UNIT-2 ENVIRONMENTAL POLUTION AND CHEMISTRY

AIR POLLUTION

Q1. What is Air Pollution? Name various atmospheric pollutants.

Air pollution refers to the presence of harmful substances in the Earth's

atmosphere that can have adverse effects on human health, wildlife, and the
environment. These pollutants can be either natural or human-made and can
originate from a variety of sources, including transportation, industrial
processes, and natural sources such as wildfires and volcanic eruptions.

Some common atmospheric pollutants include:

1. Particulate Matter (PM): These are tiny particles suspended in the air that can
cause respiratory and cardiovascular problems when inhaled. Examples include
dust, soot, and smoke.

2. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): These are produced by combustion processes such as

those in cars and power plants and can lead to the formation of smog and acid
rain.

3. Sulfur Oxides (SOx): These are released from burning fossil fuels and can also
contribute to the formation of acid rain.

4. Carbon Monoxide (CO): This odorless gas is produced by incomplete

combustion of fossil fuels and can be toxic when inhaled in high concentrations.

5. Ozone (O3): This gas is formed by the interaction of sunlight with NOx and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and can cause respiratory problems.

6. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): These are emitted by vehicles, solvents,

and many consumer products and can contribute to the formation of smog and
ground-level ozone.
7. Lead: This toxic heavy metal is emitted from industrial processes, particularly
in developing countries, and can cause serious health problems, particularly in
children.

8. Mercury: This toxic heavy metal is emitted by coal-fired power plants and can
cause serious health problems, particularly in developing fetuses and young
children

Q2. What are primary and secondary air pollutants.

Primary air pollutants are those that are directly emitted into the atmosphere
from sources such as factories, vehicles, and natural sources. Some examples of
primary pollutants include carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Secondary air pollutants are formed in the atmosphere through chemical

reactions between primary pollutants and other substances, such as water
vapor, oxygen, and sunlight. These reactions can produce new pollutants that
may be more harmful than the original primary pollutants. For example, when
NOx and VOCs react in the presence of sunlight, they can form ground-level
ozone (O3), which can cause respiratory problems. Another example is the
formation of acid rain, which is caused by the reaction of sulfur dioxide (SO2)
and nitrogen oxides (NOx) with water vapor in the atmosphere.

Overall, primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly into the
atmosphere, while secondary pollutants are formed through chemical reactions
that take place in the atmosphere. Both primary and secondary pollutants can
have harmful effects on human health and the environment, so it is important to
monitor and control their emissions.

Q3. What are the causes/sources of air pollutants?

Air pollutants can come from both natural and human-made sources. Some of
the major causes and sources of air pollution include:
Transportation: Vehicles, airplanes, and ships emit pollutants such as carbon
monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM) from their
exhaust systems.

Industrial processes: Power plants, factories, and other industrial facilities can
emit a wide range of pollutants, including sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Agricultural practices: Livestock operations and the use of fertilizers and

pesticides in farming can lead to the release of pollutants such as ammonia and
methane.

Burning fossil fuels: The combustion of coal, oil, and natural gas in power plants,
homes, and other settings can release pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO2),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), and carbon monoxide (CO).

Natural sources: Volcanic eruptions, wildfires, and dust storms can release large
amounts of pollutants into the atmosphere.

Construction and demolition: The use of heavy equipment, the excavation of

soil, and the demolition of buildings can release dust and other pollutants into
the air.

Household and consumer products: Cleaning products, pesticides, and other

household chemicals can emit VOCs and other pollutants.

Overall, the sources of air pollution are varied and widespread. To reduce air
pollution, it is important to identify and control the sources of pollution,
promote the use of clean technologies, and implement effective regulations and
policies

Q4. Give an account of the adverse effects of air pollution.

Air pollution can have a wide range of adverse effects on human health, wildlife,
and the environment. Some of the most significant effects include:
Respiratory problems: Air pollution can cause a variety of respiratory problems,
including coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, and asthma attacks. Long-
term exposure to air pollution can also increase the risk of chronic respiratory
diseases such as emphysema and lung cancer.

Cardiovascular problems: Air pollution can contribute to the development of

heart disease and stroke by increasing blood pressure, thickening of the arteries,
and promoting the formation of blood clots.

Reproductive and developmental problems: Exposure to air pollution during

pregnancy can increase the risk of premature birth, low birth weight, and birth
defects. Air pollution can also affect the reproductive system and may contribute
to infertility and hormonal imbalances.

Environmental damage: Air pollution can harm plant and animal life by damaging
their respiratory systems, reducing crop yields, and contributing to the
acidification of lakes and streams. Air pollution can also contribute to climate
change by releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

Economic impacts: Air pollution can have significant economic impacts by

reducing productivity and increasing healthcare costs. Air pollution can also
affect tourism by damaging the environment and reducing the attractiveness of
outdoor activities.

Overall, air pollution is a serious problem that can have wide-ranging and long-
lasting effects on human health and the environment. To reduce the adverse
effects of air pollution, it is important to identify and control the sources of
pollution, promote the use of clean technologies, and implement effective
regulations and policies.

Q5. Enumerate various methods for control of air pollution.

There are several methods for controlling air pollution, including:

Source control: One of the most effective ways to control air pollution is to
reduce or eliminate the sources of pollution. This can be achieved through the
use of clean technologies and practices, such as switching to cleaner fuels or
using pollution control devices.

