Geotechnical Engineering-I (BCE04003)

Course Content
Module-I
Introduction: Origin of soils, formation of soils, clay mineralogy and soil structure, basic terminology
and their relations, index properties of soils. Soil classif ication: Particle size distribution, use of
particle size distribution curve, Particle size classif ication, textural classif ication, HRB classif ication,
Unif ied classif ication system, Indian standard soil classif ication system, Field identif ication of soils.
capillary tension, capillary siphoning. Stress conditions in soil: Total stress, pore pressure and
effective stress
Module-II
Permeability: Darcy‘s law, permeability, factors affecting permeability, determination of
permeability (laboratory and f ie ld methods), permeability of stratif ie d soil deposits. Estimation of
yield from wells.
Seepage analysis: Seepage pressure, quick condition, Laplace equation for two –dimensional f low,
f low net, properties and methods of construction of f low net, application of f low net, seepage
through anisotropic soil and non-homogenous soil, seepage through earth dam.Inverted f ilter and
design of inverted filter.
Module-III
Soil compaction: Compaction mechanism, factors affecting compaction, effect of
compaction on soil properties, density moisture content relationship in compaction test,
standard and modif ie d proctor compaction tests, f ie ld compaction methods, relative
compaction, compaction control.
Soil consolidation: Introduction, spring analogy, one dimensional consolidation, Terzaghi‘s
theory of one dimensional consolidation, consolidation test, determination of coef ficient of
consolidation
Module-IV
Shear strength of soils: Mohr‘s stress circle, theory of failure for soils, determination of
shear strength (direct shear test, tri-axial compression test, unconf ined compression test,
van shear test), shear characteristics of cohesionless soils and cohesive soils.
Module-V
Stabilization of soil: Introduction, mechanical stabilization, cement stabilization, lime
stabilization, bituminous stabilization, chemical stabilization, thermal stabilization, electrical
stabilization, Introduction to modern methods of stabilization
Reference Books:
Text Book:Geotechnical Engineering, C. Venkatramaiah, New Age International publishers.
Reference Books:
1. Geotechnical Engineering, T.N. Ramamurthy & T.G. Sitharam, S. Chand & Co.
2. Soil Mechanics, T.W. Lambe& Whiteman, Wiley Eastern Ltd, Nw Delhi.
Introduction:
 The term ‘Soil’ has different meanings in different scientific fields.
 It has originated from the Latin word Solum.
 To an agricultural scientist, it means ‘‘the loose material on the earth’s crust consisting of
disintegrated rock with an admixture of organic matter, which supports plant life’’.
 To a geologist, it means the disintegrated rock material which has not been transported from the
place of origin.
 But, to a civil engineer, the term ‘soil’ means, the loose unconsolidated inorganic material on the
earth’s crust produced by the disintegration of rocks, overlying hard rock with or without organic
matter.
 Foundations of all structures have to be placed on or in such soil, which is the primary reason for
our interest as Civil Engineers in its engineering behaviour.
 Soil may remain at the place of its origin or it may be transported by various natural agencies. It is
said to be ‘residual’ in the earlier situation and ‘transported’ in the latter.
 Magma is extremely hot liquid
and se mi-liquid rock locate d
under Earth's surface.
 Earth has a layered structure that
consists of the inner core, outer
core, mantle, and crust. Much of
the planet's mantle consists of
magma.
 This magma can push through
hole s or cra cks in the crust,
causing a volcanic eruption.
 Origin of soils

 Soil is formed by the process of ‘Weathering’ of rocks,

that is, disintegration and decomposition of rocks and
minerals at or near the earth’s surface through the
actions of natural or mechanical and chemical agents
into smaller and smaller grains.
 The factors of weathering may be atmospheric, such as
changes in temperature and pressure; erosion and
transportation by wind, water and glaciers; chemical
action such as crystal growth, oxidation, hydration,
carbonation and leaching by water, especially rainwater,
with time.

Rock cycle
Origin of soils
 The mineral grains that form the solid phase of a soil aggregate are the product of rock
weathering.
 The size of the individual grains varies over a wide range.
 Many of the physical properties of soil are dictated by the size, shape, and chemical
composition of the grains.
 To better understand these factors, one must be familiar with the basic types of rock
that form the earth’s crust, the rock-forming minerals, and the weathering process.
On the basis of their mode of origin, rocks can be divided into three basic types:
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous Rock

 Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of molten magma ejected from deep within the
earth’s mantle. After ejection by either fissure eruption or volcanic eruption, some of the molten
magma cools on the surface of the earth.
 Sometimes magma ceases its mobility below the earth’s surface and cools to form intrusive
igneous rocks that are called plutons.
 The types of igneous rock formed by the cooling of magma depend on factors such as the
composition of the magma and the rate of cooling associated with it.
Weathering

 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical processes into
smaller pieces.
 Mechanical weathering may be caused by the expansion and contraction of rocks from the
continuous gain and loss of heat, which results in ultimate disintegration.
 Frequently, water seeps into the pores and existing cracks in rocks.
 As the temperature drops, the water freezes and expands. The pressure exerted by ice because
of volume expansion is strong enough to break down even large rocks.
 Other physical agents that help disintegrate rocks are glacier ice, wind, the running water of
streams and rivers, and ocean waves.
 It is important to realize that in mechanical weathering, large rocks are broken down into smaller
pieces without any change in the chemical composition.
Transportation of Weathering Products
 The products of weathering may stay in the same place or may be moved to other places by ice,
water, wind, and gravity.
 The soils formed by the weathered products at their place of origin are called residual soils. An
important characteristic of residual soil is the gradation of particle size.
 Fine grained soil is found at the surface, and the grain size increases with depth. At greater
depths, angular rock fragments may also be found.
The transported soils may be classif ie d into several groups, depending on their mode of
transportation and deposition:
1. Glacial soils—formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers
2. Alluvial soils—transported by running water and deposited along streams
3. Lacustrine soils—formed by deposition in quiet lakes
4. Marine soils—formed by deposition in the seas
5. Aeolian soils—transported and deposited by wind
6. Colluvial soils—formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity, such as during
landslides
Sedimentary Rock
 The deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay formed by weathering may become compacted by
overburden pressure and cemented by agents like iron oxide, calcite, dolomite, and quartz.
 Cementing agents are generally carried in solution by ground-water. They f ill the spaces between
particles and form sedimentary rock. Rocks formed in this way are called detrital sedimentary
rocks
Metamorphic Rock
 Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition and texture of rocks (without melting) by
heat and pressure. During metamorphism, new minerals are formed, and mineral grains are sheared to
give a foliated-texture to metamorphic rock.
 Gneiss is a metamorphic rock derived from high-grade regional metamorphism of igneous rocks, such as
granite, gabbro, and diorite.
 Low-grade metamorphism of shales and mudstones results in slate.
 The clay minerals in the shale become chlorite and mica by heat; hence, slate is composed primarily of
mica flakes and chlorite.
STRUCTURE OF SOILS

 The ‘structure’ of a soil may be def ined as the manner of arrangement and state of aggregation
of soil grains.
 In a broader sense, consideration of mineralogical composition, electrical properties, orientation
and shape of soil grains, nature and properties of soil water and the interaction of soil water and
soil grains, also may be included in the study of soil structure, which is typical for transported or
sediments soils.
 Structural composition of sedimented soils inf luences, many of their important engineering
properties such as permeability, compressibility and shear strength.
Hence, a study of the structure of soils is important.
The following types of structure are commonly studied:
(a) Single-grained structure
(b) Honey-comb structure
(c) Flocculent structure
(d) Dispersed structure
(e) Coarse-grained skeleton
(f) Clay-Matrix structure
(a) Single-grained structure

 Single-grained structure is characteristic of coarse

grained
soils, with a particle size greater than 0.02 mm.
 Gravitational forces predominate the surface forces and
hence grain to grain contact results.
 The deposition may occur in a loose state, with large
voids or in a sense state, with less of voids.

