Visit https://ebooknice.

com to download the full version and

explore more ebooks

(Ebook) Social Web Evolution: Integrating Semantic

Applications and Web 2.0 Technologies (Advances in
Semantic Web and Information Systems) by Miltiadis
D. Lytras, Miltiadis D. Lytras, Patricia Ordonez de
_____ Click
Pablos ISBNthe link below to download
9781605662725, _____
9781605662732,
9781599044262, 1599044269, 1605662720, 1605662739
https://ebooknice.com/product/social-web-evolution-
integrating-semantic-applications-and-
web-2-0-technologies-advances-in-semantic-web-and-
information-systems-1479930

Explore and download more ebooks at ebooknice.com

Here are some recommended products that might interest you.
You can download now and explore!

(Ebook) Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook by Loucas, Jason; Viles, James

ISBN 9781459699816, 9781743365571, 9781925268492, 1459699815,
1743365578, 1925268497

https://ebooknice.com/product/biota-grow-2c-gather-2c-cook-6661374

ebooknice.com

(Ebook) Emerging Topics and Technologies in Information Systems by

Miltiadis D. Lytras, Miltiadis D. Lytras, Patricia Ordonez de Pablos
ISBN 9781605662220, 9781605662237, 1605662224, 1605662232

https://ebooknice.com/product/emerging-topics-and-technologies-in-
information-systems-1389796

ebooknice.com

(Ebook) Web 2.0: The Business Model by Miltiadis D. Lytras, Ernesto

Damiani, Patricia Ordonez de Pablos ISBN 9780387858944, 9781441946775,
0387858946, 1441946772

https://ebooknice.com/product/web-2-0-the-business-model-1881836

ebooknice.com

(Ebook) Progressive Concepts for Semantic Web Evolution: Applications

and Developments (Advances in Semantic Web & Information Systems
Series (Aswis)) by Miltiadis Lytras ISBN 9781605669922, 160566992X

https://ebooknice.com/product/progressive-concepts-for-semantic-web-
evolution-applications-and-developments-advances-in-semantic-web-
information-systems-series-aswis-1910988
ebooknice.com
(Ebook) Knowledge Ecology in Global Business: Managing Intellectual
Capital by Miltiadis D. Lytras, Patricia Ordonez De Pablos, Miltiadis
D. Lytras, Patricia Ordonez De Pablos ISBN 9781605662701,
9781605662718, 1605662704, 1605662712
https://ebooknice.com/product/knowledge-ecology-in-global-business-
managing-intellectual-capital-1368068

ebooknice.com

(Ebook) Matematik 5000+ Kurs 2c Lärobok by Lena Alfredsson, Hans

Heikne, Sanna Bodemyr ISBN 9789127456600, 9127456609

https://ebooknice.com/product/matematik-5000-kurs-2c-larobok-23848312

ebooknice.com

(Ebook) SAT II Success MATH 1C and 2C 2002 (Peterson's SAT II Success)

by Peterson's ISBN 9780768906677, 0768906679

https://ebooknice.com/product/sat-ii-success-
math-1c-and-2c-2002-peterson-s-sat-ii-success-1722018

ebooknice.com

(Ebook) Assessing the Role of Mobile Technologies and Distance

Learning in Higher Education by Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos, Patricia
Ordóñez de Pablos, Robert D. Tennyson, Miltiadis D. Lytras ISBN
9781466673168, 1466673168
https://ebooknice.com/product/assessing-the-role-of-mobile-
technologies-and-distance-learning-in-higher-education-5146384

ebooknice.com

(Ebook) Master SAT II Math 1c and 2c 4th ed (Arco Master the SAT
Subject Test: Math Levels 1 & 2) by Arco ISBN 9780768923049,
0768923042

https://ebooknice.com/product/master-sat-ii-math-1c-and-2c-4th-ed-
arco-master-the-sat-subject-test-math-levels-1-2-2326094

ebooknice.com
Social Web Evolution:
Integrating Semantic Applications
and Web 2.0 Technologies

Miltiadis D. Lytras
Athens University of Economics & Business, Greece

Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos

University of Oviedo, Spain

Information science reference

Hershey • New York
Director of Editorial Content: Kristin Klinger
Senior Managing Editor: Jamie Snavely
Managing Editor: Jeff Ash
Assistant Managing Editor: Carole Coulson
Typesetter: Sean Woznicki
Cover Design: Lisa Tosheff
Printed at: Yurchak Printing Inc.