Regulations and policies: Governments can implement regulations and policies

to control air pollution, such as emissions standards for vehicles and industrial
facilities, and restrictions on the use of certain chemicals.

Green technologies: The use of renewable energy sources, such as solar and
wind power, can reduce the amount of air pollution caused by the burning of
fossil fuels.

Energy efficiency: Improving energy efficiency can reduce the amount of energy
needed to perform a given task, which can reduce the amount of air pollution
generated.

Public awareness and education: Educating the public about the causes and
effects of air pollution can encourage individuals and businesses to take steps to
reduce their pollution levels.

Monitoring and reporting: Regular monitoring of air quality can help identify
sources of pollution and track progress in reducing pollution levels.

International cooperation: International agreements, such as the Paris

Agreement on climate change, can encourage countries to work together to
reduce air pollution and address other environmental issues.

Overall, controlling air pollution requires a comprehensive approach that

involves a combination of source control, regulations, and policies, technological
innovation, public awareness and education, and international cooperation.

WATER POLLUTION

1. What is Water Pollution?

Water Pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies such as lakes, rivers,
oceans, and groundwater by harmful substances such as chemicals, pathogens,
and waste products. This contamination can make water unsafe for drinking,
swimming, and other activities, and can harm aquatic life and ecosystems.

2. Enumerate with examples the major sources of surface water pollution and
ground water pollution.

The major sources of surface water pollution include:

Industrial wastewater discharges

Agricultural runoff containing fertilizers, pesticides, and animal waste
Municipal wastewater treatment plants
Stormwater runoff from urban areas containing chemicals, oils, and debris
Illegal dumping of waste and litter

The major sources of groundwater pollution include:

Underground storage tanks leaking petroleum products and chemicals

Landfills and hazardous waste sites
Agricultural activities such as the use of fertilizers and pesticides
Improperly constructed septic systems

3. What are the effects of Water Pollution?

The effects of water pollution can be wide-ranging and can include:

Health impacts on humans and animals, including illness and disease
Harm to aquatic life and ecosystems, including reduced biodiversity and the loss
of habitat
Reduction in the quality and availability of drinking water
Economic impacts, including decreased property values and loss of tourism
revenues

4. How can we control Water Pollution?

There are several methods for controlling water pollution, including:

Source control, such as reducing the use of harmful chemicals and properly
disposing of waste products
Treatment of wastewater before discharge
Implementation of best management practices for agriculture and other land
uses
Proper management and disposal of hazardous waste
Protection of wetlands and other natural areas that provide water filtration and
storage

5. Write a short notes on:

(A) Minamata Disease

Minamata Disease is a neurological disorder caused by the ingestion of seafood

contaminated with high levels of mercury. The disease was first identified in the
Japanese city of Minamata in the 1950s, where industrial wastewater containing
mercury was discharged into the bay. The contamination resulted in thousands
of cases of Minamata Disease, which can cause numbness, tremors, and other
neurological symptoms.

(B) Biomagnification

Biomagnification refers to the process by which the concentration of a chemical

increases in organisms as it moves up the food chain. For example, if a pollutant
is present in the water and is absorbed by tiny aquatic organisms, the
concentration of the pollutant can increase as larger organisms consume the
smaller ones. This can result in high concentrations of pollutants in top
predators, such as fish and birds, which can cause harm to these animals and the
ecosystems in which they live.

Soil Pollution

1. What is Soil Pollution?

Soil Pollution refers to the contamination of soil with toxic or harmful substances
that can have adverse effects on human health, plant growth, and ecosystem
functioning.

2. What are the causes/sources of soil pollution?

The main causes/sources of soil pollution include:

Industrial activities such as mining, manufacturing, and waste disposal
Agricultural practices such as the use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers
Improper disposal of household waste and other types of waste
Accidental spills or leaks of chemicals and other substances
Atmospheric deposition of pollutants such as heavy metals

3. What are the effects of soil pollution?

The effects of soil pollution can be significant and may include:

Reduced crop yields and soil fertility
Contamination of groundwater and surface water sources
Adverse effects on human health, including increased risk of cancer, birth
defects, and other illnesses
Damage to ecosystem functioning, including reduced biodiversity and habitat
loss

4. What measures can be taken to prevent soil pollution.

Measures that can be taken to prevent soil pollution include:

Proper disposal of hazardous waste and household waste
Implementation of best management practices for agriculture and other land
uses
Reduction of the use of pesticides and other harmful chemicals
Soil testing to identify potential contamination and to inform management
practices
Remediation of contaminated sites through techniques such as
phytoremediation and soil excavation

Noise Pollution

1. What is Noise/Sound Pollution.

Noise Pollution, also known as Sound Pollution, is the presence of excessive or

unwanted noise in the environment that can have negative effects on human
health and well-being, as well as on the behavior and communication of animals.
2. What are the sources of Noise Pollution?

