Heat Transfer by Radiation

—1—
Introduction, Blackbodies

Uday N. Gaitonde
IIT Indore

2024 Nov

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Texts/References

◮ Y. A. Çengel, A. J. Ghajar, Heat and Mass

Transfer, 5th Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2015.
◮ F. P. Incropera, D. P. Dewitt, T. L. Bergman,
A. S. Lavine, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 6th Ed., John Wiley, 2007.
◮ J. R. Howell, R. Siegel, M. P. Mengüç, Thermal
Radiation Heat Transfer, 7th Ed., CRC Press,
2010.

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Thermal Radiation

◮ Electromagnetic phenomenon.
◮ All laws of electromagnetic radiation are
applicable.
◮ Radiation is emitted by all bodies - from their
surfaces and from their bulk.
◮ When a body encounters radiation, it may treat
it in different ways.
◮ Absorption, transmission, reflection.
◮ Definition:
A blackbody is a perfect absorber.

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The Basic Scheme
Wall Surface

′′ ′′
q+ q+

′′ ′′
q− q−

′′ ′′ ′′
qnet,left→right = q+ − q−

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Radiosity B and Irradiation, H
Surface

H− B+

B− H+

′′ ′′
qleft = B − − H− qright = B + − H+
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What happens to incident radiation?

in c absorbed
id e
nt
t t ed
t r a n smi

t ed
ec
refl

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Source and Sink

◮ Source of radiation: EMISSION.

◮ Sink of radiation: ABSORPTION.
◮ Absorption need not be complete. Incident
radiation may be reflected or transmitted.
◮ A perfect absorber is known as a black surface
or blackbody.

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Radiation Spectrum

Many figures from Howell et al.

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Spectral Illusion

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Thermal Image – 1

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Thermal Image – 2

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Thermal Image – 4

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Thermal Image – 5

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Thermal Image – 8

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Thermal Image – 9 (ME346 20171014)

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Blackbody
◮ Perfect absorber.
◮ Also perfect emitter (ImpEx: prove it).
◮ Emits radiation even when at thermal
equilibrium with surroundings.
◮ The radiation in a black, isothermal, enclosure
is isotropic.
◮ Perfect emitter in all directions, at any
wavelength.
◮ In vacuum, total radiation only a function of T .
◮ In vacuum, total radiation must increase as T
increases.
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Blackbody emission characteristics

◮ At an important level of detail, the intensity is

the principal emission characteristic.
◮ Beware: the term is used in two different ways -
in different books.
◮ Total intensity and spectral or monochromatic
intensity. Z ∞
ib = iλb dλ
λ=0

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Monochromatic and Total Intensity

iλ

Area = i

λ
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Blackbody emission intensity

The emitted spectral intensity is defined as:

◮ energy emitted per unit time [J/s = W]
◮ per unit small wavelength interval around the
wavelength λ [W/m]
◮ per unit elemental projected area normal to the
direction (θ, ϕ) [W/m3 ], [W/µm m2 ]
◮ per unit elemental solid angle centred around
the direction (θ, ϕ) [W/m3 sr], [W/µm m2 sr]

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Spectral Emission Intensity from a Black Surface

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Angular dependence of blackbody intensity

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Angular dependence of blackbody intensity (cont)

Consider the energy balance.

Energy emitted = energy absorbed.

 
dAs
Energy emitted = iλb (λ, θ, ϕ)[dλ][dAp ]
R2
dAs
= iλb (λ, θ, ϕ)dλ[dA cos θ] 2
 R 
dA cos θ
Energy absorbed = iλb,n (λ)[dλ][dAs ]
R2

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Angular dependence of blackbody intensity (cont)

Hence,

iλb (λ, θ, ϕ) = iλb,n (λ) = iλb (λ)

Thus, there is no angular dependence.

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Blackbody emissive power
The emissive power is similar to the intensity, but is
defined per unit of actual (unprojected) surface area.
We have the spectral emissive power and the total
emissive power.
For a black surface

eλb (λ, θ, ϕ) = iλb (λ) cos θ = eλb (λ, θ)

This is Lambert’s Cosine Law.

For a non-black surface, in general, eλ (λ, θ, ϕ).
If such a surface obeys Lambert’s Law, we call it a
diffuse surface.
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Angular Distribution and Unit Hemisphere

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Blackbody — hemispherical emissive powers

Elementary solid angle dω = sin θ dθ dϕ.

Hence,
Z 2π Z π/2
eλb (λ)dλ = iλb (λ)dλ cos θ sin θdθdϕ
ϕ=0 θ=0
= πiλb (λ)dλ

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Planck’s Law for a Blackbody

Specifies spectral distribution of emissive power for

a blackbody.
Applies only to blackbodies in a vacuum.
2πC1
eλb (λ, T ) = πiλb (λ, T ) =
λ5 (eC2 /λT − 1)

C1 = hc2 = 0.59552137 × 10−16 W m2 sr

C2 = hc/k = 0.014387752 m K

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Planck

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Planck’s Law — Collapsed version

eλb (λ, T ) πiλb (λ, T ) 2πC1

= =
T5 T5 (λT )5 (eC2 /λT − 1)
On the RHS, λT is the only parameter.

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Spectrum — collapsed!

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Some local effects – Wien’s Law

C2 1
λmax T =
5 1 − e−C2 /λmax T

λmax T = C3 = 0.0028977686 m K

2C1
iλmax b = T 5 5
= C4 T 5
C3 (e(C2 /C3 ) − 1)

C4 = 4.0956978 × 10−12 W/m2 µm K5 sr

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Wien’s Law – Consequences

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The Orion Constellation

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Stephan Boltzmann Law

◮ Specifies total hemispherical emissive power of a

blackbody.
◮ Obtained by integrating Planck’s law over all
wavelengths.
Z ∞
eb = πib = eλb (λ)dλ = σT 4
0

2C1 π 5
σ= 4 = 5.670400 × 10−8 W/m2 K4
15C2

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Emission within a band

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The F-Factor (a fraction)

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Fractional emissive power

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Blackbody Table

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Blackbody quantities 1

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Blackbody quantities 2

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 — END —

Created using LATEX, xfig, etc..

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