing information: name of author/s, year of publication, year of study, and study area.
In this review, the primary outcome was WEPs’ nutritional status, toxicity level, and importance for food security in Ethiopia.

Citation: Ahmed Hassen. “Nutritional Status and Toxicological Characteristics: Review on Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia”. EC
Pharmacology and Toxicology 9.8 (2021): 81-91.
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Species identification methods

WEPs were identified based on the book entitled “flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea” and “Useful trees of Ethiopia.” All the under reviewed
WEPs are referenced locally edible by numerous authors shown in table 1. Identification was also in close collaboration with Botany
stream Lecturers and Researchers, Department of Biology, Woldia University. The author pressed the specimens, identified the species
with their best photo, and deposited them at Woldia University for future reference.

The scientific Common Mode of Recommendations are given

Family Ha Pu Ref.
name name consumption for WEPs
Adenia ellenbeckii Passifloraceae ---------- H L Leaves are edible High consumption can lead to [18]
Harms. raw vegetable health problem/ oxalic acid
Amaranthus Amaranthaceae Aluma H L Cooked leaves are Good source of nutrients. [18]
caudatus L. edible Consumption should be taken
with a limited amount
Amaranthus Amaranthaceae Aluma H L Similar to A.caudatus Good source of nutrients. It [24]
dubis Thell. should be with a limit
Amaranthus Amaranthaceae Aluma H L Similar to A.caudatus Rich in the entire nutrient [18]
graecizans L. elements
Amaranthus Amaranthaceae Aluma S L Similar to A.caudatus Large quantity can interfere [25]
hybridus L. with digestion and assimila-
tion
Amaranthus Amaranthaceae Ferenj H L Similar to A.caudatus Should be taken with a limit [25]
spinosus L. Aluma
Amaranthus Amaranthaceae Aluma H L Similar to A.caudatus The same as A.hybridus [25]
tricolor L.
Amaranthus Amaranthaceae Aluma H L Similar to A.caudatus Similar to Amaranthus dubis [25]
viridis L.
Balanites aegyp‑ Balanitaceae Beddenno H F Fruits are edible in Suggest their potency in fight- [18]
tiaca (L.) Del. raw ing malnutrition
Berberis lyceum Berberidaceae Gewo S F raw or cooked fruits Can be used separately or in [26]
Royle. are edible amalgamation foods
Boucerosia indica Asclepiadaceae Gumudo H Ag Succulent stem with Contain appreciable amount [27]
(Wight&Arn). flower is edible of macro and micronutrients
Caralluma edulis Asclepiadaceae Gumudo H L The raw succulent Capable of providing energy [28]
(Edgew.) stem is edible to the consumers
Caralluma tuber‑ Asclepiadaceae Gumudo H Ag Similar to Caralluma It contains a good amount of [29]
culata N.E.Br. edulis nutrients
Carissa spinarum Apocynaceae Agam S F Raw or ripen fruits Source of nutrient for rural [30]
L. are edible poor communities
Casimiroa edulus Rutaceae Kazamora T F Its fruits are edible Much more beneficial food [31]
L. in raw source than common fruits
Celosia argentea Amaranthaceae -------------- H L The Arial part is Similar to Adenia ellenbeckii [18]
L. edible
Coccinia abyssi‑ Cucurbitaceae Anchote C Tu Its tuber is edible A good supplement of vita- [18]
nica (Lam.) Cong. mins and minerals

Citation: Ahmed Hassen. “Nutritional Status and Toxicological Characteristics: Review on Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia”. EC
Pharmacology and Toxicology 9.8 (2021): 81-91.
Nutritional Status and Toxicological Characteristics: Review on Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia

