Animal Reproduction, Development and Nutrition self-fertilize or may mate with another of their

General Biology 2 species, fertilizing each other and both producing

OBJECTIVES: offspring, self-fertilization is common in animals that
1. identify the different ways of how representative have limited mobility or are not motile, such as
animals undergo reproduction, development, barnacles and clams
nutrition;
2. describe animal reproductive and digestive organ SEQUENTIAL HERMAPHRODITISM
systems; occurs when an organism reverses it sex during its
3. describe the different stages of development in lifetime, when one individual starts out life as female
animals; and and changes sex to male, this is called protogynous,
4. trace the digestion process in animals when individuals start out life as a male and change
to female, this is called protandrous
Animal reproduction is necessary for the survival of a
species, in the animal kingdom, there are many ways INTERSEX
that species reproduce. a group of conditions in which there is a discrepancy
Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical between the external genitals and the internal genitals
organisms (clones), whereas in sexual reproduction, (the testes and ovaries)
the genetic material of two individuals combines to the older term for this condition is hermaphroditism.
produce offspring that are genetically different from Although the older terms are still used by some, it
their parents. have been replaced by most experts, patients, and
families. Increasingly, this group of conditions is
During sexual reproduction the male gamete (sperm) being called disorders of sex development (DSDs).
may be placed inside the female’s body for internal
fertilization, or the sperm and eggs may be released 46, XX INTERSEX / FEMALE
into the environment for external fertilization. PSEUDOHERMAPHRODITISM
the person has the chromosomes of a woman, the
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION ovaries of a woman, but external (outside) genitals
it occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms (bacteria) that appear male, this most often is the result of a
and in some eukaryotic single-celled and multi-celled female fetus having been exposed to excess male
organisms hormones before birth
the labia ("lips" or folds of skin of the external female
BUDDING genitals) fuse, and the clitoris enlarges to appear like
results from the outgrowth of a part of a cell or body a penis, most cases, person having this condition have
region leading to a separation from the original normal uterus and fallopian tubes
organism into two individuals, occurs commonly in
some invertebrate animals such as corals and hydras. 46, XY INTERSEX / MALE
FISSION PSEUDOHERMAPHRODITISM
after a period of growth, an organism splits into two the person has the chromosomes of a man, but the
separate organisms, the parent tends to divide or external genitals are incompletely formed,
separate into two progenies, it produces genetically ambiguous, or clearly female, internally, testes may
similar offspring. Both budding and fission are also be normal, malformed, or absent
forms
TRUE GONADAL INTERSEX
of natural cloning. the person must have both ovarian and testicular
FRAGMENTATION tissue, this may be in the same gonad (an ovotestis),
the parent breaks apart into several pieces, these or the person might have 1 ovary and 1 testis
pieces undergo regrowth to form an entire organism the external genitals may be ambiguous or may
out of the fragments formed and always accompany appear to be female or male, this condition used to be
regeneration. called true hermaphroditism
PARTHENOGENESIS
a form of asexual reproduction where an egg ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
develops into a complete individual without being In animals, zygote (fertilized egg) formation occurs
fertilized. once sperm cells are successfully fused to an ovum,
which in turn allows embryo development to take
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION place.
the combination of reproductive cells from two Animals which give birth to live offspring are called
individuals to form a third unique offspring viviparous, animals which lay eggs are called
produces offspring with novel combinations of genes oviparous.

HERMAPHRODITISM EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION

occurs in animals where one individual has both male usually occurs in aquatic environments where both
and female reproductive parts, hermaphrodites may eggs and sperm are released into the water
the embryo develops and matures in the external
environment
this type of fertilization protects the eggs from drying
out

INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
the sperm-egg fusion takes place inside the female
body, but the development of embryo may take place
either internally or externally

