SCIENTIFIC WRITING BOOKLET 1 SCIENTIFIC WRITING BOOKLET TABLE OF

CONTENTS General Guidelines 2-3 title abstract rules for scientific writing Using an
Outline to Prepare Your Paper 3 description of an outline value of the outline
developing the outline Word Usage in Scientific Writing 4-8 Grammar 8 Active versus
Passive Voice in Writing 9-11 when to use active voice when to use passive voice
active-passive exercise Writing the Introduction 11-12 Writing the Methods 13-14
Writing the Results and Discussion 14-19 results section numbers and statistics
tables figures discussion section Preparing the Reference Section 20-22 examples
of citation formats examples of reference formats Answers to Active-Passive
Exercise 23 Sources for Further Information 24 websites book sources 2 GENERAL
GUIDELINES A scientific paper is a written report describing original research
results. The format of a scientific paper has been defined by centuries of developing
tradition, editorial practice, scientific ethics and the interplay with printing and
publishing services. A scientific paper should have, in proper order, a Title, Abstract,
Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion. Title A title should be
the fewest possible words that accurately describe the content of the paper. Omit all
waste words such as "A study of ...", "Investigations of ...", "Observations on ...", etc.
Indexing and abstracting services depend on the accuracy of the title, extracting from
it keywords useful in crossreferencing and computer searching. An improperly titled
paper may never reach the audience for which it was intended, so be specific. If the
study is of a particular species, name it in the title. If the inferences made in the
paper are limited to a particular region, then name the region in the title. Abstract A
well prepared abstract should enable the reader to identify the basic content of a
document quickly and accurately, to determine its relevance to the reader's interests,
and thus to decide whether to read the document in its entirety. The abstract should
succinctly state the principal objectives and scope of the investigation where these
are not obvious from the title. More importantly, the abstract should concisely
summarize the results and principal conclusions. The abstract should not include
details of the methods employed unless the study is methodological, i.e. primarily
concerned with methods. The abstract must be brief, not exceeding 250 words or as
otherwise defined by the journal. If the essential details of the paper can be
conveyed in 100 words, do not use 200. Do not repeat information contained in the
title. The abstract, together with the title, must be self-contained as it is often
published separately from the paper in abstracting services. Omit all references to
the literature and to tables or figures, and omit obscure abbreviations and acronyms
even though they may be defined in main body of the paper. Rules for Scientific
Writing • Interest, inform, and persuade the reader • Write for your reader and write
clearly • Eliminate unnecessary redundancy • Avoid digressions • Don't over explain
and avoid overstatement • Avoid unnecessary qualifiers • Use consistent tenses •
Use the precise word • Simpler words are preferred over complex words and use
concrete words and examples • Simpler sentences are preferred over more
complicated sentences • Use the active voice (except generally in methods) • Make
sure the subject and verb agree • Use affirmative rather than negative constructions •
Avoid use of the indefinite "this" • Use transitions • Cite sources as well as findings •
Proofread your paper carefully; spell check does not catch everything; "there" is
spelled correctly but not if you meant "their" 3 In general, the best writing is simple
and direct. Writing that is simple and direct is most easily understood. It also tends to
be the most forceful and memorable. Use no more words than necessary — and
never use a complicated word if a simpler one will do just as well. Many people seem
to feel that writing in a complicated way makes one sound serious, scholarly and
authoritative. While this type of writing may sound serious, it is no more authoritative
than writing that is simple and direct. Certainly, it is more difficult to understand.
Often, it sounds pompous and overbearing. If your purpose is to be understood in a
way that is both forceful and memorable, adopt a style that is simple and direct.