84

Coccinia grandis Cucurbitaceae Werqbme- C F Fruits are edible in Similar to Adenia ellenbeckii [18]
(L.) Voigt da raw
Commelina dif‑ Commelinaceae Sindelit H L Raw leaves are ed- Good source of nutrients to [24]
fusa Burm. f. ible vegetable combat malnutrition
Corchorus trilocu‑ Tiliaceae Ged mide H L Young leaves are ed- Similar to Adenia ellenbeckii [18]
laris L. ible in raw
Cucumis dipsa‑ Cucurbitaceae Yamora- C L raw/cooked veg- Good source of nutrients to [24]
ceus Ehrenb Ex. mi-sa etable is edible combat malnutrition
Cyperus esculen‑ Cyperaceae Gicha/Gu- H Tu eaten in raw or A rich source of oil and min- [33]
tus L. ma cooked form eral for growth and develop-
ment
Cyperus rotun‑ Cyperaceae Gicha H Tu Similar to Cyperus Similar to Cucumis dipsaceus [24]
dus L. esculentus
Diospyros Ebenaceae Ayeh T F Raw fruits are edible Suggest their potency in fight- [34]
mespeliformisA. ing malnutrition
Dovyalis abys‑ Flacourtiaceae Kosim S F Ripen fruits are ed- Not advice to eat more of its [35]
sinica (A.Rich.) ible in raw fruits at once
Warb
Ficus auriculata Moraceae ------------- T F Similar to Ficus sur Good dietary sources [36]
(Lour.) Forssk
Ficus carica L. Moraceae Beles T F Similar to Ficus sur Ensure dietary diversity and [37]
Forssk. food security
Ficus palmata Moraceae Quella T F Similar to Ficus sur Ensure dietary diversity and [37]
Forssk. Beles Forssk. food security
Ficus sur Forssk. Moraceae Shola T F Ripen fruits are ed- Can improve nutrition and [38]
ible in raw tackle food insecurity
Ficus sycomorus Moraceae Bamba T F Similar to Ficus sur Improve dietary diversity and [38]
L. Forssk. tackle food insecurity
Grewia bicolor Tiliaceae Somaya T F Ripen fruits are ed- A cheap source of nutrients to [24]
Juss. ible in raw combat malnutrition
Grewia tenax Tiliaceae Hoba T F Ripen fruits are ed- Can provides essential nutri- [15]
(Forssk.) Fiori. ible in raw ents
Justicia flava Acanthaceae Matoya H L Leaves are edible Similar to Adenia ellenbeckii [18]
(Vahl) Vahl. vegetable
Justicia ladanoi‑ Acanthaceae Telenje H L Arial parts are edible Similar to Adenia ellenbeckii [18]
des Lam.
Lantana camara Verbenaceae Yewof- S F Fruits are edible in Cheap source of nutrients to [24]
L. qolo raw form combat malnutrition
Momordica dioica Cucurbitaceae Wof techj C F Fruits are edible in Adequate nutrition for growth [40]
Roxb.ex Willd raw and development
Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Shiferaw T L Cooked leaves are Good nutritional and supple- [41]
Lam. edible ment food

Citation: Ahmed Hassen. “Nutritional Status and Toxicological Characteristics: Review on Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia”. EC
Pharmacology and Toxicology 9.8 (2021): 81-91.
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85

Moringa Moringaceae Shiferaw T L Similar to Moringa Potential resource of macro- [42]

stenopetala oleifera nutrients, micronutrients
(Bak.f.)
Morus alba L. Moraceae Nech T F Similar to Morus Promising sources of essential [37]
enjori nigra nutrients
Morus nigra L. Moraceae Tikur T F Fruits are edible in The source of nutrients may [43]
enjori raw form have a hallucinogenic effect
Nasturtium offici‑ Brassicaceae Guguble H Ag Mostly cooked or An outstanding source of [26]
nale W.T.Aiton edible in raw iodine and protein
Opuntia Ficus Cactaceae Bahrqul- S F Ripen fruits are Efficient functional food and [43]
indica (L.) Miller qu-al edible promote better health
Opuntia hyptia- Cactaceae Bahrqul- S F Ripen fruits are ed- Efficient functional food to [53]
cantha qu-al ible in raw prevent chronic disease
Opuntia strepta- Cactaceae Bahrqul- S F Ripen fruits are ed- Efficient to prevent chronic [53]
cantha qu-al ible in raw disease and malnutrition
Oxalis stricta L. Oxalidaceae Ye- H Ag Arial shoots are ed- Can be used separately or in [26]
bereche-w ible in raw amalgamation foods
Oxygonum sinu‑ Polygonaceae -------------- H L Raw or cooked The same as Cucumis dipsa‑ [24]
atum (Meisn.) leaves are edible ceus
Dammer. vegetable
Pentarrhinum Apocynaceae Gumudo H Ag Succulent stem are Good source of nutrients [18]
insipidum E.Mey edible in raw
Physalis peruvi‑ Solanaceae Nech-awet H F Similar to Physalis Good source of essential [45]
ana L. micrantha nutrients but must be with a
limit
Portulaca olera‑ Portulacaceae -------------- H L Raw leaves and Have the potential to provide [28]
cea L. shoots edible essential nutrients
Portulaca quadri‑ Portulacaceae -------------- H L Used as salad/veg- Nutrients should be with a [18]
fida L etable limit
Rosa abyssinica L. Rosaceae Kega S F Raw or ripen fruits Good dietary sources [43]
are edible
Rubus Frutico‑ Moraceae Enjori S F Raw fruits are edible Packed with numerous nutri- [44]
sus L. ents essential for health
Sclerocarya Anacardiaceae -------------- T F The fruits are edible Good supplementary food [34]
birrea (A.Rich.) in a raw state
Hochst.
Sisymbrium offici‑ Brassicaceae Senafich H L Cooked leaves are A key source of nutrients for [26]
nale (L) Scop. edible human consumptions
Solanum nigrum Solanaceae Tikur awit S F Similar to Physalis Can increase dietary diversity [46]
L. peruviana and tackle food insecurity
Solanum torvum Solanaceae Awit S F Similar to Physalis Possesses most of the nu- [47]
SW. peruviana trients required for healthy
growth