The sources of Noise Pollution can be diverse and include:

Transportation, such as cars, trucks, and planes

Industrial activities, such as machinery and equipment
Construction sites and demolition activities
Recreational activities, such as concerts, festivals, and sporting events
Household activities, such as loud music or appliances

3. What measures would you suggest to reduce the menace of Noise Pollution?

To reduce the menace of Noise Pollution, several measures can be taken,

including:
Implementation of noise regulations and guidelines, such as setting limits on
noise levels in different settings
Use of noise barriers and sound insulation in buildings and infrastructure
Promotion of quieter technologies, such as electric cars and quieter machinery
Awareness-raising campaigns to educate the public about the risks of excessive
noise and to promote responsible behavior
Development of urban planning strategies that prioritize noise reduction and the
creation of quiet spaces
Encouragement of the use of personal protective equipment, such as earplugs
and noise-cancelling headphones, in noisy environments

Pollution Case Studies

1. Write a short note on:
(A) Bhopal Gas tragedy (when and where it happened, cause, aftermath
effects)

The Bhopal Gas Tragedy was one of the world's worst industrial disasters that
occurred on December 2-3, 1984, in Bhopal, India. The tragedy was caused by
the release of toxic methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas from a pesticide plant owned by
the Union Carbide Corporation. The gas spread throughout the surrounding
residential areas, resulting in the death of thousands of people and injuring
hundreds of thousands more. The aftermath effects of the tragedy were
devastating, with long-term health effects still being experienced by the victims
and their families today. The disaster highlighted the need for stricter safety
regulations and accountability for industries operating in developing countries.

(B) Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster (when and where it happened, cause, aftermath
effects)

The Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster happened on April 26, 1986, at the Chernobyl
Nuclear Power Plant in Ukraine, which was then part of the Soviet Union. The
disaster was caused by a combination of human error and reactor design flaws
that led to a catastrophic explosion and the release of radioactive material into
the atmosphere. The immediate effects of the disaster were widespread, with 31
people losing their lives and many more suffering from acute radiation sickness.
The long-term aftermath effects included increased rates of cancer, birth
defects, and other health problems, as well as the displacement of thousands of
people from the surrounding areas. The disaster served as a wake-up call for the
world to the potential dangers of nuclear power and led to a renewed focus on
safety regulations and disaster response planning.

UNIT-3 SPECTROMETRIC AND THERMOGRAVIMETRIC

METHODS
Thermal Methods of Analysis (TGA)

1. Define Thermal method of analysis.

Thermal analysis is a set of techniques used to determine the physical and

chemical properties of a material as a function of temperature or time. It
involves measuring the changes in a material's properties as it is subjected to a
controlled temperature program.

2. What is the principle of TGA?

The principle of thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is to measure the weight

change of a sample as a function of temperature or time under a controlled
atmosphere. TGA can provide information on the composition, thermal stability,
and decomposition pathways of materials.

3. Discuss the Instrumentation/Block Diagram of TGA.

The instrumentation for TGA typically consists of a balance, a furnace, a

temperature controller, and a data acquisition system. The sample is placed on
the balance, which is housed in the furnace. The temperature of the furnace is
controlled by a temperature controller, and the weight change of the sample is
measured by the balance and recorded by the data acquisition system.

4. What is thermogram? Explain the TGA curve for AgNO3.

A thermogram is a graph of the weight loss or gain of a sample as a function of

temperature or time. The TGA curve for AgNO3 typically shows a mass loss
corresponding to the decomposition of AgNO3 to Ag2O and NO2, followed by
the oxidation of Ag2O to Ag and O2.

5. Enlist the characteristics of good thermobalance.

Characteristics of a good thermobalance include high sensitivity, stability,

reproducibility, accuracy, and resolution.

6. Discuss the factors influencing TGA results?

Factors that can influence TGA results include the sample preparation, heating
rate, atmosphere, and the nature of the sample and its interactions with the
crucible and atmosphere.

7. Mention at least 3 applications of TGA.

Three applications of TGA include:

Determination of the thermal stability and decomposition pathways of polymers,

pharmaceuticals, and other materials
Analysis of the composition and purity of materials, such as minerals and metals
Evaluation of the oxidation and corrosion resistance of materials, such as
coatings and catalysts

8. Discuss the effect of heating rate and furnace atmosphere on TG curve.

The heating rate and furnace atmosphere can have significant effects on the TGA
curve. A slower heating rate can result in a more accurate determination of the
decomposition pathways and thermal stability of the sample, while a faster
heating rate can provide information on the kinetics of the decomposition
reactions. The furnace atmosphere can also affect the decomposition pathways
and the oxidation or reduction of the sample.

9. In TGA, furnace atmosphere influences the temperature of a decomposition

stage. Give an example to illustrate it.

In TGA, the furnace atmosphere can influence the temperature of a

decomposition stage. For example, if a sample contains a volatile component
that is released during decomposition, the release of the volatile component can
cool the sample and lower the temperature of the decomposition stage.

10. What does a horizontal portion in TG curve indicate?

A horizontal portion in the TGA curve typically indicates a region of constant

weight, where there is no further decomposition or reaction occurring in the
sample. This can be used to identify the completion of a decomposition reaction
or the onset of a thermal event.

Thermal Methods of Analysis (DTA)

1. What is the principle of DTA?

Differential thermal analysis (DTA) is a thermal analysis technique that measures

the temperature difference between a sample and a reference material as a
function of temperature or time. The principle of DTA is based on the fact that
materials absorb or release heat during phase transitions, and this results in a
temperature difference between the sample and the reference material.
2. Draw and explain idealized DTA curve.

An idealized DTA curve consists of a baseline and peaks. The baseline represents
the temperature difference between the sample and the reference material
when no phase transition is occurring. The peaks correspond to the absorption
or release of heat during phase transitions, such as melting, crystallization, or
chemical reactions. A peak above the baseline represents an endothermic
process (heat absorbed), while a peak below the baseline represents an
exothermic process (heat released).