USING AN OUTLINE TO PREPARE YOUR PAPER Description of an outline An
outline is: • A logical, general description • A schematic summary • An organizational
pattern • A visual and conceptual design of your writing An outline reflects logical
thinking and clear classification. Value of the Outline • Aids in the process of writing •
Helps you organize your ideas • Provides a snapshot of each section of the paper
will flow • Presents your material in a logical form • Shows the relationships among
ideas in your writing • Constructs an ordered overview of your writing • Defines
boundaries and groups Developing the Outline Before you begin: • Determine the
purpose of your paper • Determine the audience you are writing for • Develop the
thesis of your paper Then: • Brainstorm: List all the ideas that you want to include in
your paper • Summarize the question(s)/problem(s) • List the key points/elements
pertaining to the question(s)/problem(s) • Organize: Group related ideas together;
place each key point/element in a separate file • Order: Arrange material in
subsections from general to specific or from abstract to concrete • Make sure the
organizing scheme is clear and well-structured • Identify the important details that
contribute to each key point/element • Label: Create main and sub headings • Note
the sources pertaining to each detail 4 WORD USAGE IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING
Any glossary of word usage assumes that what is acceptable for some uses may not
be for others. Some terms and expressions are worn-out clichés and have outlived
their usefulness; other expressions and terms, though not incorrect, are not precise.
In reporting and recording research, try to be as accurate and precise in describing it
as in doing it. Avoid the ambiguous and "faddish." • Use a US-English spelling
checker. • Make sure you use words according to the precise meaning understood
by the average person. • Ideally, you would check whether every word could be
deleted or replaced by a better one. • Aim for economy: o because instead of based
on the fact that; o for or to instead of for the purpose of. o there were several
subjects who completed…; o it is suggested that a relationship may exist…; o both
alike; one and the same; o a total of n subjects; o four different groups; o absolutely
essential; o found previously; o small in size; o in close proximity; o very close to
zero; o much better; o period of time; o summarize briefly; o the reason is because; o
also included; o except for. • Aim for precision: o patient or gymnast instead of
subject; o concentration or frequency instead of level. • Don’t generalize
unnecessarily. For example, don’t say some if you know of only one instance. • This
on its own is an ambiguous antecedent. Use instead this test or this problem. • Avoid
hype (hyperbole). Words like very and extremely are usually unnecessary. • Note
these singular and plural forms: criterion, criteria; datum, data; medium, media;
phenomenon, phenomena. • Don’t use however or its synonyms twice in one
paragraph, because changing the direction of an argument twice in one paragraph
may annoy readers. • Don’t use however more than once every 10 paragraphs. Try a
thesaurus for synonyms. • Avoid the so-called non-human agent. For example, use
the authors concluded that… rather than the study concluded that…. • Avoid
colloquialisms, such as steer clear of. • Avoid as such. Poor: The SCAT is a reliable
test of state anxiety. As such, it is suitable for experimental studies. Better: The
SCAT is a reliable test of state anxiety; it is therefore suitable for experimental
studies. • Avoid her, his and any other sexist language, even if the subjects are
clearly of one gender. 5 Above ("the above method," "mentioned above," etc.) --
Often, you are referring to something preceding, but not necessarily above; a loose
reference, convenient for writers, but not for readers. Be specific. You know exactly
what and where, but your readers may have to search (sometimes through much
preceding material). Affect, effect -- Affect is a verb and means to influence. Effect,
as a verb, means to bring about; as a noun, effect means result. All of, both of -- Just
"all" or "both" will serve in most instances. Alternate, alternative -- Be sure which you
mean. And (to begin a sentence) -- Quite proper. You have been told not to do this in
grade school. But teacher's purpose was to keep you from using fragmentary
sentences; either "and" or "but" may be used to begin complete sentences. And both
are useful transitional words between related or contrasting statements. Apparently
(apparent) -- means obviously, clearly, plainly evident, but also means seemingly or
ostensibly as well as observably. You know the meaning that you intend, but readers
may not. Ambiguity results. Use obvious(ly), clear(ly), seeming(ly), evident(ly),
observable or observably, to remove doubt. Appear, appears -- Seem(s)? "He always
appears on the scene, but never seems to know what to do." "Marley's ghost
appeared but seemed harmless." As -- Dialectal when used in place of that or
whether; do not use as to mean because or inasmuch as. At the present time, at this
point in time -- Say "at present" or "now" if necessary at all. Below -- See comment
about above. But (to begin a sentence) -- Go right ahead (see "And" and "However").