Citation: Ahmed Hassen. “Nutritional Status and Toxicological Characteristics: Review on Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia”. EC
Pharmacology and Toxicology 9.8 (2021): 81-91.
Nutritional Status and Toxicological Characteristics: Review on Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia

86

Syzygium Myrtaceae Doqma T F Raw ripen fruits are Valuable sources of nutrients [48]
guineense edible in solving nutritional prob-
(Willd.) DC. lems
Tamarindus Fabaceae Humer T FS Ripen fruits and Can improve dietary diversity [49]
indica L. seeds are edible and tackle food insecurity
Utrica dioica L. Utricaceae Samma H L Cooked leaves are Nutrients are warranted [49]
edible
Vitex doniana Verbenaceae Plem T F Ripen fruits are The same as Cucumis dipsa‑ [38]
Sweet. edible ceus
Ximenia ameri‑ Olacaceae Enkoy T F Ripen fruits are The same as Cucumis dipsa‑ [50]
cana L. edible ceus
Ximenia caffra Oleaceae -------------- T F Fruits are edible in Valuable sources of food but [48]
Sond. raw form should with a limit
Ziziphus jujuba Rhamnaceae Kurkura T F Fruits are common Medicinal plant with various [51]
Mill. edible in raw nutritional values
Ziziphus mucro- Rhamnaceae ado- T F Fruits are edible in Enhance cardiovascular [51]
nata Willd. qurqura raw health and metabolism
Ziziphus spi‑ Rhamnaceae Kurkura T F Similar to Ziziphus Appreciable source of nutri- [52]
na‑Christi (L.) mucronata ents
Desf).

Table 1: List of common wild edible plants of Ethiopia with their route of consumption.
Keys: Parts used (Pu) habit (Ha), Tree (T), Leaf (L), Fruit and leaf (FL), Leaves and seeds (LS), Fruits
and Seeds (FS), Climber (C), Flower (Fr), Stem (St), Above ground (Ag), Arial shoot with leaves (As), Tuber
(Tu), Reference (Ref), Common name in Amharic (α), Injera is a local name for traditional food in Ethiopia.

Result

References in review

A total of 252 research findings, literature review, and Published books were identified and downloaded for the first time. Forty-two of
the references were removed due to the absence of a full-length article. Then, 190 full-text articles were screened for further processing.
Sixty-eight (68) of them were removed by their title, abstract, and for their insufficient data source. Fifty-seven references (57) of 122
were used only for the checkup of exact species for its habit, taxonomy, and economic importance. Finally, the most popular WEPs (n =
65) in the community were included.

Wild edible plants of Ethiopia with their route of consumption

Locally available WEPs (65) are described in table 1 below. All of them were from 30 different plant families. Amaranthaceae and
Moraceae are found with the highest number of species each (8) followed by Cucurbitaceae (4). Solanaceae, Tiliaceae, Asclepiadaceae,
Rhamnaceae, and Cactaceae are represented by three species each. Verbenaceae, Acanthaceae, Apocynaceae, Brassicaceae, Cyperaceae,
Moringaceae, Olacaceae, and Portulacaceae were found with two species each. The rest of the plant families are represented by one spe-
cies each (See also figure 1). Regarding the habit of their diversity, 26 plant species (40%) are found herbs followed by 14 shrub species
(21.5%) and 23 tree species (35.4%). The rest of the two were climbers (3.08%). Dominant wild edible plant parts consumed were from
fruits, 34 (52.31%), followed by leaves, 22 (33.85%). The other edible plant parts were: above-ground parts (7.69%), tubers (4.62%) and
fruits and seeds (1.54%) recorded.