Published in the United States of America by

Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Suite 200
Hershey PA 17033
Tel: 717-533-8845
Fax: 717-533-8661
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: http://www.igi-global.com/reference

and in the United Kingdom by

Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
3 Henrietta Street
Covent Garden
London WC2E 8LU
Tel: 44 20 7240 0856
Fax: 44 20 7379 0609
Web site: http://www.eurospanbookstore.com

Copyright © 2009 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
Product or company names used in this set are for identi.cation purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does
not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Social web evolution : integrating semantic applications and Web 2.0 technologies / Miltiadis D. Lytras and Patricia Ordonez de Pablos,
editors.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Summary: “This book explores the potential of Web 2.0 and its synergies with the Semantic Web and provides state-of-the-art theoretical
foundations and technological applications”--Provided by publisher.

ISBN 978-1-60566-272-5 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-60566-273-2 (ebook) 1. Organizational learning. 2. Knowledge management. 3. Online
social networks. 4. Semantic Web. 5. Web 2.0. I. Lytras, Miltiadis D., 1973- II. Pablos, Patricia Ordonez de.

HD58.82.S66 2009
025.042’7--dc22
2008047729

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not
necessarily of the publisher.

Social Web Evolution: Integrating Semantic Applications and Web 2.0 Technologies is part of the IGI Global series named Advances in
Semantic Web and Information Systems (ASWIS) Series, ISBN: 1935-3626

If a library purchased a print copy of this publication, please go to http://www.igi-global.com/agreement for information on activating
the library's complimentary electronic access to this publication.
 Advances in Semantic Web and Information Systems (ASWIS) Series
Editor-in-Chief: Miltiadis Lytras, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece
ISBN: 1935-3626

Social Web Evolution: Integrating Semantic Applications and Web 2.0 Technologies
Edited By: Miltiadis D. Lytras, University of Patras, Greece; Patricia Ordonez de Pablos,
Universidad de Oviedo, Spain

~ Information Science Reference

~ ISBN: 978-1-60566-272-5
~ Copyright 2009
~ Hard Cover
~ Pages: 356
~ Our Price: $195.00
Social Web Evolution: Integrating Semantic Applications and Web 2.0 Technologies explores the potential of
Web 2.0 and its synergies with the Semantic Web and provides state-of-the-art theoretical foundations and techno-
logical applications. A reference edition for academicians, practitioners, policy makers, and government officers ea-
ger for knowledge on Web 2.0 and social Web, this book emphasizes practical aspects of the integration of semantic
applications into social Web technologies. As semantic technologies prove their value with targeted applications,
there are increasing opportunities to consider their usefulness in social contexts for knowledge, learning, and hu-
man development.

Semantic Web-Based Information Systems: State-of-the-Art Applications

Edited By: Amit Sheth, Wright State University, USA; Miltiadis D. Lytras, University
of Patras, Greece

~ CyberTech Publishing
~ ISBN: 1-59904-426-9
~ Copyright 2007
~ Hard Cover
~ Pages: 317
~ Our Price: $94.95
Semantic Web Information Systems: State-of-the-Art Applications covers new semantic Web-enabled tools for
the citizen, learner, organization, and business. Real-world applications toward the development of the knowledge
society and semantic Web issues, challenges and implications in each of the IS research streams are included as vi-
able sources for this challenging subject.

The Advances in Semantic Web and Information Systems (ASWIS) Book Series promotes a knowledge transfer
channel where academics, practitioners and researchers can discuss, analyze, criticize, synthesize, communicate,
elaborate, and simplify the more than promising technology of the Semantic Web in the context of Information
Systems. The book series aims to establish value-adding knowledge transfer and personal development channels in
three distinctive areas: Academia, Industry, and Government.