By means of -- Most often, just "by" will serve and save words. Case -- Can be
ambiguous, misleading, or ludicrous because of different connotations; e.g., "In the
case of Scotch whiskey,...." Case also is a frequent offender in padded, drawn-out
sentences. For "in this case," try "in this instance." Compare with, compare to --
Compare with means to examine differences and similarities; compare to means to
represent as similar. One may conclude that the music of Brahms compares to that
of Beethoven, but to do that, one must first compare the music of Brahms with that of
Beethoven. Comprise -- Before misuse, comprise meant to contain, include, or
encompass (not to constitute or compose) and still does, despite two now opposite
meanings. Use and meanings now are so confused and mixed that "comprise" is
best avoided altogether. Correlated with, correlated to -- Although things may be
related to one another, things are correlated with one another. Different from,
different than -- Different from! Also, one thing differs from another, although you may
differ with your colleagues. 6 Due to -- Make sure that you don't mean because of.
Due is an adjective modifier and must be directly related to a noun, not to a concept
or series of ideas gleaned from the rest of a statement. "Due to the fact that..." is an
attempt to weasel out. During the course of, in the course of -- Just use "during" or
"in." Either....or, neither...nor -- Apply to no more than two items or categories.
Similarly, former and latter refer only to the first and second of only two items or
categories. Experience(d) -- To experience something is sensory; inanimate,
unsensing things (lakes, soils, enzymes, streambeds, farm fields, etc.) do not
experience anything. Following -- "After" is more precise if "after" is the meaning
intended. "After [not following] the procession, the leader announced that the
ceremony was over." High(er), low(er) -- Much too often used, frequently
ambiguously or imprecisely, for other words such as greater, lesser, larger, smaller,
more, fewer; e.g., "Occurrences of higher concentrations were lower at higher levels
of effluent outflow." One interpretation is that greater concentrations were fewer or
less frequent as effluent volume(s) increased, but others also are possible. However
-- Place it more often within a sentence or major element rather than at the beginning
or end. "But" serves better at the beginning. Hyphening of compound or unit
modifiers -- Often needed to clarify what is modifying what; e.g., a small-grain
harvest (harvest of small grain) is different from a small grain harvest (small harvest
of all grain), a fast acting dean isn't necessarily as effective as a fast-acting dean, a
batch of (say, 20) 10-liter containers is different from a batch of 10 [1-] liter
containers, and a man eating fish is very different from a man-eating fish!
Grammatically, adjectives are noun modifiers, and the problem is when adjectives
and nouns are used to modify other adjectives and nouns. Adverbs (usually with "ly"
endings), however, are adjective modifiers. In order to -- For brevity, just use "to".
Irregardless -- No, regardless. But irrespective might do. It should be mentioned,
noted, pointed out, emphasized, etc. -- Such preambles often add nothing but words.
Just go ahead and say what is to be said. It was found, determined, decided, felt,
etc. -- Are you being evasive? Why not put it frankly and directly? (And how about
that subjective "felt"?) Less(er), few(er) -- "Less" refers to quantity; "fewer" to
number. Majority, vast majority -- See if most will do as well or better. Look up "vast."
Myself -- Not a substitute for me. "This paper has been reviewed by Dr. Smith and
myself" and "The report enclosed was prepared by Dr. Jones and myself" are
incorrect as is "Don't hesitate to call Dr. Doe or myself"; me would have been correct
in all instances. (Use of I also would have been wrong in those examples.) Some
correct uses of myself: I found the error myself. I myself saw it happen. I am not
myself today. I cannot convince myself. I locked myself out of the car. 7 Partially,
partly -- Compare the meanings (see also impartially). Partly is the better, simpler,
and more precise word when partly is meant. Percent, percentage -- Not the same;
use percent only with a number. Predominate, predominant -- Predominate is a verb.
Predominant is the adjective; as an adverb, predominantly (not "predominately").