Fig.1 Single-grained
structure
(b) Honey-comb structure

 This structure can occur only in f in e-grained soils,

especially in silt and rock flour.
 Due to the relatively smaller size of grains, besides
gravitational forces, inter-particle surface forces also
play an important role in the process of settling down.
 Miniature arche s are forme d, w hich bridge ove r
relatively large void spaces.
 This results in the formation of a honey-comb structure,
each cell of a honey-comb being made up of numerous
individual soil grains.
 The structure has a large void space and may carry high
loads without a significant volume change.
Fig. 2 Honey-comb structure
 T h e st ru ct u re ca n be broke n dow n by e x t e rn a l
disturbances.
 (c) Flocculent structure

 This structure is characteristic of f ine-grained soils such

as clays.
 Inter-particle forces play a predominant role in the
deposition. Mutual repulsion of the particles may be
eliminated by means of an appropriate chemical; this
will result in grains coming closer together to form a
‘floc’.
 Formation of f locs is ‘f locculation’. But the f locs tend to
settle in a honeycomb structure, in which in place of
each grain, a floc occurs.
 Thus, grains grouping around void spaces larger than
the grain-size are f locs and f locs grouping around void Fig. 3 Flocculent structure
spaces larger than even the flocs result in the formation
of a ‘flocculent’ structure.
 Very f in e particles or particles of colloidal
size (< 0.001 mm) may be in a flocculated or
dispersed state.
 The f la ky particles are oriented edge-to-
edge or edge-to-face with respect to one
a n ot h e r in t h e ca se of a f loccu la t e d
structure.
 Flaky particles of clay minerals tend to from
a card house structure (Lambe, 1953), when
flocculated.
Fig. 4 Card-house structure of flaky
particles
 (d) Dispersed structure

 When inter-particle repulsive forces are brought back

into play either by remoulding or by the transportation
process, a more parallel arrangement or reorientation of
the particles occurs .
 This means more face-to-face contacts occur for the
f laky particles when these are in a dispersed state. In
practice, mixed structures occur, especially in typical
marine soils.

Fig. 5 Dispersed structure

(e) Coarse-grained skeleton:
 A coarse grained skeleton is a composite structure which is
formed when the soil contains particles of different types.
 When the amount of bulky, cohesionless particles is large
compared with that of f ine-grained clay particles, the bulky
grains are in particle-to-particle contact.
 The space between the bulky grains is occupied by clay
particles, known as binders.
(f) Clay-Matrix structure
 Clay matrix structure is also a composite structure formed
by soils of different types.
 However, in this case, the amount of clay particles is very
large as compared with bulky coarse grained particles. Fig. 6 (a) Coarse-grained skeleton (b)
 The clay forms a matrix in which bulky grains appear Clay-Matrix structure
floating without touching one another.
Clay Minerology

 The coarse grained soils generally contain mineral quartz and feldsfar. These mineral are strong and
electrically inert.
 The behaviour of such soil does not depend upon the nature of the mineral present.
 The behaviour of fine-grained soils, on the other hand, depends to a large extent on the nature and
characteristics of the minerals present.
 The most significant properties of clay depend upon the type of mineral.
 The crystalline minerals whose surface activity is high are clay mineral.
 These clay minerals impart cohesion and plasticity.
 The study of clay minerals is essential for understanding the behaviour of clayey soils.
 Clay minerology is the science dealing with the structure of clay minerals on macroscopic, molecular
and atomic scale.
 The study of clay minerals is important for particles smaller than about 2 micron size.
Gravitational and surface forces

 The gravitational force in a soil particles is proportional to its mass. As the specific gravity of
particles is approximately constant, the gravitational force is proportional to the volume of the
particle.
 The volume depends upon the particle size.
 Thus, the gravitational force on a particle is related to the particle size.
 Bonding or surface forces between particles depend upon the surface area of the particles and
not upon the volume.
 The surface area also depends upon the particle size.
 However, the surface forces become more important only when the particle size is small.
 As the particle size decreases, the effect of surface forces on a particle becomes more
predominant than the gravitational force.
Primary Valence bonds

Primary valence bonds hold together the atoms of a molecule. These are of two types.
(1) Ionic bond, (2) Covalent bond
(1) Ionic bond
 In an atom, the electrons carrying a negative charge revolve around nucleus.
 Some elements have an excess or a deficiency of the electrons in the outer shell.
 One atoms joins another atom by adding some of the electrons to its shell or by losing some of
electrons from its outer shell.
For example, am atom of sodium has an excess electron in its outer shell and an atom of chloride
has one deficient electron in its outer shell.
A molecule of sodium chloride is formed by ionic bond when an atom of sodium combines with an
atom of chlorine.
(2) Covalent bond
 Covalent bond develops between two atoms by sharing of electrons in their outer shell.
 Two atoms, each lacking one electron, may combine by sharing of a pair of electrons.

Hydrogen Bond
 The hydrogen atom has only one electron. The number of electrons required to fill the first shell is 2.
 The atom can be considered either as a cation ( with one excess electron) or an anion ( with one
electron deficiency).
 The bond between the hydrogen cation (H+) and anions of two atoms of
another element is called the hydrogen bond.
 The hydrogen atom is attracted by two atoms instead of only one atom.
 The most common example of the hydrogen bond is the bond between the
hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms in a water molecule.
Table 1 Ionic structure of various atoms
Secondary valence bons
 Secondary valence bonds are intermolecular bonds which develop between atoms in one
molecule to atoms in another molecule.
 A molecule is electrically neutral i.e. it has no charge.
 However, the construction of the molecule may be such that the centres of the negative
and positive charges do not exactly coincide.
 The molecule may behave like a small bar magnet, two electrical poles.