Order Online at ww.igi-global.com or call 717-533-8845 x100 – Mon-Fri 8:30 AM - 5:00 PM (EST) or
Fax 24 Hours a Day 717-533-8661
To the smiling longskater
- Patricia
Editorial Advisory Board

Miltiadis D. Lytras, University of Patras, Greece

Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos, University of Oviedo, Spain
A. Córdoba, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
Adela Lau, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China
Ángel García-Crespo, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Ricardo Colomo-Palacios, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Myriam Mencke, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Juan M. Gómez-Berbís, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Anthony ‘Skip’ Basiel, Middlesex University – IWBL, UK
D. Sandy Staples, Queen’s University, Canada
Daniel Süpke, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Germany
Jorge Marx Gómez, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Germany
Diego Berruela, Fundación CTIC, Spain
Eric Tsui, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China
F. Echarte, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
Irene Samanta, Technological Education Institute of Piraeus, Greece
J. Villadangos, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
J.J. Astrain, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
Jingyuan Zhao, Harbin Institute of Technology, China
Jose E. Labra, University of Oviedo, Spain
Laszlo Z. Karvalics, University of Szeged, Hungary
Lian Shi, Fundación CTIC, Spain
Paul Coyne, Emerald Group Publishing Ltd, UK
Ralf Isenmann, Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research (ISI), Germany
Table of Contents

Preface . .............................................................................................................................................. xvii

Chapter I
Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace...................... 1
Anthony “Skip” Basiel, Middlesex University – IWBL, UK
Paul Coyne, Emerald Group Publishing Ltd, UK

Chapter II
Knowledge Producing Megamachines: The Biggest Web 2.0 Communities of the Future ................. 17
Laszlo Z. Karvalics, University of Szeged, Hungary

Chapter III
Web 2.0 Driven Sustainability Reporting.............................................................................................. 31
Daniel Süpke, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Germany
Jorge Marx Gómez, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Germany
Ralf Isenmann, Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research Karlsruhe, Germany

Chapter IV
Mailing Lists and Social Semantic Web................................................................................................ 42
Sergio Fernández, Fundación CTIC, Spain
Diego Berrueta, Fundación CTIC, Spain
Lian Shi, Fundación CTIC, Spain
Jose E. Labra, University of Oviedo, Spain
Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos, University of Oviedo, Spain

Chapter V
Web 2.0 Social Networking Sites.......................................................................................................... 57
D. Sandy Staples, Queens University, Canada

Chapter VI
Teachers’ Personal Knowledge Management in China Based Web 2.0 Technologies.......................... 76
Jingyuan Zhao, Harbin Institute of Technology, China
Chapter VII
CUSENT: Social Sentiment Analysis Using Semantics for Customer Feedback ................................ 89
Ángel García-Crespo, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Ricardo Colomo-Palacios, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Myriam Mencke, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Juan M. Gómez-Berbís, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain

Chapter VIII
Can Knowledge Management Assist Firms to Move from Traditional to E-Commerce:
The Case of Greek Firms..................................................................................................................... 102
Irene Samanta, Technological Education Institute of Piraeus, Greece

Chapter IX
Knowledge Management and Lifelong Learning in Archival Heritage: Digital Collections
on a Semantic Scope for Educational Potential .................................................................................. 116
Trianta.llia Kourtoumi, General State Archives of Greece, Greece

Chapter X
Application of Web 2.0 Technology for Clinical Training ................................................................. 132
Adela Lau, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China
Eric Tsui, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China

Chapter XI
Pattern Matching Techniques to Identify Syntactic Variations of Tags in Folksonomies . ................. 138
F. Echarte, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
J. J. Astrain, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
A. Córdoba, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
J. Villadangos, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain

Chapter XII
Insights into the Impact of Social Networks on Evolutionary Games................................................. 150
Katia Sycara, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Paul Scerri, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Anton Chechetka, Carnegie Mellon University, USA