Prefixes -- (mid, non, pre, pro, re, semi, un, etc.) -- Usually not hyphened in U.S.
usage except before a proper name (pro-Iowa) or numerals (mid-60s) or when lack
of a hyphen makes a word ambiguous or awkward. Recover a fumble, but perhaps
re-cover a sofa. Preengineered is better hyphened as preengineered, one of the few
exceptions so hyphened. Breaking pairs such as predoctoral and postdoctoral into
pre- and post-doctoral "forces" hyphening of both otherwise unhyphened words.
Principle, principal -- They're different; make sure which you mean. Prior to, previous
to -- Use before, preceding, or ahead of. There are prior and subsequent events that
occur before or after something else, but prior to is the same kind of atrocious use
that attempts to substitute "subsequent to" for "after." Proven -- Although a proven
adjective, stick to proved for the past participle. "A proven guilty person must first
have been proved guilty in court." Provided, providing -- Provided (usually followed
by "that") = conjunction; providing = participle. Reason why -- Omit why if reason is
used as a noun. The reason is...; or, the reason is that... Since -- has a time
connotation; use "because" or "inasmuch as" when either is the intended meaning.
Small in size, rectangular in shape, blue in color, tenuous in nature, etc. --
Redundant. That and which -- Two words that can help, when needed, to make
intended meanings and relationships unmistakable, which is important in reporting
scientific information. If the clause can be omitted without leaving the modified noun
incomplete, use which and enclose the clause within commas or parentheses;
otherwise, use that. Example: "The lawn mower, which is broken, is in the garage."
But, "The lawn mower that is broken is in the garage; so is the lawn mower that
works."...That is broken specifies the particular mower being discussed, whereas
which is broken merely adds additional information to the sentence. To be --
Frequently unnecessary. "The differences were [found] [to be] significant." Varying --
Be careful to distinguish from various or differing. In saying that you used varying
amounts or varying conditions, you are implying individually changing amounts or
conditions rather than a selection of various or different ones. Where -- Use when
you mean where, but not for "in which," "for which," etc. 8 Which is, that were, who
are, etc. -- Often not needed. For example, "the data that were related to age were
analyzed first" means that the data related to age were analyzed first. Similarly, for
"the site, which is located near Ames," try "the site, located near Ames" or "the site,
near Ames." Rather than "all persons who were present voted," just say that "all
persons present voted." Rephrasing sometimes can help. Instead of "a survey, which
was conducted in 1974" or "a survey conducted in 1974," try "a 1974 survey." While -
- Preferably not if, while writing, you mean and, but, although, or whereas.
Remember that a research report should communicate and record information as
accurately and concisely as possible. The purpose is to report, not to impress with
elegance. Excess wordage, tortuous construction, unnecessary detail, duplication,
repetition, third-person passive pseudo-objectivism, etc., obstruct rather than
facilitate communication. It's the message that is important, not sheer numbers of
words. Use precise words and expressions of unmistakable meaning; avoid the
clouded, ambiguous, vague, and needlessly complex. GRAMMAR • Make sure you
write well-formed sentences, and keep their structure simple. • Use the first person (I
or we tested six runners ) rather than the passive voice (Six runners were tested ).
Similarly, say Smith reported instead of reported by Smith. • With comparatives
(more than, less than), the than may need to be than that of or than with or than by
etc. to clarify the meaning. Similarly, similar to may need to be similar to that of.