Fig. A cation joining

two anions
Basic structural units of clay minerals

1. Tetrahedral Unit

 A tetrahedral unit consists of a silicon atom (Si 4 + )

surrounded by four oxygen atoms (O2-), forming the
shape of a tetrahedron.
 A number of tetrahedral unit combine to form a sheet,
w ith oxygen atoms at the base is shared by tw o
tetrahedral.
 A silica sheet is formed by tetrahedral unit.
2.Octahedral unit

 An octahedral unit consists of six hydroxyls (OH-)

forming a configuration of an octahedron and having
one aluminium atom at the centre.
 Several octahedral unit combine to form gibbsite
sheet.
Kaolinite Mineral

 Kaolinite is the most common mineral of the kaolinite

group of minerals.
 Its basic structural unit consists of an alumina sheet
(gibbsite) (G) combined with silica sheet (S).
 Tips of the silica sheet and one base of the alumina
sheet form a common interface.
 The structural units join together by hydrogen bond,
which develops between the oxygen of silica sheet and
the hydroxyls of alumina sheet.
Montmorillonite mineral

 Montmorillonite mineral is the most common mineral of

the montmorillonite group of minerals.
 The basic structural unit consists of an alumina sheet
sandwiched between two silica sheets.
 The two successive structural units are joined together
by a link between oxygen ions of the two silica sheet.
 The link is due to natural attraction for the cations in the
intervening space and due to Vander Waal forces.
 The negatively charged surfaces of the silica sheet
attract water in the space between two structural units.
 Illite Mineral

 Illite is the main mineral of the illite group.

 The properties of the mineral illite is somewhat intermediate
between that of kaolinite and montmorillonite.
 The bond between the non-exchangeable potassium K+ ions,
though stronger than that in montmorillonite, is considerably
weaker than hydrogen bond of kaolinite.
 The swelling of Illite is more than that of kaolinite, but less than that
of montmorillonite.
Diffuse double layer

Fig.1 Attraction of water molecules to

soil surface
Diffuse double layer
 The cations attracted to a clay mineral surface also
try to move from the surface because of their
thermal energy.
 The net effect of the forces due to attraction and
that due to repulsion is that the forces of attraction
decrease exponentially with an increase in distance
from the clay particles surface.
 The layer extending from the clay particle surface to
the limit of attraction is known as diffuse double
layer.
Adsorbed Water
 The water held by electro-chemical forces existing on the soil surface is adsorbed water.
 As the adsorbed water is under the influence of electrical forces, its properties are different from
normal water.
Basic terminology and their relations
 Soil is a complex physical system. A mass of soil includes accumulated solid particles or soil
grains and the void spaces that exist between the particles.
 The void spaces may be partially or completely filled with water or some other liquid. Void spaces
not occupied by water or any other liquid are filled with air or some other gas.
 ‘Phase’ means any homogeneous part of the system different from other parts of the system and
separated from them by abrupt transition.
In other words, each physically or chemically different, homogeneous, and mechanically separable
part of a system constitutes a distinct phase.
A system consisting of more than one phase is said to be heterogeneous.

(a) Actual soil mass, (b) Representation of soil mass by phase diagram
Basic terminology and their relations

(a) Saturated soil, (b) Dry soil represented as two-phase systems

 BASIC TERMINOLOGY

Porosity
Porosity’ of a soil mass is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total
volume of the soil mass.
It is denoted by the letter symbol n and is commonly expressed as a
percentage:

Void Ratio
‘Void ratio’ of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the volume
of voids to the volume of solids in the soil mass. It is denoted
by the letter symbol e and is generally expressed as a
decimal fraction : Soil-phase diagram (volumes and weights of phases)
Degree of Saturation

‘Degree of saturation’ of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the volume of water in the voids to the
volume of voids. It is designated by the letter symbol S and is commonly expressed as a percentage :

The degree of saturation is between zero and 100%, the soil mass being said to be ‘partially’
saturated—the most common condition in nature.
Percent Air Voids
‘Percent air voids’ of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the volume of air voids to the total
volume of the soil mass. It is denoted by the letter symbol na and is commonly expressed as a
percentage :

Air Content
‘Air content’ of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the volume of air voids to the total volume
of voids. It is designated by the letter symbol ac and is commonly expressed as a percentage

Water (Moisture) Content

‘Water content’ or ‘Moisture content’ of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the weight of
water to the weight of solids (dry weight) of the soil mass. It is denoted by the letter symbol w
and is commonly expressed as a percentage :
In the field of Geology, water content is defined as the ratio of weight of
water to the total weight of soil mass ;
For the purpose of the above definitions, only the free water in the pore
spaces or voids is considered.
Bulk (Mass) Unit Weight
‘Bulk unit weight’ or ‘Mass unit weight’ of a soil mass is defined as the weight per unit
volume of the soil mass. It is denoted by the letter symbol Ƴ.

The term ‘density’ is loosely used for ‘unit weight’ in soil mechanics, although, strictly
speaking, density means the mass per unit volume and not weight.
Unit Weight of Solids
Unit weight of solids’ is the weight of soil solids per unit volume of solids alone. It is also sometimes
called the ‘absolute unit weight’ of a soil. It is denoted by the letter symbol
Unit Weight of Water
Unit weight of water’ is the weight per unit volume of water. It is denoted by the letter
symbol

It should be noted that the unit weight of water varies in a small range with
temperature.
It has a convenient value at 4°C, which is the standard temperature for this purpose.
Saturated Unit Weight

The ‘Saturated unit weight’ is defined as the bulk unit weight of the soil mass in the saturated
condition. This is denoted by the letter symbol γsat.
Submerged (Buoyant) Unit Weight
The ‘Submerged unit weight’ or ‘Buoyant unit weight’ of a soil is its unit weight in the submerged condition.
In other words, it is the submerged weight of soil solids (Ws)sub per unit of total volume, V of the soil. It is
denoted by the letter symbol γ′ :

(Ws)sub is equal to the weight of solids in air minus the weight of water displaced by the
solids. This leads to :

Since the soil is submerged, the voids must be full of water ; the total volume V, then, must be
equal to (Vs + Vw) . (Ws)sub may now be written as :
Dry Unit Weight

The ‘Dry unit weight’ is defined as the weight of soil solids per unit of total volume ; the
former is obtained by drying the soil, while the latter would be got prior to drying. The dry
unit weight is denoted by the letter symbol γd and is given by :

Mass Specific Gravity

The ‘Mass specific gravity’ of a soil may be defined as the ratio of mass or bulk unit
weight of soil to the unit weight of water at the standard temperature (4°C). This is
denoted by the letter symbol Gm and is given by :

This is also referred to as ‘bulk specific gravity’ or ‘apparent specific gravity’.

Specific Gravity of Solids
The ‘specific gravity of soil solids’ is defined as the ratio of the unit weight of solids
(absolute unit weight of soil) to the unit weight of water at the standard temperature (4°
C). This is denoted by the letter symbol G and is given by

This is also known as ‘Absolute specific gravity’ and, in fact, more popularly as ‘Grain
Specific Gravity’. Since this is relatively constant value for a given soil, it enters into many
computations in the field of soil mechanics.
Specific Gravity of Water

Specific gravity of water’ is defined as the ratio of the unit weight of water to the unit weight
of water at the standard temperature (4°C). It is denoted by the letter symbol, Gw and is
given by :
Soil phase diagram showing additional equivalents on the weight
side
Relationships Involving Porosity, Void Ratio, Degree of Saturation, Water Content,
Percent Air Voids and Air Content
These interrelationships between n and e facilitate computation of one if the other is
known.
Relationships Involving Unit Weights, Grain Specific Gravity, Void Ratio, and Degree of
Saturation

This is a general equation from which the unit weights corresponding to the saturated and dry
states of soil may be got by substituting S = 1 and S = 0 respectively (as a fraction).
Unit-phase Diagram
The soil-phase diagram may also be shown with the volume of solids as unity ; in such a case,
it is referred to as the ‘Unit-phase Diagram
Volume-Mass relationship
Three phase diagram in terms of void ratio
Three phase diagram in terms of porosity
Relationship between void ratio and water content
Expressions for mass density in terms of water content
Relationship between dry mass density and percentage air voids
Basic relationship
Example 1: One cubic metre of wet soil weighs 19.80 kN. If the specific gravity of soil
particles
is 2.70 and water content is 11%, find the void ratio, dry density and degree of
saturation.