3. Discuss the Instrumentation/Block Diagram of DTA.

The instrumentation for DTA typically includes a furnace, a temperature

controller, a sample holder, a reference material holder, and a thermocouple or
thermistor to measure the temperature difference between the sample and the
reference material. The sample and the reference material are placed in the
respective holders, and the temperature of the furnace is controlled by the
temperature controller. The temperature difference between the sample and
the reference material is measured by the thermocouple or thermistor, and the
data is recorded by a data acquisition system.

4. Mention at least 3 applications of DTA

Three applications of DTA include:

Determination of the melting and crystallization behavior of materials, such as

polymers, metals, and ceramics
Analysis of phase transitions and reactions in materials, such as alloys, catalysts,
and minerals
Evaluation of the thermal stability and decomposition pathways of materials,
such as pharmaceuticals and explosives.

Thermal Methods of Analysis (DSC)

1. What is the principle of DSC?

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) is a thermal analysis technique that
measures the difference in heat flow between a sample and a reference material
as they are subjected to a controlled temperature program. The principle of DSC
is based on the fact that when a sample undergoes a physical or chemical
change, such as melting, crystallization, or chemical reaction, it absorbs or
releases heat, which is detected as a difference in heat flow between the sample
and reference materials.

2. Discuss the Instrumentation/Block Diagram of DSC.

The instrumentation/block diagram of DSC typically consists of a furnace that

heats the sample and reference materials, a differential thermocouple that
measures the heat flow difference between the sample and reference materials,
and a data acquisition system that records and processes the signals from the
thermocouple. The sample and reference materials are typically placed in
separate pans, which are then sealed and placed in the furnace. The
temperature of the furnace is then programmed to increase or decrease at a
controlled rate, and the heat flow difference between the sample and reference
materials is recorded as a function of temperature.

3. Mention at least 3 applications of DSC.

DSC has many applications in various fields, including:

Materials science: DSC can be used to study the thermal properties of materials,
such as melting point, glass transition temperature, crystallization, and thermal
stability.
Pharmaceutical industry: DSC can be used to study the thermal behavior of
drugs, including their melting point, stability, and polymorphism.
Food science: DSC can be used to study the thermal properties of food
components, such as fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, to understand their
behavior during processing and storage.

4. What do you understand by TGA, DTA and DSC? Mention one application of
each.
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA), and
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) are all thermal analysis techniques that
measure the physical and chemical properties of materials as they are subjected
to a controlled temperature program.

TGA measures the change in weight of a sample as a function of temperature or

time, which can be used to study the thermal stability, decomposition, and
moisture content of materials. One application of TGA is in the study of the
thermal degradation of polymers.

DTA measures the difference in temperature between a sample and a reference

material as they are subjected to a controlled temperature program, which can
be used to study the physical and chemical changes of materials, such as
melting, crystallization, and phase transitions. One application of DTA is in the
analysis of mineral samples to identify their composition and structure.

DSC measures the difference in heat flow between a sample and a reference
material as they are subjected to a controlled temperature program, which can
be used to study the thermal properties and behavior of materials, such as
melting point, glass transition temperature, and thermal stability. One
application of DSC is in the analysis of pharmaceuticals to understand their
thermal behavior and stability.

Ultra-Violet and Visible Spectroscopy

1. What type of transitions are observed in case of UV-Vis spectroscopy?

Electronic transitions are observed in UV-Vis spectroscopy.

2. What are the possible excitations observed in UV-Vis spectroscopy? Arrange

them in ascending order.

The possible excitations observed in UV-Vis spectroscopy in ascending order are:

π-π* transitions, n-π* transitions, and σ-σ* transitions.

3. Explain Chromophores and auxochromes with examples.

Chromophores are chemical groups or moieties in a molecule that can absorb
light due to the presence of conjugated double bonds, such as benzene rings,
carbonyl groups, and nitro groups. Auxochromes are functional groups that do
not absorb light themselves but can influence the electronic properties of the
chromophore and enhance the absorbance, such as -OH, -NH2, and -NO2.

4. What is UV-visible spectroscopy? Mention the wavelength involved in UV-

visible spectroscopy?

UV-visible spectroscopy is a technique that measures the absorption or

transmission of ultraviolet and visible light by a sample. The wavelengths
involved in UV-visible spectroscopy range from 190 to 900 nm for UV and 400 to
700 nm for visible light.

5. What is ultraviolet radiation?

Ultraviolet radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths

shorter than visible light but longer than X-rays.

6. What is visible radiation?

Visible radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths that can

be detected by the human eye, typically ranging from 400 to 700 nm.

7. Discuss the instrumentation of UV-visible spectrophotometer with a

schematic diagram.

The instrumentation of a UV-visible spectrophotometer typically consists of a

light source, a monochromator, a sample holder, a detector, and a data
acquisition system. The schematic diagram shows the light source emitting light,
which is then passed through a monochromator to select a specific wavelength.
The light then passes through the sample holder containing the sample, and the
transmitted or absorbed light is detected by the detector and recorded by the
data acquisition system.