Examples: The measure was more valid than that of Smith et al. (1994). We
experienced fewer problems with the revised instrument than with the published
version. The method was similar to that of an earlier study. • Don't use a long string
of qualifiers in front of a noun: a modified test of cognitive function is better than a
modified cognitive-function test. • Avoid grammatically questionable formal cliches,
such as: Based on these results, it is concluded that and The results showed that •
Use the past tense to report results (yours or others'). Use the present tense to
discuss them. We have found that…; Smith (1989) reported a similar result. A simple
explanation of these findings is that… • Avoid so-called misplaced modifiers: When
sedentary, protein supplementation resulted in… Athletes were consulted when
designing the questionnaire… If necessary, subjects were tested… Based on these
results, we conclude… The next two examples are marginal: Using stable tracers, it
is possible to measure… Given the importance of body mass, there has been little
study of its effects… Note that a noun was verbed to verb something (e.g. an
experiment was performed to test this hypothesis) is also technically incorrect but is
used so widely that it has to be accepted. A noun was verbed (by) verbing… is also
acceptable. The active voice would avoid these awkward expressions. • Put only,
partly and mainly next to the word they modify: The test consists only of new items. •
The following rules are broken so frequently that I doubt whether they can be
considered rules any more. o Which or that? Simple rule: Which always follows a
comma (and a pause), but that never does. This study, which cost $10,000, was a
success. The study that cost $10,000 was a success. o Owing to or due to? Simple
rule: Owing to always has a comma, due to never does. The data were lost, owing to
computer malfunction. The loss of data was due to computer malfunction. • An
adverb is placed usually after the verb. Placing it before the verb creates a split
infinitive (to boldly go… is acceptable if emphasizing go; if the emphasis is on boldly,
to go boldly is better). 9 ACTIVE VERSUS PASSIVE VOICE IN WRITING In the
active voice, the grammatical subject is the doer of the action, and the sentence tells,
“who’s doing what.” The passive voice tells what is done to the subject of the
sentence. The person or thing doing the action may or may not be mentioned but is
always implied. Verbs are also said to be either active (The executive committee
approved the new policy) or passive (The new policy was approved by the executive
committee) in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is
straightforward: the grammatical subject is the doer of the action, and the sentence
tells, “who’s doing what”. The verb 'actively' moves the sentence along. The passive
voice tells what is done to the subject of the sentence. The subject of the sentence is
acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed (The new policy was
approved). Computerized grammar checkers can pick out a passive voice
construction from miles away and ask you to revise it to a more active construction.
There is nothing inherently wrong with the passive voice, but if you can say the same
thing in the active mode, do so (see exceptions below). Your text will have more
pizzazz as a result, since passive verb constructions tend to lie about in their
pajamas and avoid actual work. We find an overabundance of the passive voice in
sentences created by self-protective business interests, magniloquent educators,
and bombastic military writers (who must get weary of this accusation), who use the
passive voice to avoid responsibility for actions taken. Thus "Cigarette ads were
designed to appeal especially to children" places the burden on the ads — as
opposed to "We designed the cigarette ads to appeal especially to children," in which
"we" accepts responsibility. At a White House press briefing we might hear that "The
President was advised that certain members of Congress were being audited" rather
than "The Head of the Internal Revenue service advised the President that her
agency was auditing certain members of Congress" because the passive
construction avoids responsibility for advising and for auditing. One further caution
about the passive voice: we should not mix active and passive constructions in the
same sentence: "The executive committee approved the new policy, and the
calendar for next year's meetings was revised" should be recast as "The executive
committee approved the new policy and revised the calendar for next year's
meeting." When to use Active Voice In general, writing should be composed in the
active voice because of the sense of immediacy and conciseness conveyed when
the subject of the sentence carries out the action. In addition, fewer words are
usually required for the active voice, it is more efficient, and it takes the reader from
point A to point B in a “straight line.” When to use Passive Voice The passive voice
does exist for a reason, however, and its presence is not always to be despised. The
passive is particularly useful (even recommended) in two situations: When it is more
important to draw our attention to the person or thing acted upon: The unidentified
victim was apparently struck during the early morning hours. When the actor in the
situation is not important: The aurora borealis can be observed in the early morning
hours. 10 In scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in
long and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become
confused. Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always-- clearer and
more direct than those in passive voice. That being said, the passive voice is
especially helpful (and even regarded as mandatory) in scientific or technical writing
or lab reports, where the actor is not really important but the process or principle
being described is of ultimate importance. Instead of writing "I poured 20 cc of acid
into the beaker," we would write "Twenty cc of acid is/was poured into the beaker."