Example 2: Determine the (i) Water content, (ii) Dry density, (iii) Bulk density, (iv) Void ratio
and (v) Degree of saturation from the following data :
Ex 2.1
Ex 2.2
Ex 2.4
Ex 2.5
Ex 2.6
 Index properties of soil
• As an aid for the soil and foundation engineer, soils have been divide into basic categories
based upon certain physical characteristics and properties.
• The categories have been relatively broad in scope because of the wide range of
characteristics of the various soils that exist in nature.
• For a proper evaluation of the suitability of soil for use as foundation or construction
material, information about its properties, in addition to classif ication, is frequently
necessary.
• Those properties which help to assess the engineering behaviour of a soil and which assist
in determining its classification accurately are termed ‘Index Properties’.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL SOLIDS

• Specific gravity of the soil solids is useful in the determination of void-ratio, degree of
saturation, etc., besides the ‘Critical Hydraulic gradient’, and ‘Zero-air-voids’ in
compaction.
• It is useful in computing the unit weight of the soil under different conditions and also
in the determination of particle size by wet analysis.
• Hence, the specific gravity of soil solids should be determined with great precision.
Methods:
(1) Density bottle method (2) Pycnometer method (3) Measuring flask
method
(4) Gas jar method (5) Shrinkage limit method
The standardized detailed procedure for the determination of the specific gravity of soil solids
is contained in the Indian Standard Specification – “IS:2720 (Part-III)-1980,

A 50-cc density bottle or a 500-cc pycnometer may be used. While the density bottle is the
more accurate and suitable for all types of soils, the pycnometer is used only for coarse-
grained soils.
Grain specific gravities of some soils
The wt of solids Ws = W2 – W1, from (a) and (b)
Wt of water = W3 – W2, from (b) and (c)
Wt of distilled water = W4 – W1, from (a) and (d)
∴ Weight of water having the same volume as that of soil
solids = (W4 – W1) – (W3 – W2).
By definition, and by Archimedes’ principle,

Fig. Determination of grain specific gravity

DENSITY INDEX
• Density Index (or relative density according to older terminology) of a soil, ID, indicates the
relative compactness of the soil mass. This is used in relation to coarse-grained soils or
sands.
• In a dense condition, the void ratio is low whereas in a loose condition, the void ratio is high.
• Thus, the in-place void ratio may be determined and compared, with the void ratio in the
loosest state or condition and that in the densest state or condition.
The density index may be considered zero if the soil is in
its loosest state and unity if it is in the densest state.
Consistent with this idea, the density index may be defined
as follows:

Fig. Relative states of packing of a

coarse-grained soil
 Sometimes ID is expressed as a percentage also. Equation may be recast in terms of
the dry unit weights as follows:

These forms are more convenient since the dry unit weights may be determined directly.
However, if it is desired to determine the void ratio in any state, the following relationships
may be used

Assuming that the sand is in the loosest state: Assuming that the sand is in the densest state:

for which the corresponding value of density

for which the corresponding value of density index index is taken as unity.
is taken as zero.
It can be understood that the density index is a function of the void ratio:
Table Representative values of Density Index and typical unit weights (Mc
Carthy, 1977)
 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (MECHANICAL ANALYSIS)

This classif ication test determines the range of sizes of particles in the soil and the
percentage of particles in each of these size ranges.
This is also called ‘grain-size distribution’; ‘mechanical analysis’ means the separation of a
soil into its different size fractions.
The particle-size distribution is found in two stages:
(i) Sieve analysis, for the coarse fraction.
(ii) Sedimentation analysis or wet analysis, for the fine fraction.
‘Sieving’ is the most direct method for determining particle sizes, but there are practical
lower limits to sieve openings that can be used for soils. This lower limit is approximately at
the smallest size attributed to sand particles (75μ or 0.075 mm).
Sieving is a screening process in which coarser fractions of soil are separated by means
of a series of graded mesh. Mechanical analysis is one of the oldest test methods for soils.
Nomenclature of Grain Sizes
Natural soils are mixtures of particles of various sizes and it is necessary to have a
nomenclature
for the various fractions comprising particles lying between certain specified size limits.
Particle size is customarily expressed in terms of a single diameter. This is taken as the
size of
the smallest square hole in a sieve, through which the particle will pass
Sieve Analysis
Table Certain I.S. Sieves and their aperture sizes

Staking of sieves
Fig. Particle-size distribution curve
 Sedimentation Analysis (Wet Analysis)

• The soil particles less than 75–μ size can be further analysed for the distribution of the
various grain-sizes of the order of silt and clay be ‘sedimentation analysis’ or ‘wet analysis’.
• The soil fraction is kept in suspension in a liquid medium, usually water.
• The particles descend at velocities, related to their sizes, among other things.
• The analysis is based on ‘Stokes Law’ for what is known as the ‘terminal velocity’ of a
sphere falling through an infinite liquid medium.
• If a single sphere is allowed to fall in an inf inite liquid medium without interference, its
velocity first increases under the influence of gravity, but soon attains a constant value.
• This constant velocity, which is maintained indef initely unless the boundary conditions
change, is known as the ‘terminal velocity’. The principle is obvious; coarser particles tend
to settle faster than finer ones.
 Since, usually D is to be expressed in mm, while v is to be expressed in cm/sec, an μτ
in
N-sec/m2, Eq. may be rewritten as follows:

Here γs and γτ are in kN/m3, μτ in N-sec/m2, and D in mm; v will then be in cm/sec.
Usually, the liquid medium is water; then γτ and μτ will be substituted by γw and μw. Then Eq. will
become

It should be noted that γw and μw vary with temperature, the latter varying more significantly than the
former. Noting that γs = G.γw
Using the approximate version of Stoke’s law, one can determine the time required for a
particle of a specified diameter to settle through a particular depth; e.g., a particle of
0.06 mm diameter settles through 10 cm in about 1/2 minute, while one of 0.002 mm
diameter
settles in about 7 hours 38 minutes.

• Stokes’ Law is considered valid for particle

diameters ranging from 0.2 to 0.0002 mm.
• For par ticle size s gre ate r than 0.2 mm,
turbulent motion is set up and for particle
size s smalle r than 0.002 mm, Brow nian
motion is set up.
• In both these cases Stokes’ law is not valid.
• The general procedure for sedimentation
analysis, which may be performed either with
the aid of a pipette or a hydrometer
Pipette analysis
In this method, 500ml of soil suspension is required . Fig
shows 10ml capacity pipette used for extraction of the
soil sample. The pipette is fitted with a suction inlet.