8. What is the scope/applications of UV-visible spectroscopy? Discuss at least 5

applications.
UV-visible spectroscopy has many applications in various fields, including:
Quantitative analysis of chemicals, such as measuring the concentration of
analytes in a solution.
Identification of unknown compounds based on their absorption spectra.
Monitoring chemical reactions, such as tracking the progress of a reaction by
monitoring the absorption of a reactant or product.
Characterization of biological macromolecules, such as proteins and nucleic
acids, by measuring their absorption spectra.
Quality control of pharmaceuticals, food, and other products.

9. Mention the possible excitations that can be observed in the following

molecules:
(i) Acetaldehyde
(ii) Acetone
(iii) Ethanol
(iv) Nitroethane

The possible excitations that can be observed in the following molecules are:
(i) Acetaldehyde: n-π* transition
(ii) Acetone: n-π* transition
(iii) Ethanol: π-π* transition, n-π* transition
(iv) Nitroethane: π-π* transition, n-π* transition

10. What is Lambert-Beer’s Law. Derive the expression A = ɛlc.

Lambert-Beer’s Law states that the amount of light absorbed or transmitted by a

sample is directly proportional to the concentration of the absorbing species and
the path length of the sample. The expression A = ɛlc is used to calculate the
absorbance (A) of a sample, where ɛ is the molar extinction coefficient, l is the
path length of the sample, and c is the concentration of the sample.

11. What are the limitations of the Lambert-Beer’s Law.

The limitations of Lambert-Beer’s Law include:

The law is valid only for dilute solutions, as the absorption coefficient can change
at higher concentrations due to intermolecular interactions and complex
formation.
The law assumes that the absorption is due to a single species, but in reality,
there can be overlapping absorption bands from multiple species.
The law assumes that the incident light is monochromatic and the sample is
homogeneous, which may not be true in all cases.

12. What is the unit of absorbance which can be derived from Beer Lambert’s
law?

The unit of absorbance is dimensionless, as it is the logarithm of the ratio of

incident to transmitted light intensities.

13. A monochromatic radiation is incident on a solution of 0.05 molar

concentration of an absorbing substance. The intensity of the radiation is
reduced to one-fourth of the initial value after passing through 10 cm length of
the solution. Calculate the molar extinction coefficient of the substance.

According to the Beer-Lambert's Law, the intensity of the radiation transmitted

through a solution is given by:

I/I₀ = 10^(-εcl)

where I₀ is the initial intensity, I is the transmitted intensity, ε is the molar

extinction coefficient, c is the concentration of the absorbing substance, l is the
path length of the solution.

In this case, I/I₀ = 1/4, c = 0.05 M, l = 10 cm. Substituting these values into the
equation, we get:

1/4 = 10^(-ε x 0.05 x 10)

=> ε = 138.6 M^-1 cm^-1

Therefore, the molar extinction coefficient of the substance is 138.6 M^-1 cm^-
1.
14. The molar extinction coefficient of phenanthroline complex of iron (II) is
12,00 dm3 mol-1 cm-1 and the minimum detectable absorbance is 0.01.
Calculate the minimum concentration of the complex that can be detected in a
Lambert-Beer law cell path length is 1.00 cm

The minimum detectable absorbance is related to the transmittance (T) by the

formula:

A_min = -log(T)

Since the path length of the cell is 1.00 cm, the absorbance can be calculated
using the formula:

A = εcl

where ε is the molar extinction coefficient, c is the concentration, and l is the

path length.

Therefore, we can write:

A_min = εcl_min

where l_min = 1.00 cm is the path length, and A_min = 0.01 is the minimum
detectable absorbance. Substituting the values of ε and l_min, we get:

0.01 = (1200 dm³ mol⁻¹ cm⁻¹) x (1.00 cm) x c_min

Solving for c_min, we get:

c_min = 8.33 x 10⁻⁶ mol dm⁻³

Therefore, the minimum concentration of the phenanthroline complex of iron

(II) that can be detected in a Lambert-Beer law cell with a path length of 1.00 cm
is 8.33 x 10⁻⁶ mol dm⁻³.

Infrared Spectroscopy
1. Mention the region (Wavelength/wavenumber) involved in IR Spectroscopy?

In IR spectroscopy, the region involved is the mid-infrared region, which

corresponds to wavelengths of 2.5-25 microns or wavenumbers of 4000-400
cm⁻¹.

2. What are the different types of vibrations involved in a IR active molecule?

In an IR active molecule, there are three types of vibrations:

Stretching: Involves changes in bond length and results in the stretching of the
bond.
Bending: Involves changes in bond angle and results in the bending of the bond.
Rocking, Scissoring, and Wagging: These are a combination of stretching and
bending vibrations.

3. Mention the requisite for IR Spectra?

The requisite for IR spectra are:

The molecule must have a permanent dipole moment or have a polarizability.
The molecule must be able to absorb infrared radiation.
The molecule must have a vibrational mode that changes its dipole moment or
polarizability.

4. What is the scope/applications of IR Spectroscopy?

The scope/applications of IR spectroscopy are:

Identification of functional groups in organic and inorganic compounds.
Quantitative analysis of components in a mixture.
Determination of the purity of a compound.
Study of reaction kinetics and mechanisms.
Examination of protein and nucleic acid structures.

5. What is Fingerprint and functional group region in IR Spectroscopy?

Fingerprint region is the portion of the IR spectrum that contains a unique

pattern of peaks for a particular molecule, which can be used to identify the
molecule. The functional group region is the portion of the spectrum where
specific functional groups exhibit characteristic absorption bands.

6. 1H35Cl has a force constant (k) value of 480 Nm-1. Calculate the
fundamental
frequency and its wavenumber.