Citation: Ahmed Hassen. “Nutritional Status and Toxicological Characteristics: Review on Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia”. EC
Pharmacology and Toxicology 9.8 (2021): 81-91.
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Figure 1: Distribution of WEPs with plant families in the study.

Discussion

Ethiopia is fortunate to the great diversity of higher flora species and wild edible plants. Local residents depend on WEPs as supple-
mentary food to curve food insecurity and increase dietary diversity. This is common when sudden drought exists or household food
security is in short supply. This was in agreement with [5] who notified that wild edible plants are natural gift to alleviate food insecurity
and malnutrition. However, the local communities believe that all wild edible plants are safe to them. The awareness of wild edible plants
about their safety (free from toxic ingredients) and available nutrients (essential macronutrients, micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins,
etc.) is known little or not at all [54]. Hence, this review was the first attempt to compile the nutritional and toxicological characteristic of
potential wild edible plants, and thus suggest the recommended species to sustainable food security in North Wollo, Ethiopia. It will be a
baseline review and provide relevant information for policy-makers and managers in future.

Nutritional constituents of the under reviewed wild edible plants were both nutritionally important species and some toxic species
that can affect health. The minimal toxicity range varies from one species to the other WEPs (See table 1). This was in line with minimal
and maximal toxicity dose reported by several authors [18,55-57]. For instance, the minimal lethal toxicity dose of oxalate for humans is
about 5 g for an adult man [55]. Another research by [56] revealed the daily intake of 450 mg of oxalic acid interferes with various meta-
bolic processes. He further explained that an in-take of 4 - 9 mg/100g of phytic acid decreases iron absorption in the body. Research done
by [57] argues the consumption of a high level of dietary tannin (12 mg/100g) can reduce the absorption of protein and damages the
intestinal walls. Similarly, [18] noted the presence of high oxalic acid in Adenia ellenbeckii, Celosia argentea, Coccinia grandis, Corchorus
trilocularis, Justicia flava, and Justicia ladanoides. Amaranthus species are a good source of nutrients. He also argues high consumption of
these WEPs can lead to health problems (Table 1).

According to [58], ant-nutritional factors can impair the digestion of various nutrients in the body. Thus, it is necessary to determine
whether they contain the right amount of nutritional, anti-nutritional factors and toxic elements before consumption. Some scholars
like [59] recommended further processing (cooking, drying, fermentation, germination, and others) to reduce the high contents of toxic
minerals and anti-nutritional factors in vegetables and fruits. Moderate consumption is recommended in some wild edible plants with the
accumulation of nitrites, oxalate, and other poisonous elements/compounds [34]. For this reason, consumption of some wild plants as a
raw salad or cooked should be with a limited amount.

Citation: Ahmed Hassen. “Nutritional Status and Toxicological Characteristics: Review on Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia”. EC
Pharmacology and Toxicology 9.8 (2021): 81-91.
Nutritional Status and Toxicological Characteristics: Review on Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia

88

Conclusion

Large bodies of research findings, review work of literature, and published books have revealed supplement food sources to rural com-
munities. Consumers inherit all wild edible plants that are nutritionally safe to them. Despite the fact, the latest research revealed toxic
elements found in some wild edible fruits and vegetables. Likewise, several wild edible plants’ accidental poisoning has been recorded in
Ethiopia. This review article is thus endeavored to bring all research findings into a single manuscript. This will creates awareness to the
consumers and other stakeholders to get assured nutritional information. Some wild edible plants containing high toxic elements that
need further processing can reduce it and might not pose a health problem. In general, most wild edible plant nutrition is good to combat
malnutrition and food insecurity when other household foods are in short supply or during drought seasons. Researchers should be
motivated in-depth experiments on the local wild edible plants’ nutritional values.

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

Not applicable.

Consent for Publication

No need for consent for publication.

Availability of Data and Materials

The datasets generated and analyzed within this article are available and included in the manuscript.

Competing Interests

The author declares that no competing interests.

Funding Support

This review article is self-sponsored work.

Author Contribution

The author did this article from start to end by himself and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgments

My heartfelt thanks are mainly forwarded to Dr. Birhan Gebrekristos (Ph.D. in Botany) and Mr. Meseret Muche (Assistant Professor in
Botany).

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Volume 9 Issue 8 August 2021

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Citation: Ahmed Hassen. “Nutritional Status and Toxicological Characteristics: Review on Wild Edible Plants in Ethiopia”. EC
Pharmacology and Toxicology 9.8 (2021): 81-91.