Calibration of pipette
• For determination of volume of pipette, it is calibrated before use.
For calibration, the nozzle of the pipette is immersed in distilled
water.
• The stop cock S is closed. The three way stop cock T is opened,
and the water is sucked up into the pipette until it rises in safety
bulb.
• The stop cock T is then closed and the pipette is taken out.
• The stop cock T is now turned the way round to connect it to the
wash outlet to drain the excess water from the safety bulb.
• The stop cock is then turned the other way round to discharge the
water contained in the pipette into a glass weighing bottle.
• The mass of water in the bottle in grams is equal to the volume of
water in ml. Pipette method
• An appropriate quantity of an oven-dried soil sample, f iner than 75–μ size, is mixed with a
known volume (V) of distilled water in jar.
• The sample is pretreated with an oxidizing agent and an acid to remove organic matter and
calcium compounds. Addition of hydrogen peroxide an heating would remove organic matter.
• Treatment with 0.2 N hydrochloric acid would remove calcium compounds.
• Later, a def locculating or a dispersing agent, such as sodium hexametaphosphate is added
to the solution.
• The mixture is shaken thoroughly by means of a mechanical stirrer and the test is started,
keeping the jar vertical.
• The soil particles are assumed to be uniformly distributed throughout the suspension, at the
instant of commencement of the test. After the lapse time t, only those particles which have
settled less than depth H would remain in suspension.
• The size of the particles, f iner than those which have settled to depth H or more at this
instant, can be found .
• Hence, sampling at different time intervals (by pipette), or determining the specific gravity of
the suspension (by hydrometer), at this sampling depth, would provide the means of
determining the content of particles of different sizes.
Hydrometer Analysis

The hydrometer method differs from the pipette analysis in that the weights of solids per ml in the
suspension at the chosen depth at chosen instants of time are obtained indirectly by reading the
specific gravity of the soil suspension with the aid of a hydrometer.

• Hydrometer is a device which is used to measure the specific gravity of

liquid. .
• However, for a soil suspension, the particles start settling down right
from the start, and hence the unit weight of the suspension varies from
top to bottom.
• It can be established that measurement of unit weight of the suspension
at a known depth at a particular time provides a point on the grain-size
distribution curve.
Hydrometer
 Let the percentage of weight of these particles to the original weight of the soil
particles in the suspension by N.

Wt of solids per unit volume of the suspension at depth z = (N/100) . (W/V)

By similar reasoning as for Eq. the unit weight of the suspension, γs, at depth z and
at time t, is given by:

Hence, if γz is obtained by a hydrometer, N can be got, thus getting a point on the grain size
distribution curve.

In pipette analysis, the sampling depth is kept fixed; however, in the hydrometer analysis, the sampling
depth (known as the effective depth) goes on increasing with time since the particles are allowed to
settle.
 Calibration of hydrometer
• Let h be the higher of the bulb and H be the height of
any reading Rh from the top of the bulb or neck.
• The jar with a soil suspension is shown in Fig. (b); the
surface is xx and the level at which the specif ic gravity
of the suspension is being measured is designated yy,
the depth being He, the effective depth.
• As shown in Fig. (c), on immersion of the hydrometer
into the suspension in the jar, the levels xx and yy will
rise to x′x′ and y′y′ respectively
• If Vh is the volume of the hydrometer and A is the area of
cross-section of the jar containing the suspension, the rise
in the level xx is given by Vh/A.
• The rise in the level yy will be approximately v h/2A since
the effective depth is reckoned to the middle level of the
hydrometer bulb.
• The level y′y′ correspond to this mid-level, but the soil
particles at this level are in the same concentration as they
w e re at y y, as the le ve l y y has me re ly rise n to y ′y ′
consequent to the immersion of the hydrometer in the
suspension.
Fig. Calibration graph between hydrometer reading and
effective depth
Corrections to Hydrometer Readings

The following three corrections are necessary:

1. Meniscus correction
2. Temperature correction
3. Deflocculating agent correction

Meniscus Correction

• The reading should be taken at the lower level of the meniscus.

• However, since the soil suspension is opaque, the reading is taken at the upper meniscus.
• Therefore, a correction is required to be applied to the observed reading.
• Since the hydrometer readings increase downward on the stem, the meniscus correction (Cm) is
obviously positive.
• The magnitude of the correction can be got by placing the hydrometer in distilled water in the same
jar and noting the difference in reading at the top and bottom levels of the meniscus.
 Temperature Correction

• Hydrometers are usually calibrated at a temperature of 27°C.

• If the temperature at the time of conducting the test is different, a correction will be required to
be applied to the hydrometer. reading on this account.
• For this purpose, the hydrometer is placed in clean distilled water at different temperatures and
a calibration chart prepared for the correction required.
• If the temperature at the time of test is more than that of calibration of the hydrometer, the
observed reading will be less and the correction (Ct) would be positive and vice versa

Deflocculating Agent Correction

The addition of the deflocculating agent increases the density of the suspension and thus
necessitates
a correction
The corrected(Cd) which is always
hydrometer readingnegative.
R may be got from the observed reading R ′ by applying
h h
the composite correction ‘C’:
Calculations:
After obtaining the corrected hydrometer readings Rh′ at various elapsed times t, and the
corresponding effective depths He,
Particle size distribution curve
The particle size distribution curve is also known as ,gradation curve represents the distribution of
particles of different sizes in the soil mass.

Particle size curve

Grading of soils
The uniformity of soil is expressed qualitatively by a term known as uniformity coefficient Cu
Plasticity characteristics of soil

• The plasticity of a soil is its ability to undergo deformation without cracking and
fracturing.
• A plastic soil can be moulded into various shapes when it is wet.
• Plasticity is an important index property of fine-grained soils, especially clayey soils.
Plasticity in soils is due presence of clay minerals.
• The water molecules are dipolar and are attracted towards the clay surface.
• The phenomenon is known as adsorption of water and the water so attracted to the
clay surface is called adsorbed water. The plasticity of soil is due to adsorbed water.
• The clay particles are separated by layers of adsorbed water which allow them to slip
over one another.
• When the soil is subjected to deformations, the particles do not return to their original
positions, with the result that the deformations are plastic.
• As the water content of the soil is reduced, the plasticity of the soil is reduced.
• Ultimately, the soil becomes dry when the particles are cemented together as a solid
mass.
Consistency limits
• The consistency of fine-grained soil is the physical state in which it exists.
• It is used to denote the degree of firmness of a soil.
• Consistency of a soil is indicated by such terms as soft, firm or hard.
• In 1911, a Swedish agriculture engineer Atterberg mentioned that a f ine-grained soil can
exist in four states, namely liquid, plastic, semi-solid or solid state.
• The water content at which the soil changes from one state to other are known as
consistency limits or Atterberg limits.
• The water content alone is not an adequate index property of a soil. At the same water
content, one soil may be relatively soft, whereas another soil may be hard. However the
soils with the same consistency limits behave somewhat in a similar manner. Thus
consistency limits are very important index properties of fine grained soil.
 Fig. Variation of volume of soil mass with
Fig. Different states of soil variation of water content
Liquid limit