The passive voice is also useful when describing, say, a mechanical process in
which the details of process are much more important than anyone's taking
responsibility for the action: "The first coat of primer paint is applied immediately after
the acid rinse." Thus in scientific writing, the passive voice is often preferred to
indicate objective procedures. Scientists and engineers are interested in analyzing
data and in performing studies that other researchers can replicate. The individual
doing the experiment is therefore relatively unimportant and usually is not the subject
of the sentence. You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb
phrase will always include a form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The
presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in
passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may
include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if named,
is the object of the preposition in this phrase. You can see examples of all the verb
tenses in passive voice at
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html The active voice
enhances the authority of the writer, while the passive voice can obscure it. Passive
voice: It is understood by students that good writing is essential in college. Active
voice: Students understand that good writing is essential in college. Consider these
pairs of sentences: The report was read by Betty. Betty read the report. A decision
was made to stop the project. We decided to stop the project. The passive voice
should be avoided. Avoid the passive voice. Scientists conduct experiments to test
hypotheses. Experiments are conducted by scientists to test hypotheses. Watching a
reaction boil over through shielding reminds me to be careful. I am reminded to be
careful by watching a reaction boil over through shielding. Now, ask yourself: which
of the two sentences in each set sounds better to you — and why? In general, the
active voice (the second sentence in each pair) is preferable to the passive voice
(the first sentence in each pair) because the active voice tends to be simpler, clearer
and more direct. The active voice also makes for more forceful and interesting
writing. Thus, we say: Avoid the passive. Favor the active. Useful resource:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/print/grammar/g_actpass.html. 11 Active-
Passive Exercise: Rewrite the following sentences so that passive constructions are
changed to active verbs. Some of these sentences do not use passive verbs or are
better off left in the passive, so this exercise will also engage your attention in
recognizing passive constructions and in using them when appropriate. 1. Before the
semester was over, the new nursing program had been approved by the Curriculum
Committee and the Board of Trustees. 2. With five seconds left in the game, an
illegal time-out was called by one of the players. 3. The major points of the lesson
were quickly learned by the class, but they were also quickly forgotten by them. 4.
For several years, Chauncey was raised by his elderly grandmother. 5. An
unexpected tornado smashed several homes and uprooted trees in a suburb of
Knoxville. 6. I was surprised by the teacher's lack of sympathy. 7. Tall buildings and
mountain roads were avoided by Raoul because he had such a fear of heights.
(answers appear on page 24) WRITING THE INTRODUCTION The first step will be
to meet with your research director to discuss the content of the Introduction. This
should be very explicit to the specific research you will be doing. Much of your time
before writing must be spent in reading appropriate papers that are the background
to the work you will be doing. Your research director can help you identify these
papers. As you spend additional time working on the project, you should continue to
read appropriate papers from the literature that will help you understand your work
better. You should take responsibility for learning from your research director, or
someone else whom is designated, the papers that are most appropriate for you to
read in the future. Additionally you should acquire skills in conducting literature
searches on your own for relevant papers in the most current literature as they
appear by checking the most appropriate journals on a regular basis. You should ask
your research director to also identify papers that include the methods you will be
using in your study. The Introduction should begin by introducing the reader to the
pertinent literature. A common mistake is introducing authors and their areas of study
in general terms without mentioning their major findings. For example: "Parmenter
(1976) and Chessman (1978) studied the diet of Chelodina longicollis at various
latitudes and Legler (1978) and Chessman (1983) conducted a similar study on
Chelodina expansa" compares poorly with: "Within the confines of carnivory,
Chelodina expansa is a selective and specialized predator feeding upon highly
motile prey such as decapod crustaceans, aquatic bugs and small fish (Legler, 1978;
Chessman, 1984), whereas C. longicollis is reported to have a diverse and
opportunistic diet (Parmenter, 1976; Chessman, 1984)". 12 The latter is a far more
informative lead-in to the literature, but more importantly it enables the reader to
clearly place the current work in the context of what is already known. An important
function of the Introduction is to establish the significance of the current work: Why
was there a need to conduct the study? Having introduced the pertinent literature
and demonstrated the need for the current study, you should state clearly the scope
and objectives. Avoid a series of point-wise statements -- use prose. The Introduction
can finish with the statement of objectives or, as some people prefer, with a brief
statement of the principal findings. Either way, the reader must have an idea of
where the paper is heading in order to follow the development of the evidence.