Chapter XIII
Application of Semantic Web Based on the Domain-Specific Ontology for Global KM................... 160
Jaehun Joo, Dongguk University, Korea
Sang M. Lee, University of Nebraska – Lincoln, USA
Yongil Jeong, Saltlux, Inc., Korea

Chapter XIV
Designing Online Learning Communities to Encourage Cooperation................................................ 177
Miranda Mowbray, HP Laboratories Bristol, UK
Chapter XV
Building Virtual Learning Communities............................................................................................. 192
Naomi Augar, Deakin University, Australia
Ruth Raitman, Deakin University, Australia
Elicia Lanham, Deakin University, Australia
Wanlei Zhou, Deakin University, Australia

Chapter XVI
Support Networks for Rural and Regional Communities.................................................................... 216
Tom Denison, Monash University, Australia

Chapter XVII
Building Virtual Communities through a De-Marginalized View of Knowledge Networking........... 233
Kam Hou Vat, University of Macau, Macau

Chapter XVIII
A Basis for the Semantic Web and E-Business: Efficient Organization of Ontology Languages
and Ontologies..................................................................................................................................... 249
Changqing Li, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Tok Wang Ling, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Chapter XIX
User-Centered Design Principles for Online Learning Communities: A Sociotechnical
Approach for the Design of a Distributed Community of Practice..................................................... 267
Ben K. Daniel, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
David O’Brien, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Asit Sarkar, University of Saskatchewan, Canada

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 280

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 309

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 318
Detailed Table of Contents

Preface . .............................................................................................................................................. xvii

Chapter I
Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace...................... 1
Anthony “Skip” Basiel, Middlesex University – IWBL, UK
Paul Coyne, Emerald Group Publishing Ltd, UK

The authors of this chapter explore how professionals can network, collaborate and capture informal
learning in an online work-based environment. It addresses the pedagogical approaches that underpin
emerging Web 2.0 technological trends and provide recommendations for future use of such online
environments.

Chapter II
Knowledge Producing Megamachines: The Biggest Web 2.0 Communities of the Future ................. 17
Laszlo Z. Karvalics, University of Szeged, Hungary

This chapter addresses the control crisis of science whose resolution requires radical social innovation.
The only possible way for achieving this is the partial fusion of certain portions of scientific activity
with the system of public education, by means of organizing scientists, teachers, as well as middle and
highschool students into hybrid, knowledge producing mega-machines. The authors of the chapter sub-
sequently argue that doing so will at the same time bring about a pragmatic shift in public education, for
which professionals in the field of pedagogy have long been ready in principle and in theory.

Chapter III
Web 2.0 Driven Sustainability Reporting.............................................................................................. 31
Daniel Süpke, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Germany
Jorge Marx Gómez, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Germany
Ralf Isenmann, Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research Karlsruhe, Germany

Web 2.0 driven sustainability reporting describes an emerging digital approach powered through Web 2.0
technologies for companies communicating sustainability issues. Such a computer-based application of
semantics overcomes the limitations of orthodox methods and provides an array of specific capabilities
to improve sustainability communication both, for companies (reporters), and their various stakeholders
(report readers), that is, along interactivity, customisation ,and reporting à la carte, stakeholder dialogue,
and participation. This chapter gives an outline on this up-and-coming sustainability reporting approach
along three categories: (i) Media-specific trends in sustainability reporting are observed. (ii) New op-
portunities Web 2.0 technologies are offering for corporate sustainability reporting are identified. (iii)
The concept and implementation of a software tool for sustainability reporting à la carte is presented
making clear the movement away from early reporting stages towards the advanced one of a Web 2.0
driven approach.

Chapter IV
Mailing Lists and Social Semantic Web................................................................................................ 42
Sergio Fernández, Fundación CTIC, Spain
Diego Berrueta, Fundación CTIC, Spain
Lian Shi, Fundación CTIC, Spain
Jose E. Labra, University of Oviedo, Spain
Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos, University of Oviedo, Spain

Electronic Mailing lists are a key part of the Internet. They have enabled the development of social
communities who share and exchange knowledge in specialized and general domains. In this chapter
the authors describe methods to capture some of that knowledge which will enable the development of
new datasets using Semantic Web technologies. In particular, the authors present the SWAML project,
which collects data from mailing lists. The authors also describe smushing techniques that normalize
RDF datasets capturing different resources that identify the same one. They have applied those techniques
to identify persons through the mailing lists of open source communities. These techniques have been
tested using a dataset automatically extracted from several online open source communities.