• The liquid limit is the water content at which the soil changes from the liquid state to the
plastic state.
• At the liquid limit, the clay is practically liquid, but possesses a small shearing strength.
• The shearing strength at that stage is the smallest value that can measured in the
Laboratory.
• The liquid limit of soil depends upon the clay mineral present.
• The stronger the surface charge and the thinner the particles, the greater will be the
amount of adsorbed water and, therefore, the higher will be liquid limit.
The liquid limit is determined in the Laboratory is either by Casagrande’s apparatus or by Cone
penetration method.
Fig. Liquid limit apparatus
Fig. Flow curve
Flow index:
Cone penetration method

Where y (in mm) is the penetration when the

water content is wy and wl is liquid limit

Fig. Cone penetrometer

 Plastic limit
• Plastic limit is the water content below which the soil stops behaving as a plastic material.
• ‘Plastic limit’ (PL or wp) is the water content at which the soil tends to pass from the plastic
state to the semi-solid state of consistency.
• Thus, this is the minimum water content at which the change in shape of the soil is
accompanied by visible cracks, i.e., when worked upon, the soil crumbles.
• It begins to crumble when rolled into a thread of soil of 3 mm diameter.
• At this water content, the soil loses its plasticity and passes to a semi-solid state.
 Shrinkage limit
• Shrinkage limit is the smallest water content at which the soil is saturated.
• It is also defined as the maximum water content at which a reduction of water content will not
cause a decrease in the volume of the soil mass.
• Shrinkage limit’ (SL or ws) is the water content at which the soil tends to pass from the semi-
solid to the solid state.
• It is that water content at which a soil, regardless, of further drying, remains constant in
volume.
• In other words, it is the maximum water content at which further reduction in water content
will not cause a decrease in volume of the soil mass, the loss in moisture being mostly
compensated by entry of air into the void space.
• In fact, it is the lowest water content at which the soil can still be completely saturated.
• The change in colour upon drying of the soil, from dark to light also indicates the reaching of
shrinkage limit.
Fig. Stages for derivation of shrinkage limit
Shrinkage parameters
(1) Shrinkage Index – The Shrinkage Index Is is the numerical difference between the plastic limit (wp)
and the shrinkage limit (ws).

(2) Shrinkage Ratio – The Shrinkage ratio (SR) is defined as the ratio of a given volume change,
expressed as a percentage of dry volume, to the corresponding change in water content.
(3) Volumetric Shrinkage- The volumetric shrinkage (VS ) or volumetric change is def in ed as the
change in volume expressed as a percentage of the dry volume when the water content is reduced
from a value of the shrinkage limit.

(4) Linear Shrinkage – Linear shrinkage (LS) is def ined as the change in length divided by the initial
length when the water content is reduced to the shrinkage limit. It is expressed as a percentage, and
reported to the nearest whole number.
 Plasticity, Liquidity and Consistency indexes
(1) Plasticity Index- Plasticity index (Ip or PI) is the range of water content over which the soil remains in the
plastic state. It is equal to the difference between the liquid limit (wl) and the plastic limit (wp).

(2) Liquidity Index-Liquidity index (Il or LI) is defined as.

(3) Consistency Index- Consistency index (Ic or CI) is defined as

(4) Toughness Index- The Toughness Index (It ) of a soil is defined as the ratio of the plasticity index (Ip)
and the flow index (If ) .

(5) Sensitivity- When the structure is disturbed, the soil becomes remoulded, and its engineering
properties change considerably. Sensitivity (St ) of a soil indicates its weakening due to remoulding. It
is defined as the ratio of the undisturbed strength to the remoulded strength at the same water
content.
Table Classification of soils based on sensitivity
(6) Thixotropy –

• The loss of strength of a soil due to remoulding is partly due to change in the soil structure
and partly due to disturbance caused to water molecules in the adsorbed water.
• If the remoulded soil is allowed to stand, without loss of water, it may regain some of its soil
strength.
• In soil engineering, this gain in strength of the soil with passage of time after it has been
remoulded is called Thixotropy.

(7) Activity of soils-

Activity (A) of a soil is the ratio of the plasticity index and the percentage of clay fraction ( minus
2μ size).
Table Classification of soils based on Activity

Fig. Activity of soils

 Soil classification

• Soil classif ication is the arrangement of soils into different groups such that the soils in a particular group
have similar behavior. It is the sort of levelling of soils with different labels.
• As there is wide variety of soils covering earth, it is desirable to systematize or classify the soils into broad
groups of similar behavior.
• It is more convenient to study the behavior of groups than that of individual soils.
For a soil classif ication system to be useful to the geotechnical engineers, it should have the following basic
requirements.
1. It should have a limited number of groups.
2. It should be based on the engineering properties which are more relevant for the purpose for which the
classification has been made.
3. It should be simple and should use the terms which are easily understood.
1. The liquid limit of a clay soil is 56% and its plasticity index is 15%. (a) In what state of consistency is this
material at a water content of 45% ? (b) What is the plastic limit of the soil ? (c) The void ratio of this soil at
the minimum volume reached on shrinkage, is 0.88. What is the shrinkage limit, if its grain specific gravity is
2.71.
2. A soil has a plastic limit of 25% and a plasticity index of 30. If the natural water content of the soil is 34%,
what is the liquidity index and what is the consistency index ? How do you describe the consistency ?
3. A f ine grained soil is found to have a liquid limit of 90% and a plasticity index of 50. The natural water
content is 28%. Determine the liquidity index and indicate the probable consistency of the natural soil.
1.

2.
3.
Particle size classification
 Textural Classification
• Texture means visual appearance
of the surface of a material such
as fabric or cloth.
• The visual appearance of a soil is
called texture.
• The texture depends upon the
particle size, shape of particles
and gradation of particles.
• T h e t e x t u r a l c l a s s i f ic a t i o n
incorporates only the particle size,
as it is difficult to incorporate other
two parameters.
• T h e t r i a n gu l a r cl a ssi f ica t i on
system suggested by US Bureau of
Public Roads is commonly known
as textural classification system.
• The t e rm t e xt ure is use d to
express the percentage of three
constituents such as sand, silt and
 In order to eliminate the term
loa m , t h e M ississip p i R iv e r
Commission (USA) proposed a
modified triangular system.

Modified Triangular Diagram

T he right tria ngle cha r t is m ore
conve nie nt tha n the conve ntiona l
triangular chart as it involve s only
orthogonal arrangement of grid lines.