Questions to address: How to address them: What is the problem? • Describe the
problem investigated. • Summarize relevant research to provide context, key terms,
and concepts so your reader can understand the experiment. Why is it important? •
Review relevant research to provide rationale. (What conflict or unanswered
question, untested population, untried method in existing research does your
experiment address? What findings of others are you challenging or extending?)
What solution (or step toward a solution) do you propose? • Briefly describe your
experiment: hypothesis(es), research question(s); general experimental design or
method; justification of method if alternatives exist. Additional Tips: 1. Move from
general to specific: problem in real world/research literature ⇒ your experiment. 2.
Engage your reader: answer the questions, "What did you do?" "Why should I care?"
3. Make clear the links between problem and solution, question asked and research
design, prior research and your experiment. Be selective, not exhaustive, in
choosing studies to cite and amount of detail to include. (In general, the more
relevant an article is to your study, the more space it deserves and the later in the
Introduction it appears.) 13 WRITING THE METHODS The main purpose of the
Materials and Methods section is to provide enough detail for a competent worker to
repeat your study and reproduce the results. The scientific method requires that your
results be reproducible, and you must provide a basis for repetition of the study by
others. Often in field-based studies, there is a need to describe the study area in
greater detail than is possible in the Introduction. Usually authors will describe the
study region in general terms in the Introduction and then describe the study site and
climate in detail in the Materials and Methods section. The sub-headings "Study
Site", "General Methods" and "Analysis" may be useful, in that order. Equipment and
materials available off the shelf should be described exactly (Licor underwater
quantum sensor, Model LI 192SB) and sources of materials should be given if there
is variation in quality among supplies. Modifications to equipment or equipment
constructed specifically for the study should be carefully described in detail. The
method used to prepare reagents, fixatives, and stains should be stated exactly,
though often reference to standard recipes in other works will suffice. The usual
order of presentation of methods is chronological, however related methods may
need to be described together and strict chronological order cannot always be
followed. If your methods are new (unpublished), you must provide all of the detail
required to repeat the methods. However, if a method has been previously published
in a standard journal, only the name of the method and a literature reference need
be given. Be precise in describing measurements and include errors of
measurement. Ordinary statistical methods should be used without comment;
advanced or unusual methods may require a literature citation. Show your materials
and methods section to a colleague. Ask if they would have difficulty in repeating
your study. The table below offers guidelines for effective methods sections in
scientific reports. Questions to address: How to address them: How did you study
the problem? • Briefly explain the general type of scientific procedure you used.
What did you use? (May be subheaded as Materials) • Describe what materials,
subjects, and equipment (chemicals, experimental animals, apparatus, etc.) you
used. (These may be subheaded Animals, Reagents, etc.) How did you proceed?
(May be subheaded as Methods or Procedures) • Explain the steps you took in your
experiment. (These may be subheaded by experiment, types of assay, etc.) 14
Additional Tips: 1. Provide enough detail for replication. For a journal article, include,
for example, genus, species, strain of organisms; their source, living conditions, and
care; and sources (manufacturer, location) of chemicals and apparatus. 2. Order
procedures chronologically or by type of procedure (subheaded) and chronologically
within type. 3. Use past tense to describe what you did. 4. Quantify when possible:
concentrations, measurements, amounts (all metric); times (24-hour clock);
temperatures (centigrade). What to avoid: 1. Don't include details of common
statistical procedures. 2. Don't mix results with procedures. WRITING THE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results Section In the Results section you present
your findings. Present the data, digested and condensed, with important trends
extracted and described. Because the results comprise the new knowledge that you
are contributing to the world, it is important that your findings be clearly and simply
stated. The Results should be short and sweet, without excessive verbiage. Do not