The fundamental frequency of 1H35Cl can be calculated as:

v = 1/(2π) x sqrt(k/m)
where k is the force constant, m is the reduced mass of the molecule, and v is
the fundamental frequency.

The reduced mass of 1H35Cl is:

m = m(H) x m(Cl) / (m(H) + m(Cl))
= 1.008 x 35.45 / (1.008 + 35.45)
= 0.976 amu

Substituting the values, we get:

v = 1/(2π) x sqrt(480 Nm^-1 / (0.976 amu x 1.66 x 10^-27 kg/amu))
= 8.58 x 10^12 Hz

The wavenumber is:

ν=v/c
= (8.58 x 10^12 Hz) / (3.00 x 10^8 m/s)
= 28524 cm^-1

7. The value of force constant is same for 1H35Cl and 2D35Cl. If the
fundamental
frequency of 1H35Cl is 2890 cm-1. Calculate the fundamental frequency of
2D35Cl.

The frequency of 2D35Cl can be calculated using the relation:

v(2D35Cl) = v(1H35Cl) x sqrt(m(1H35Cl) / m(2D35Cl))
The reduced mass of 2D35Cl is:
m = m(D) x m(Cl) / (m(D) + m(Cl))
= 2.014 x 35.45 / (2.014 + 35.45)
= 1.974 amu

Substituting the values, we get:

v(2D35Cl) = 2890 cm^-1 x sqrt(0.976 amu / 1.974 amu)
= 2147 cm^-1

8. Calculate the force constant for CO, if this compound absorbs at 2.143 x 105
m-1 and
its reduced mass is 1.13 x 10-26 kg.

The force constant (k) for CO can be calculated using the equation:
k = (reduced mass) x (frequency)^2
Substituting the given values, we get:
k = (1.13 x 10^-26 kg) x (2.143 x 10^5 m^-1)^2
k = 5.03 x 10^-1 N/m
Therefore, the force constant for CO is 5.03 x 10^-1 N/m.

9. Calculate the total number of fundamental vibrations in CO2 molecule.

According to the rule of mutual exclusivity, the total number of fundamental

vibrations in a molecule can be calculated as:
3N - 6
where N is the number of atoms in the molecule.
For CO2, N = 3 (2 oxygen atoms and 1 carbon atom)
Therefore, total number of fundamental vibrations in CO2 = 3N - 6 = 6

Thus, there are 6 fundamental vibrations in CO2.

10. What is the principle behind IR Spectroscopy? (Based on Hooke’s Law)

The principle behind IR spectroscopy is based on Hooke's law, which states that
the stretching or bending of chemical bonds between atoms results in changes in
the vibrational energy of the molecule. When a molecule is exposed to infrared
radiation, it absorbs energy and undergoes a change in vibrational energy. By
measuring the absorption of energy at different wavelengths, the frequencies of
the vibrational modes can be determined, providing information about the
chemical bonds in the molecule.
11. List the numbers of translational, rotational and vibrational degrees of
freedom of
the following molecules:
(A) Ne
(B) O2
(C) CO2
(D) SO2
(E) CH4

(A) Ne is a monatomic gas, therefore it has only 3 translational degrees of

freedom.

(B) O2 is a diatomic molecule, therefore it has 3 translational degrees of

freedom, 2 rotational degrees of freedom, and no vibrational degrees of
freedom.

(C) CO2 is a linear triatomic molecule, therefore it has 3 translational degrees of

freedom, 2 rotational degrees of freedom, and 4 vibrational degrees of freedom.

(D) SO2 is a non-linear triatomic molecule, therefore it has 3 translational

degrees of freedom, 3 rotational degrees of freedom (2 for rotation around the
axis perpendicular to the molecular plane and 1 for rotation around the axis in
the molecular plane), and 4 vibrational degrees of freedom.

(E) CH4 is a tetrahedral molecule, therefore it has 3 translational degrees of

freedom, 3 rotational degrees of freedom (1 for rotation around each of the
three mutually perpendicular axes), and 9 vibrational degrees of freedom (3
symmetric stretching, 3 asymmetric stretching, and 3 degenerate bending
modes).

12. Discuss the different types of vibrations of CO2. Mention the IR active and
inactive
vibrations

CO2 has three types of vibrational modes: symmetric stretching, asymmetric

stretching, and bending. The symmetric stretching mode involves the stretching
of the two C-O bonds simultaneously, resulting in a symmetric elongation of the
molecule. The asymmetric stretching mode involves the stretching of one C-O
bond while the other remains fixed, resulting in an asymmetric elongation of the
molecule. The bending mode involves the deformation of the molecule from its
linear shape, resulting in a change in the bond angle between the two C-O
bonds.
The symmetric stretching and asymmetric stretching modes are IR active, which
means they can be observed in IR spectra because they result in changes in the
dipole moment of the molecule. The bending mode is IR inactive, which means it
cannot be observed in IR spectra because it does not result in changes in the
dipole moment of the molecule. However, the bending mode is Raman active,
which means it can be observed in Raman spectra because it results in changes
in the polarizability of the molecule.

UNIT-4 WATER CHEMISTRY

1. Which chemicals make water temporary hard and permanent hard, why
hard water does not form lathers with soaps?

Temporary hardness of water is caused by the presence of bicarbonates of

calcium and magnesium, while permanent hardness is caused by the presence of
sulfates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium. Hard water does not form
lather with soaps because the calcium and magnesium ions present in hard
water react with the soap to form insoluble calcium and magnesium salts, which
precipitate out of the solution.