Right Triangle chart

AASHTO Classification system
 Unified Soil Classification system

• The unif ied soil classif ication system (USC)

was f irst developed by Casagrande in 1948
and lat er in 1952 was m odif ie d by t he
Bureau of Reclamation and the Corps of
Engineers of the United states of America.
• The system has also adopted by American
Society of Testing Materials (ASTM).
Unified Soil Classification system
Plasticity Chart (USC)
Comparison of AASHTO and USC systems
Approximate Equivalence between AASHTO and USC system
Basic soil components in ISC System
Plasticity Chart (ISC)
Classification of coarse grained soils (ISC System)
Field Identification tests
Field Identification of soils
General properties of soils
 Stresses in soil

Within the content of geotechnical engineering analysis it is convenient to view

the in-situ soil stress, at a given point, in terms of the components of total stress.
1. Stress induced by the weight of the soil above that level
2. Fluid pressure
3. Stresses introduced by externally applied loads (if any)
Geostatic Stresses

• The stresses due to self weight of soils are generally large in comparison
with those induced due to imposed loads.
• When the ground surface is horizontal and the properties of the soil do not
change along a horizontal plane, the stresses due to self weight is known
as geostatic stress.
• In such a case, the stresses are normal to the horizontal and vertical plane,
and there are no shearing stresses on these planes.
Vertical stresses

In natural soil deposits, generally the density of the soil increases with an increase in depth due
to the weight of soil above. In such a case , the weight of soil in the prism is:
Vertical stresses

Let us consider a horizontal plane A-A at a depth z below the

ground surface. Let the area of C/S the prism be A. If the unit
weight of the prism is constant, the vertical stress is:

If the soil is stratified, having n layers of

thickness
HORIZONTAL STRESSES
• The horizontal stresses act on vertical planes.
K=co efficient of lateral stress or lateral stress ratio

In natural soil deposits, generally there is no lateral strain. The lateral stress coefficient for this
case is known as the coefficient of lateral pressure at rest Ko.
 Effective stress principle
The effective stress principle enunciated by Karl Terzaghi in 1936 forms an extremely useful basis of the
most important theories in soil engineering.

Let us consider a prism of soil with a cross-sectional area A. The

weight P of soil in the prism is given by

Pore water pressure (u) is the pressure due to pore water filling the Fig. Saturated soil mass
voids of the soil. Thus

Pore water pressure is also known as neutral pressure or neutral stress, because it cannot resist
shear stresses.
Pore water pressure is taken as zero when equal it is equal to atmospheric pressure, because in soil
engineering the pressures used are generally gauge pressure and not absolute pressures.
 Importance of effective stress
The effective stress controls the engineering properties of soil. Compression and shear strength of a soil
dependent on the effective stress. Thus

As the effective stress in a soil increases, the compression of the soil occurs. This causes settlement of
structure built on soils.
The shear strength of a soil depends on its effective stress. As the effective stress is changed, the shear
strength changes. The stability of slopes, the earth pressures against retaining structures and the bearing
capacity of soils depend upon the shear strength of the soil and hence, the effective stress.
 Nature of effective stress
• Let us consider a physical model of a soil mass, fully saturated.
Let us take a wavy plane X-X passing through the points of
contact of solid particles.
• On the microscopic scale, the wavy plane cannot be distinguished
from a true horizontal plane as the individual particles are of
relatively small size. Therefore, for all practical purposes, the
plane X-X be assumed as horizontal.
• The total normal force P acting on the soil model is resisted partly
by interparticle forces at the points of contact (Pm ) and partly by
the pore water pressure force (pw).

Fig. Physical model of a soil

At every point of contact, the interparticle force, F can be resolved into mass
the normal component (N) and the tangential component (T) to the plane
X-X.
 The interparticle forces are random in both magnitude and direction throughout the soil mass. The
tangential components, however, neutralize one another and the resultant of all the normal components
is downwards.

Let the area of cross-section occupied by solid particles (minerals) be Am and that occupied by water be Aw .
Effect of water table fluctuations on effective stress
Effective stress in soil mass under hydrostatic conditions

Fig. Water table above soil

(3) Water table in soil 1

Fig. Water table in soil 1 and soil 2

(4) Water table in soil -2
(5) Water table below C-C

Fig. Water table in C-C

Increase in effective stresses due to surcharge
Capillary tension
• The water in a capillary tube is under a negative pressure,
commonly called tension.
• The pressure at point D at the free surface is atmospheric
i.e. equal to zero gauge pressure. The pressure at point C,
which is at the same level as point D, is also zero.
• From laws of hydrostatic, the pressure at point B, which is
at height hc above the free surface is given by

• The pressure is negative because it is less than

atmospheric pressure. In other words, the water at
point B is under tension. Fig. Pressure variation
The capillary rise at any point E is h, and therefore the
pressure is given by
The capillary tension, therefore varies linearly with the height of point above the water surface. The pressure
at point F below the water surface is of course positive.
As the capillary tube open to atmosphere, the pressure at point A above the meniscus is atmospheric i.e.,
zero. Therefore the, pressure difference across the two sides of the meniscus is equal to ϒw hc . The pressure
difference is also known as pressure deficiency (p”).
Capillary syphoning

• In an earth dam with an impervious core, capillary

syphoning may occur.
• The water rises in the outer shell due to capillary
action. If the crest (top level ) of the impervious
core is in the reach of capillary rise, water f lows
from the storage reservoir to the downstream over
the core.
• Considerable quantity of stored water may lost due
to capillary syphoning.
• To prevent this, the crest of the impervious core
should be kept sufficiently high.
• In other words, the difference of top level of the
core and water level in the should be more than the
capillary rise in soil of the shell.
Effective stresses in soils saturated by capillary action
(a) Soil saturated up to surface level A-A
(2) Soil saturated up to level D-D
Effective stresses under steady seepage conditions
(a) Downward flow
(b) Upward flow
Quick sand conditions
 Permeability of soils
• A material is porous if it contains interstices.
• The porous material is permeable if the interstices are interconnected or
continuous.
• The property of a soil which permits f lo w of water through it, is called the
permeability.
• A soil is highly pervious when water can flow through it easily.
• In an impervious soil, the permeability is very low and water cannot easily
through it.
• A completely impervious soil does not permit the water to flow through it.
• A soil is termed impervious when the permeability is extremely low.
Hydraulic head

The loss of head per unit length of flow through the soil is equal to the hydraulic gradient (i)
Darcy’s law
Typical values of coefficient of permeability
 Validity of Darcy’s law
Darcy’s law is valid if the f low through soils is laminar. The f low of water through soils depends
upon the dimension of interstices, which, in turn, depend upon the particle size. In f ine grained
soils, the dimensions of the interstices are very small and the f low is necessarily laminar.
However, in very fine grained soil, such as coarse gravel, the flow is turbulent.
Determination of coefficient of permeability
Constant Head Permeability Test
Variable Head permeability Test
 Seepage Velocity
• The discharge velocity v is not the actual velocity
through the interstices of the soil.
• It is a f ictious velocity obtained by dividing the total
discharge (q) by the total cross-sectional area (A).
• The total cross-sectional area consists of not only the
voids but also the solids. As the flow can take place only
through voids, the actual velocity through the voids is
much greater than the discharge velocity.
• The actual velocity on a macroscopic scale is known as
seepage velocity (vs ).
 Factors affecting coefficient of permeability
(a) Particle size:
• The coefficient of permeability of a soil proportional to the square of the particle size (D).
• The permeability of coarse-grained soils is very large as compared to that of fine-grained soils.
• The permeability of coarse sand may be more than one million times as much that of clay.
(b) Structure of soil mass:
• The size of the flow passage depends upon the structural arrangement.
• For the same void ratio, the permeability is more in the case of f locculated structure as
compared to that in the dispersed structure.
• Stratif ie d soil deposits have greater permeability parallel to the plane of stratif ication than
that perpendicular to this plane.
(c ) Shape of Particles:
• The permeability of a soil depends upon the shape of particles.
• Angular particles have greater specific surface area as compared with the rounded particles.
• For the same void ratio, the soils with angular particles are less permeable than those with
rounded particles, as the permeability is inversely proportional to the specific surface.
(d) Void ratio: For a given soil, the greater the void ratio, the higher is the coefficient of
permeability.
(e) Properties of water:
• The coef ficient of permeability is directly proportional to the unit weight of water and is
inversely proportional to its viscosity.
• The unit weight of water does not vary much over the range of temperature ordinarily
encountered in soil engineering problems.
• However, there is a large variation in the value of the coefficient of viscosity. The coefficient of
permeability increases with an increase in temperature due to reduction in viscosity.
(f) Degree of Saturation:
• If the soil is not fully saturated, it contains air pockets formed due to entrapped air or due to
air liberated from percolating water.
• Whatever may be the cause of the presence of air in soils, the permeability is reduced due to
presence of air which causes blockage of passage.
(g) Adsorbed water:
• The fine grained soils have a layer of adsorbed water strongly attached to their surface.
• This adsorbed water layer is not free to move under gravity.
• It causes an obstruction to f low of water in the pores and hence reduces the permeability of
soils.
(h) Impurities in water:
Any foreign matter in water has a tendency to plug the f low passage and reduce the effective
voids and hence the permeability of soils.
 Pumping-out tests