Chapter V
Web 2.0 Social Networking Sites.......................................................................................................... 57
D. Sandy Staples, Queens University, Canada

This chapter describes one of the Web 2.0 technologies, Social Networking Sites (SNS). A definition of
SNS is offered, as is a short history of these sites. The existing research is reviewed and organized to
summarize what we know about SNS usage (from the perspectives of student use, general population
use and organizational use), and what people know about the antecedents and outcomes of SNS use.
The chapter concludes with discussion of new developments, challenges and opportunities. There are
many opportunities for future research and organizational applications of SNS as SNS adoption grows
at incredible rates.

Chapter VI
Teachers’ Personal Knowledge Management in China Based Web 2.0 Technologies.......................... 76
Jingyuan Zhao, Harbin Institute of Technology, China
Knowledge is taken as core competitive power in the current society. The teacher as an educational
operator often touch much knowledge, if they could manage knowledge efficiently, the work efficiency
will be increased greatly. To mine knowledge and make tacit knowledge explicit, teachers should manage
personal knowledge. By the survey of teachers’ personal knowledge management in China, the study finds
some problems in terms of Chinese teachers’ personal knowledge management, especially many Chinese
teachers are not good at making use of Web technologies to assist them on managing knowledge and
communicating with other teachers. One studying focus of Web 2.0 technologies is personal knowledge
management, and Web 2.0 provides a series of effective tools and platforms for personal knowledge
management. The chapter discusses on the concept of teachers’ personal knowledge management, and
presents the strategies of teachers’ personal knowledge management based Web 2.0 technologies, using
for reference for teachers’ personal knowledge management practice.

Chapter VII
CUSENT: Social Sentiment Analysis Using Semantics for Customer Feedback ................................ 89
Ángel García-Crespo, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Ricardo Colomo-Palacios, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Myriam Mencke, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Juan M. Gómez-Berbís, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain

The current chapter introduces CUSENT, a tool for semantics-enhanced sentiment analysis of customer
opinions expressed in corporate blogs. The research work presents the examination of emotions and
sentiments from the perspective of information systems, and, in particular, provides a review of the
principal efforts for the conceptualization of emotions and sentiments in texts. Subsequently, a descrip-
tion of the proposed architecture of the platform is outlined. The authors aim to contribute a solution
which automates the analysis of customer opinions in company blogs that relies on existing techniques,
but further exploits these methods to store and reuse customer feedback. The novel combination of
opinion mining with an ontology of emotions can thus be used in organizational creation and innova-
tion processes, which characterize the new forms of communication derived from the institutional and
commercial use of Web 2.0.

Chapter VIII
Can Knowledge Management Assist Firms to Move from Traditional to E-Commerce:
The Case of Greek Firms..................................................................................................................... 102
Irene Samanta, Technological Education Institute of Piraeus, Greece

This chapter is to define the firm’s innovative core and create frameworks to integrate innovation
throughout the management of knowledge by generating implementing ideas, strategies and plans ap-
plied that cultivate a thinking organization aims to associate innovation with business targets. It argues
that companies which manage and transform the knowledge effectively reap the rewards of scientific
and technological achievement in order to adopt innovation concept in their operation. Furthermore, the
author hope that firms understanding the information received from the current global business world and
transmit it to reap the rewards of scientific achievement will increase their competitiveness competition
not only for sales, but also for technical know – how and skills. At the company level depends on the
speed with which new products can be brought to the market place and on the importance of achieving
new cost – saving improvements.
Chapter IX
Knowledge Management and Lifelong Learning in Archival Heritage: Digital Collections
on a Semantic Scope for Educational Potential .................................................................................. 116
Triantafillia Kourtoumi, General State Archives of Greece, Greece