2. Write the principle of EDTA method for determination of hardness of water.

OR
What is the principle of EDTA titration?
OR
Explain how the hardness of water is removed by EDTA method.
OR
Give details of EDTA method to determine the hardness of water.

The principle of EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) method for the

determination of hardness of water is based on the complex formation between
EDTA and metal ions present in hard water. EDTA forms stable complexes with
metal ions like calcium and magnesium, which are responsible for water
hardness. By titrating a water sample with a standard solution of EDTA, the
concentration of calcium and magnesium ions can be determined.

3. Explain Temporary and Permanent Hardness of water.

OR
Differentiate between carbonate and non-carbonate hardness.

Temporary hardness of water is caused by the presence of bicarbonates of

calcium and magnesium, which can be removed by boiling the water. Permanent
hardness of water is caused by the presence of sulfates and chlorides of calcium
and magnesium, which cannot be removed by boiling.

Carbonate hardness is caused by the presence of bicarbonates and carbonates of

calcium and magnesium, which can be removed by adding lime (calcium
hydroxide) to the water. Non-carbonate hardness is caused by the presence of
sulfates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium, which cannot be removed by
adding lime.

4. Give chemical reactions involved during boiling of hard water.

The boiling of hard water can result in the precipitation of the calcium and
magnesium ions responsible for the hardness. This can occur through the
following chemical reactions:
Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) → CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Mg(HCO3)2 (aq) → MgCO3 (s) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

The carbon dioxide gas produced during these reactions can escape into the
atmosphere, resulting in a loss of carbonic acid and a shift in the equilibrium
towards the formation of calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate, which
precipitates out of the solution.

5. What is the principle for the determination of alkalinity of water?

The principle for the determination of alkalinity of water is based on the

measurement of the amount of acid required to neutralize the buffering capacity
of the water sample. Alkalinity is a measure of the water's ability to resist
changes in pH due to the presence of carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide
ions. The alkalinity of water is determined by titration with a strong acid such as
sulfuric acid, and the endpoint of the titration is determined using an indicator
such as phenolphthalein or methyl orange.

6. How is alkalinity from various ions determined in water?

Alkalinity from various ions in water is determined by measuring the total

alkalinity, which is the sum of the concentrations of all the alkaline ions present
in the water sample. This is typically done by titration with a strong acid using
the same principles as described in the answer to question 5. The alkalinity
contributed by individual ions such as carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide can
also be calculated by using equilibrium equations and knowledge of the pH of
the solution.

7. OH- and HCO3- cannot present together in a water sample. Why? Explain
with
reaction.
OR
Why two anions HCO3- and OH-
cannot co exist together

OH- and HCO3- cannot coexist together in a water sample because they can
react with each other to form water and the carbonate ion. This reaction is as
follows:

2OH- (aq) + HCO3- (aq) → CO3^2- (aq) + 2 H2O (l)

The formation of carbonate consumes both hydroxide and bicarbonate ions,

reducing their concentrations in the solution. Therefore, if OH- and HCO3- are
present together in a water sample, they will react to form carbonate and the
total alkalinity of the water will decrease.

UNIT-5 GREEN CHEMISTRY

1. What is Green Chemistry? What are the basic principles of Green Chemistry?
Green Chemistry is the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or
eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances. The basic principles
of Green Chemistry include the prevention of waste, the use of renewable
resources, the design of safer chemicals and processes, and the minimization of
energy consumption and environmental impact.

2. What is the difference between Green Chemistry and Environmental

Chemistry?

Environmental Chemistry focuses on the study of the sources, fate, and effects
of chemicals in the environment, whereas Green Chemistry focuses on the
design of chemical products and processes that minimize the use and generation
of hazardous substances.

3. “Prevention is better than cure”. Justify this statement in the context to

“Green
Chemistry’.

In the context of Green Chemistry, the statement "prevention is better than

cure" emphasizes the importance of designing chemical products and processes
that prevent the generation of hazardous substances and waste in the first place,
rather than trying to treat or dispose of them after they have been produced.

4. Discuss the concept of Atom Economy with examples?

The concept of atom economy refers to the efficiency of a chemical reaction in

utilizing the starting materials to produce the desired product, while minimizing
waste products. It is calculated as the ratio of the total mass of the desired
product to the total mass of all the reactants, expressed as a percentage. A
higher atom economy indicates a more efficient reaction with less waste. For
example, the synthesis of aspirin from salicylic acid and acetic anhydride has an
atom economy of 60%, which means 40% of the starting materials are wasted in
the form of acetic acid. On the other hand, the synthesis of water from hydrogen
and oxygen has an atom economy of 100%, as no starting materials are wasted
in the reaction.
5. Discuss the concept of Atom Economy. Which reaction will have better atom
economy: an addition reaction or a substitution reaction?

The concept of atom economy favors addition reactions over substitution

reactions. In an addition reaction, the reactants combine to form a larger
molecule, without any atoms being removed. This results in a higher atom
economy, as all the starting materials are utilized in the formation of the
product. In a substitution reaction, one or more atoms are replaced by other
atoms or groups, resulting in the formation of a new molecule and the release of
waste products. This leads to a lower atom economy, as some of the starting
materials are wasted in the form of the byproducts.