say: "It is clearly evident from Fig. 1 that bird species richness increased with habitat
complexity". Say instead "Bird species richness increased with habitat complexity
(Fig. 1)". However, do not be too concise. The readers cannot be expected to extract
important trends from the data unaided. Few will bother. Combine the use of text,
tables, figures to condense data and highlight trends. In doing so be sure to refer to
the guidelines for preparing tables and figures below. 15 Numbers and Statistics •
Use symbol ~ to mean approximately equal to. • Numbers beginning a sentence
must be spelled. It is usually better to rewrite a sentence so you don't start it with
numbers greater than ninety-nine. • Note: one, two, three… nine, 10, 11, 12…
Exceptions: a 2-m tape measure; 3 million. • Put a space between numbers and
units: for example, 75 kg. Exception: 75%. • Note: 0.32 is correct, NOT .32. • Note:
write numbers as follows: 143 2,461 or 2461 21,278 1,409,000 • When you quote
numbers, make sure you use the minimum number of significant digits or decimal
places. For example, 23 ± 7 years is appropriate but not 23.4 ± 6.6 years; the loss of
accuracy is not important because the measurement is not significant to the first
decimal place. However 23.4 ± 0.6 is correct because this measurement is accurate
to the first decimal place • Use the appropriate number of digits: two significant digits
for standard deviations (one digit if the standard deviation is for a descriptive statistic
like height or weight, or if precision is not important); two decimal places for
correlations, two significant digits for percentages. Examples: 73 ± 5; r = 0.45; r =
0.08; 16%; 1.3%; 0.013%. • If it is more convenient to show p values than confidence
limits, show the exact p value to one significant digit (for p < 0.1) or two decimal
places (for p > 0.10). Rather than using p < 0.05 or p > 0.05 it might be better to use
the following examples: p = 0.03; p = 0.007; p = 0.09; p = 0.74 when the exact p
value is important for anyone using your data to calculate confidence limits or using
your data in a meta-analysis. If you have a table or figure with a large number of
comparisons it may be simpler to use the p < notation to refer to a group of
observations. • Make sure the significant digits of the mean and standard deviation
are consistent. Examples: 20 ± 13; 0.020 ± 0.013; 156 ± 7; 1.56 ± 0.07; 15600 ± 700
NOT 1.6 ± 0.07 or 20 ± 13.1 • Use the standard deviation as a measure of spread.
Do not use the standard error of the mean. • Show 95% confidence intervals for
effect statistics like a correlation coefficient or the difference between means. •
Interpret the magnitudes of outcomes in a qualitative way, using both your
experience of the magnitudes that matter in this area of human endeavor and also
any published scales of magnitudes. You must interpret the observed effects and the
confidence limits. For example, you might have to say that you observed a moderate
effect, but that the true value of the effect could be anything between trivial and very
strong. If an effect does not achieve statistical significance, then it is improper to say
the value is greater or smaller than control. You can indicate a trend or a tendency in
qualitative terms but one cannot absolutely say the values differ. 16 Tables
Guidelines for effective results sections in scientific reports. Question to address:
How to address it:: What did you observe? For each experiment or procedure: •
Briefly describe experiment without detail of Methods section (a sentence or two). •
Report main result(s), supported by selected data: o Representative: most common
o Best Case: best example of ideal or exception Additional tips: 1. Order multiple
results logically: o from most to least important o from simple to complex o organ by
organ; chemical class by chemical class 2. Use past tense to describe what
happened. 3. What to avoid: o Don't simply repeat table data; select. o Don't
interpret results. o Avoid extra words: "It is shown in Table 1 that X induced Y" --> "X
induced Y (Table 1)." • Create tables with the Table pull-down in Word. Do not use
tabs. • Examples of a simple and complex table are shown below. Example of a
simple table Table 1. Effect of ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) on protein content
and lysosomal latency in proximally denervated soleus. Injection Protein
(mg/muscle) Lysosomal latency (%) Vehicle 8.8 ± 0.9 43 ± 4 CNTF 8.0 ±0.8* 33 ± 3*
Proximally denervated muscles were injected (4 µl/muscle/100g body weight) daily,
beginning immediately after denervation, with vehicle only (PBS with 0.1% bovine
serum albumin ) or CNTF (5 µg/ml PBS ). At 3 days after denervation, protein
content (Biuret method) and lysosomal latency were determined as described in
Materials and Methods. *Significantly different from vehicle only (P