Archives have a key role to play in underpinning learning in its broadest sense, both as a formal activity
within an institution and informally within the community. This is becoming especially important in an
increasingly KM-based environment. This chapter provides an overview of technologies that can be ap-
plied to archival knowledge management. Furthermore, it assesses their actual or potential contribution to
the basic processes of knowledge sharing within archival organizations, with a focus on lifelong learning.
The scope of the first section (the screens) is to identify new developments that seem to be significant
and to relate them to technology research in the archival field. The second section (the frames) discusses
the concepts supporting digital collections by integrating collections of digitized archival resources to
create new services and infrastructures. The third section (the agendas) analyses-from the educational
perspective of lifelong learning-important social benefits, both quantitatively and qualitatively, of de-
veloping new infrastructures for accessing and using archival resources.

Chapter X
Application of Web 2.0 Technology for Clinical Training ................................................................. 132
Adela Lau, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China
Eric Tsui, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China

In clinical training, students plan, implement and evaluate their learning activities by themselves. They
apply theories and concepts in a real clinical environment and learn through social interaction and reflec-
tive thinking to experience, conceptualize, apply and create new knowledge to solve clinical problems.
Since students are sent to different clinical locations for training and are mentored on a one-to-one basis,
it is difficult for students to share their knowledge, make enquiries or interact with their peers and mentors
for social and reflective learning. Web 2.0 provides a collaborative and social interactive platform that
allows learners to exchange, share, acquire, codify, distribute, and disseminate knowledge. Its functions
and features are able to construct a virtual and distributed environment for learners to gather, filter and
update the knowledge over different internet sources. This paper thus aims to discuss the functions and
features of Web 2.0 technology and its applications to clinical training.

Chapter XI
Pattern Matching Techniques to Identify Syntactic Variations of Tags in Folksonomies . ................. 138
F. Echarte, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
J. J. Astrain, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
A. Córdoba, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain
J. Villadangos, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain

Folksonomies offer an easy method to organize information in the current Web. This fact and their col-
laborative features have derived in an extensive involvement in many Social Web projects. However
they present important drawbacks regarding their limited exploring and searching capabilities, in contrast
with other methods as taxonomies, thesauruses and ontologies. One of these drawbacks is an effect of
its flexibility for tagging, producing frequently multiple syntactic variations of a same tag. In this chap-
ter we study the application of two classical pattern matching techniques, Levenshtein distance for the
imperfect string matching and Hamming distance for the perfect string matching, to identify syntactic
variations of tags.

Chapter XII
Insights into the Impact of Social Networks on Evolutionary Games................................................. 150
Katia Sycara, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Paul Scerri, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Anton Chechetka, Carnegie Mellon University, USA

The chapter explores the use of evolutionary game theory (EGT) to model the dynamics of adaptive
opponent strategies for a large population of players. In particular, it explores effects of information
propagation through social networks in evolutionary games. The key underlying phenomenon that the
information diffusion aims to capture is that reasoning about the experiences of acquaintances can dra-
matically impact the dynamics of a society. The chapter presents experimental results from agent-based
simulations that show the impact of diffusion through social networks on the player strategies of an
evolutionary game and the sensitivity of the dynamics to features of the social network.

Chapter XIII
Application of Semantic Web Based on the Domain-Specific Ontology for Global KM................... 160
Jaehun Joo, Dongguk University, Korea
Sang M. Lee, University of Nebraska – Lincoln, USA
Yongil Jeong, Saltlux, Inc., Korea

This chapter introduces an application of the Semantic Web based on ontology to the tourism business.
Tourism business is one promising area for Semantic Web applications. To realize the potential of the
Semantic Web, we need to find a killer application of the Semantic Web in the knowledge management
(KM) area. The ontology as a key enabler is deigned and implemented under a framework of the Se-
mantic-Web-driven KM system in a tourism domain. Finally, we discussed the relationship between the
Semantic Web and KM processes.