6. Benzene is oxidized to maleic anhydride. Calculate the “Atom Economy” for

this reaction?

The oxidation of benzene to maleic anhydride can be represented as follows:

C6H6 + 3 O2 → C4H2O3 + 3 H2O

The molecular weight of benzene is 78 g/mol, while that of maleic anhydride is

98 g/mol. Therefore, the atom economy of this reaction is:

Atom economy = (2 × 98 g/mol) / (6 × 78 g/mol + 3 × 32 g/mol) × 100%

= 81.8%

This indicates that the reaction is relatively efficient in utilizing the starting
materials to produce the desired product.

7. Calculate the atom economy for the formation of nitrobenzene, the reaction
is as
follows:
C6H6 + HNO3 → C6H5NO2 + H2O

The formation of nitrobenzene from benzene and nitric acid can be represented
as follows:
C6H6 + HNO3 → C6H5NO2 + H2O
The molecular weight of benzene is 78 g/mol, while that of nitrobenzene is 123
g/mol. Therefore, the atom economy of this reaction is:

Atom economy = 123 g/mol / (78 g/mol + 63 g/mol) × 100%

= 85.7%

This indicates that the reaction is relatively efficient in utilizing the starting
materials to produce the desired product.

8. Explain the green synthesis of Adipic Acid.

The green synthesis of adipic acid involves the use of renewable starting
materials, such as glucose or fructose, which are converted into 2,5-
furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) through a series of chemical reactions. FDCA is
then hydrogenated to produce adipic acid, which is used in the production of
nylon. This process reduces the reliance on petroleum-based starting materials
and produces less waste compared to traditional methods of adipic acid
synthesis.

9. What are green reagents? Discuss with examples.

Green reagents are environmentally friendly chemical reagents that minimize

the use of hazardous or toxic chemicals and reduce waste products. Examples of
green reagents include enzymes, catalysts, and renewable starting materials
such as glucose or fructose.

10. What are green solvents? Give three examples.

Green solvents are solvents that are environmentally friendly and have low
toxicity, low volatility, and are easily recyclable. Three examples of green
solvents are water, ethanol, and supercritical carbon dioxide.

11. Mention the characteristics of Green Solvents.

Green solvents are environmentally-friendly solvents that have low toxicity, are
renewable, biodegradable, and have low carbon footprints. These solvents are
derived from biomass and other natural sources, and they have become
increasingly popular in recent years as a replacement for traditional solvents.
Characteristics of green solvents include low or no VOCs (volatile organic
compounds), low toxicity, high boiling points, and good solubility for a variety of
compounds.

12. What are the advantages of ionic liquids?

Ionic liquids are a type of green solvent that has several advantages over
traditional organic solvents. They are non-volatile, non-flammable, have high
thermal stability, and are able to dissolve a wide range of organic and inorganic
compounds. They are also recyclable and can be reused multiple times without
losing their effectiveness. Ionic liquids are commonly used in organic synthesis,
catalysis, and as solvents for a range of industrial processes.

13. Discuss/Describe the minimization of energy consumption techniques.

Minimization of energy consumption techniques involve reducing energy

consumption in chemical processes by using more efficient methods of heating,
optimizing reaction conditions, and reducing waste. Examples of these
techniques include the use of renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind
power, and the use of heat exchangers to recover and reuse heat from chemical
reactions. Other techniques include optimizing reaction conditions to reduce
energy consumption, such as using milder reaction conditions or reducing
reaction times. By implementing these techniques, energy consumption and
associated costs can be significantly reduced.

14. What are the advantages of microwave heating?

Microwave heating is a technique that involves using microwave radiation to

heat chemical reactions. The advantages of microwave heating include faster
reaction times, higher yields, and more efficient use of energy. Microwave
heating can also lead to more selective reactions and can reduce the need for
solvents. Additionally, the use of microwave heating can reduce waste and lead
to a more environmentally-friendly process.

15. What is the significance of dimethyl carbonate in green chemistry?

Dimethyl carbonate (DMC) is a green solvent that is widely used in green
chemistry. DMC is a non-toxic and non-flammable solvent that can replace
traditional organic solvents in a wide range of applications. DMC is used in the
production of polycarbonates, as a solvent for organic reactions, and as a
replacement for traditional solvents such as chlorinated solvents and other
hazardous chemicals. DMC is also used as a fuel additive, and it has a low carbon
footprint due to its ability to be derived from renewable sources.

16. What are Biocatalysts? Enlist the advantages of biocatalysts.

Biocatalysts are enzymes or microorganisms that are used to catalyze chemical

reactions. Biocatalysts offer several advantages over traditional chemical
catalysts, including higher selectivity and specificity, lower energy consumption,
and reduced waste generation. Biocatalysts are also able to operate under
milder reaction conditions and can be used to carry out reactions that are not
possible with traditional chemical catalysts. Additionally, biocatalysts are often
derived from renewable sources and can be used in green chemistry processes.

17. Explain the “Green starting materials” with the example of Adipic acid

Green starting materials are those that are derived from renewable sources and
have a low environmental impact. Adipic acid is an example of a green starting
material that is used in the production of nylon. Adipic acid can be produced
from renewable sources such as biomass and can be used as a replacement for
traditional starting materials that have a high environmental impact, such as
petroleum-based starting materials. By using green starting materials, the
environmental impact of chemical processes can be significantly reduced.