VIVIPAROUS
animals that giving birth to live offspring, both
fertilization, as well as the development of the
embryo, takes place inside the female reproductive
system
once the fetus development is complete, the mother
delivers the baby, this condition is referred to as
matrotrophy where the embryo obtains the nutrients
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
directly from the mother and not the yolk
Testes - Produce sperm and male hormones
Scrotum - Supports testes and regulates their
OVIPAROUS
temperature
animals that lay eggs, fertilization takes place
Seminal vesicle - Contribute fluids to semen
internally but embryo development takes place
production, it lie along the posterior border of the
externally
urinary bladder, fluid or solution covering the sperm
the hard shells covering of eggs protect them from
will allow this to move in alkaline environment
damage once the fetus is matured, the egg hatches
Prostate gland - Secretes prostate fluid (component of
nutrients are taken from the yolk sac
semen), aids in ejaculation, located sorrounding the
urethra
OVOVIVIPAROUS
Epididymis - Stores mature sperm
development of the eggs inside the mother’s body,
Vas deferens - Transports sperm from epididymis
the eggs are hatched inside the mother
Penis - Transfers sperm into female, deliver urine
once the egg hatches, it remains inside the mother for
Seminiferous tubules - site for formation of matured
a period of time and is nurtured from within but not
sperm
via a placental appendage
Bulbourethral gland or Cowper’s gland - neutralizes
ovoviviparous animals are born live, one of the
any acid residue in the urethra left over from urine
advantages ovoviviparous animals is that, after birth,
Semen - is a mixture of sperm and spermatic duct
the young are competent enough to feed and defend
secretions (about 10 percent of the total) and fluids
on their own.
from accessory glands that contribute most of the
semen’s volume.
Human Reproductive Anatomy
Sperm are haploid cells, consisting of a flagellum as a
Testosterone causes the undeveloped tissues to
tail, a neck that contains the cell’s energy-producing
differentiate into male sexual organs.
mitochondria, and a head that contains the genetic
When testosterone is absent, the tissues develop into
material.
female sexual tissues. Primitive gonads become testes
An acrosome is found at the top of the head of the
or ovaries.
sperm. This structure contains lysosomal enzymes
Tissues that produce a penis in males produce a
that can digest the protective coverings that surround
clitoris in females.
the egg to help the sperm penetrate and fertilize the
The tissue that will become the scrotum in a male
egg.
becomes the labia in a female; that is, they are
homologous structures.
Puberty begins when the hypothalamus signals the
pituitary gland to produce follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
Puberty begins in males when the hypothalamus
FSH and LH stimulate the ovaries to produce the
signals the pituitary gland to produce follicle-
female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone,
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone
results in the development of secondary sex
(LH).
characteristics (such as breasts), and causes the
LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone, and
ovaries to begin producing mature eggs
with FSH, causes sperm development to occur
Testosterone is also responsible for the development
of secondary male sex characteristics, such as a
deepened voice and growth of body hair
 The development of multi-cellular organisms begins
from a single-celled zygote, which undergoes rapid
cell division to form the blastula.
Cleavage is the rapid series of mitotic cell divisions
of the developing embryo leading to multicellular ball
mass.

STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Zygotic stage: The zygote is formed when the male
gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg) fuse.
Blastocyst stage: The single-celled zygote begins to
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM divide into a solid ball of cells. Then, it becomes a
Ovaries - Produces and develops eggs hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst, attaching to
Fallopian tubes (oviducts) - Transports egg to uterus, the lining of the mother's uterus.
acts as site of fertilization Embryonic stage: The major internal organs and
Uterus - Supports a developing embryo external features begin to emerge, forming an
Cervix - Allows passage between the uterus and the embryo. In this stage, the heart, brain, and spinal cord
vagina become visible. Arms and legs start to develop.
Vagina - Acts as birth canal, passes menstrual flow Fetal stage: Once the formed features of the embryo
Fimbrae - Finger-like projections on the ends of the begin to grow and develop, the organism is
fallopian tube, it catches the egg that is release by the considered a fetus. Differentiation of structures
ovaries during ovulation happens during this time.