(a) Unconfined Aquifer:

(b) Confined Aquifer
 Pumping in tests

(1) Open end tests

(2) Packer tests

(a) Single packer tests:

(b) Double packer tests:

If the hole can stand without casing, double

packer test can be used. The hole drilled to
the f inal depth. It is f illed with water, surged
and bailed out.
 Permeability of stratified soil deposits
A stratified soil deposit consists of a number of soil layers
having different permeabilities.
(a) Flow parallel to planes of stratification:
Let us a deposit consisting of two horizontal layers of soil of
thickness H1 and H2.
For flow parallel to the planes of stratification, the loss of head
(h) over length L is the same for both the layers. Therefore, the
hydraulic gradient (i) for each layer is equal to the hydraulic
gradient of the entire deposit. The system is analogous to the
two resistances in parallel in an electrical circuit, wherein the
potential drop is the same in both the resistances.
(b) Flow normal to the plane of stratification

Let us consider a soil deposit consisting of two layers of

thickness H1 and H2 in which the f low occurs normal to
the plane of stratification.
Seepage analysis
• Seepage is a flow of water under gravitational forces in a permeable medium. Flow of water
takes place from a point of high head to a point of low head. The flow is generally laminar.
• The path taken by water particle is represented by a
flow line.
• Although an inf in ite number of f lo w lines can be
drawn, for convenience, only a few are drawn. At
certain points on different f low lines, the total head
will be the same.
• The lines connecting equal head can be drawn. The
lines are known as equipotential lines.
• As f low takes place along the steepest hydraulic
gradient, the equipotential lines cross f low lines at
right angles.
• The flow lines and equipotential lines together form a
flow net. The flow net gives a pictorial representation
of the path taken by water particles and the head
variation along that path.
Laplace’s Equation
Fig. Two dimensional flow
Stream and potential functions
Characteristics of Flow Net
If vs is velocity along the stream line represented by ψ.

Fig. Flow Field

The flow net can be obtained by the following methods

1. Graphical method
2. Electrical analogy method
3. Soil models
4. Plastic models
5. Solutions of LaPlace's equation
Graphical method
Electrical analogy method
1. Electrical analogy tray

• A shallow tray, with a f lat bottom, made of

an insulating material is taken.
• The tray is f il le d w ith w ate r. A small
quantity of salt or hydraulic acid or copper
sulphate solution is added to water to
make it good conductor of electricity.
• An insulating material copper or Perspex is
used to stimulate the boundary flow lines.
• For obtaining the flow pattern, an electrical
potential difference 20V is applied to the
tw o e le ctrode s DA and CE. A voltage
div idin g v a ria ble re sistor, kn ow n a s
potential divider is connected is parallel to
the alternating current source to vary the
voltage range 0 to 20 V.
• The position of the equipotential line is
de te rmine d by locating the points of
constant voltage. The probe is moved in
the tray till the galvanometer shows no
2. Conducting paper method

A conducting paper is made by introducing graphite during its manufacture. One side of the
graphite paper is coated with a non-conducting material and the other side with a positive
aluminum coating. The paper is cut to the shape of the hydraulic structure for which the f low
net is required.
Soil models
Plastic models
Flow net solution by LaPlace's equation
Uses of Flow Net
Flow Net for anisotropic soil
Coefficient of permeability in an inclined direction
Flow Net in a Non-homogeneous soil mass
Seepage through earth dam with sloping discharge face
Seepage through earth dam with discharge angle less than 30°
Seepage through earth dam with discharge angle greater than 30°
but less than 60°
Assignment 1
Q1. Establish the relationship between degree of saturation, soil moisture content, specific gravity of
soil particles, and void ratio
Q2 One cubic metre of wet soil weighs 19.80 kN. If the specif ic gravity of soil particles is 2.70 and
water content is 11%, find the void ratio, dry density and degree of saturation.
Q3. A soil has bulk density of 20.1 kN/m3 and water content of 15%. Calculate the water content if the
soil partially dries to a density of 19.4 kN/m3 and the void ratio remains unchanged.
The mass specific gravity of a fully saturated specimen of clay having a water
Q4. content of 30.5% is 1.96. On oven drying, the mass specif ic gravity drops to 1.60. Calculate the
specific gravity of clay.
Q5. The liquid limit of a clay soil is 56% and its plasticity index is 15%. (a) In what state of consistency
is this material at a water content of 45% ? (b) What is the plastic limit of the soil ? (c) The void ratio of
this soil at the minimum volume reached on shrinkage, is 0.88. What is the shrinkage limit, if its grain
specific gravity is 2.71 ?
Q6. A soil has a plastic limit of 25% and a plasticity index of 30. If the natural water content of the soil
is 34%, what is the liquidity index and what is the consistency index ? How do you describe the
consistency ?
Q7. Compute the total, effective and pore pressure at a depth of 15 m below the bottom of a lake 6 m
deep. The bottom of the lake consists of soft clay with a thickness of more than 15 m. The average
water content of the clay is 40% and the specific gravity of soils may be assumed to be 2.65.
Q8. The discharge of water collected from a constant head permeameter in a period of 15 minutes is
500 ml. The internal diameter of the permeameter is 5 cm and the measured difference in head
between two gauging points 15 cm vertically apart is 40 cm. Calculate the coefficient of permeability.
If the dry weight of the 15 cm long sample is 4.86 N and the specif ic gravity of the solids is 2.65,
calculate the seepage velocity.
Q9. A glass cylinder 5 cm internal diameter and with a screen at the bottom was used as a falling
head permeameter. The thickness of the sample was 10 cm. With the water level in the tube at the
start of the test as 50 cm above the tail water, it dropped by 10 cm in one minute, the tail water level
remaining unchanged. Calculate the value of k for the sample of the soil. Comment on the nature of
the soil.
Q10. A sample in a variable head permeameter is 8 cm in diameter and 10 cm high. The permeability
of the sample is estimated to be 10 × 10–4 cm/s. If it is desired that the head in the stand pipe should
fall from 24 cm to 12 cm in 3 min., determine the size of the standpipe which should be used.