EARLY EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT A lot of changes happen very quickly both during
To ensure that the offspring has only one complete pregnancy and after birth of the child. It's common to
diploid set of chromosomes, only one sperm must measure development of the fetus on a weekly basis.
fuse with one egg. By week 4 : Organs start to develop, the heart forms
In mammals, the egg is protected by a layer of and begins to pump blood.
extracellular matrix consisting mainly of By week 8 :The fetus develops limbs and digits by
glycoproteins called the zona pellucida. the second month.
When a sperm binds to the zona pellucida, a series of By week 12 (1st trimester) : Most major organs are
biochemical events, called the acrosomal reactions, formed, external genitalia visible.
take place. By week 20: The mother begins to feel the first
movements of the fetus. Hair appears on top of the
In placental mammals, the acrosome contains head.
digestive enzymes that initiate the degradation of the By week 24 (2nd trimester) : The fetus has eyelashes,
glycoprotein matrix protecting the egg and allowing separated eyelids, and fine hair covering its body.
the sperm plasma membrane to fuse with the egg By week 36 (3rd trimester) : The fetus is fully
plasma membrane. developed, shifts downwards in the uterus to prepare
The fusion of these two membranes creates an for birth.
opening through which the sperm nucleus is
transferred into the ovum. The nuclear membranes of ANIMAL NUTRITION AND DIGESTION
the egg and sperm break down and the two haploid Nutrition refers to the biological activity of an animal
condense to form a diploid. including digestion, absorption, and transport of food
To ensure that no more than one sperm fertilizes the or raw materials into their cells about growth,
egg, once the acrosomal reactions take place at one reproduction, and maintenance of homeostatic
location of the egg membrane, the egg releases balance.
proteins in other locations to prevent other sperm The chemicals we get from the food we eat are
from fusing with the egg. nutrients.
If this mechanism fails, multiple sperm can fuse with Cells can only obtain these nutrients once the food is
the egg, resulting in polyspermy. The resulting properly processed and broken down into simpler
embryo is not genetically viable and dies within a few particles and absorbable molecules via digestion.
days.
Five stages of processing food in the body
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT Ingestion- taking of food or simply eating
The development process in a highly-organized and Digestion- dismantling complex food into a simple
regulated manner is called embryogenesis in which absorbable form
embryo forms and develops and eventually gives rise Absorption- absorbing digested food by the cells
to a mature organism. lining the digestive tract
This process refers primarily to prenatal development Assimilation- utilization of absorbed nutrients by the
in mammals preceding fetal development. cells and tissues
Defecation- elimination of waste and undigested food Accessory organs are considered accessory organs
particles from the body since they are not actually part of the intestinal tract
itself, but have ducts that deliver digestive juices into
Two major feeding strategies the tract to help aid in digestion.
1. Continuous feeding -this is the constant acquisition
of food as in filter or suspension feeding. Continuous MOUTH
feeders, thus do not require a special organ for the ingestion and both mechanical and chemical
storage of food as the stomach. digestion also begins here
2. Discontinuous feeding- this allows an animal to teeth physically grind the food into smaller particles
skip periods of feeding because they have special and mix the food particles with saliva (bolus)
organs for storage. Humans are the best example of amylase begins the chemical breakdown of
this strategy. Animals as heterotrophs have organs carbohydrates, while lingual lipase starts the chemical
adapted for the type of food they consume. breakdown of triglycerides
a. Carnivores- feed on other animals
b. Herbivores- feed on plants ESOPHAGUS
c. Omnivores- feed on both plants and animals tubular organ that connects the mouth to the stomach.
no chemical digestion occurs while the bolus is
mechanically propelled through this tube by
peristalsis.

STOMACH
temporary storage while more mechanical and
chemical digestion is taking place
the muscles in the stomach walls churn the bolus,
allowing it to mix with digestive enzymes and gastric
acids this process converts the bolus into a liquid
called chyme
digestion continues in the stomach for several hours
during this time, an enzyme called pepsin breaks
down most of the protein in the food

SMALL INTESTINE
most digestion and absorption occurs
divided into three parts: duodenum, the jejunum, and
the ileum
food chyme is further broken down using digestive
juices and bile secreted by the liver that helps digest
fats
Pancreatic juices neutralize acidic chyme that came
out from the stomach.
Duodenum - chyme is mixed with pancreatic juices in
an alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate that
neutralizes the acidity of chyme and acts as a buffer
Jejunum - hydrolysis of nutrients is continued while
most of the carbohydrates and amino acids are
absorbed through the intestinal lining. Some chemical
digestion and the bulk of nutrient absorption occurs in
the jejunum
Ileum - the bile salts and vitamins are absorbed into
blood stream.

LARGE INTESTINE
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM main task of the large intestine is to absorb much of
The easiest way to understand the digestive system is the remaining water
to divide its organs into two main categories: the as water is reabsorbed, liquid chyme becomes a
gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and the accessory semisolid, referred to as feces
organs.
The GI tract is a one-way tube about 25 feet in length, RECTUM
beginning at the mouth and ending at the anus. The temporary holding area of feces, The feces are
GI tract also contains the pharynx, esophagus, propelled using peristaltic movements during
stomach, small and large intestines, and the rectum. elimination.
ANUS
an opening at the far-end of the digestive tract and is
the exit point for the waste material, site of defecation

FECES
composed of undigested food residues, unabsorbed
digested substances, millions of bacteria, old cells
from the lining of the GI tract, inorganic salts, and
enough water to let it pass smoothly out of the body

LIVER
the largest internal organ in humans and it plays a
very important role in digestion of fats and
detoxifying blood
produces bile, a digestive juice that is required for the
breakdown of fatty components of the food in the
duodenum.

PANCREAS
secretes digestive juices, since the chyme from the
stomach is highly acidic, the juice secreted
neutralizes the acidic chyme

GALL BLADDER
small organ that aids the liver by storing bile and
concentrating bile salts