Chapter XIV
Designing Online Learning Communities to Encourage Cooperation................................................ 177
Miranda Mowbray, HP Laboratories Bristol, UK

This chapter is concerned with how to design an online learning community in such a way as to encour-
age cooperation, and to discourage uncooperative or antisocial behavior. Rather than restricting design
to visual and interface issues, the author takes a wide view, touching on aspects of the governance,
social structure, moderation practices, and technical architecture of online learning communities. The
first half of the chapter discusses why people behave antisocially in online learning communities, and
ways to discourage this through design. The second half discusses why on the other hand people behave
cooperatively in online learning communities, and ways to encourage this through user-centered design,
applying some results of experiments in social psychology. The chapter is intended to be of practical
use to designers of online learning communities.

Chapter XV
Building Virtual Learning Communities............................................................................................. 192
Naomi Augar, Deakin University, Australia
Ruth Raitman, Deakin University, Australia
Elicia Lanham, Deakin University, Australia
Wanlei Zhou, Deakin University, Australia

This chapter introduces the concept of virtual learning communities and discusses and further enhances
the theory and definitions presented in related literature. A model comprising four criteria essential to
virtual learning communities is presented and discussed in detail. Theory and case studies relating to the
impact of virtual learning communities on distance education and students from diverse cultural groups
are also examined. In addition, this chapter investigates the enabling technologies and facilitation that
is required to build virtual learning communities. Other case studies are used to illustrate the process
of building virtual learning communities. Emerging technologies such as Wikis and video lectures are
also analysed to determine the effects they have on building and sustaining effective virtual learning
communities.

Chapter XVI
Support Networks for Rural and Regional Communities.................................................................... 216
Tom Denison, Monash University, Australia

Using a case study approach, this chapter examines the role of organizational networks in the success
and failure of information and communications technology projects. Within a framework informed by
the literature of information systems failure, the diffusion of innovation and social network analysis;
it argues that information systems projects must take into account the social context in which they are
implemented. To be successful such networks require a mix of extended and locally based support net-
works, because they provide access to much needed resources, including innovations, strategic advice,
training, and support at the appropriate level. It further argues that the people who are working in a
regional setting felt themselves to be in an extremely disadvantageous situation because they typically
lacked support from similar networks. The author hopes that highlighting the importance of such sup-
port networks will lead to a better understanding of systems failure and success, and will contribute to
improved policy formulation and practice.

Chapter XVII
Building Virtual Communities through a De-Marginalized View of Knowledge Networking........... 233
Kam Hou Vat, University of Macau, Macau
The chapter investigates an actionable context of knowledge networking, from the perspective of sus-
tainable development which should accommodate the building of communities in cyberspace so much
exemplified in today’s Internet and World Wide Web. The premise of this exploration is that members,
or participants, in any community are engaged in learning that is critical to the survival and reproduction
of that community. Through community participation, learners find and acquire models and have the
opportunity themselves to become models and apprentices of others. This investigation provides a basis
for thinking about the possibilities of a virtual community and the dynamics of its construction across a
variety of computer-based contexts. The design and refinement of technology as the conduit for extend-
ing and enhancing the possibilities of virtual community building is an essential issue, but the role of
the individuals as participants in such a community is as important. The idea of sustainable knowledge
networking is to bring about continual learning and change for the community in need. The emergent
challenge of such a mission is to demarginalize many of the non-technical issues of building virtual
communities for knowledge transfer and learning. The chapter concludes by reiterating the challenge
of expositing what it means to create an appropriate context of knowledge networking through which
purposeful actions can be supported with the elaboration of suitable information technologies.

Chapter XVIII
A Basis for the Semantic Web and E-Business: Efficient Organization of Ontology Languages
and Ontologies..................................................................................................................................... 249
Changqing Li, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Tok Wang Ling, National University of Singapore, Singapore

This chapter introduces how to effectively organize ontology languages and ontologies and how to
efficiently process semantic information based on ontologies. In this chapter the authors propose the
hierarchies to organize ontology languages and ontologies. Based on the hierarchy of ontology lan-
guages, the ontology designers need not bear in mind which ontology language the primitives exactly
come from, also we can automatically and seamlessly use the ontologies defined with different ontology
languages in an integrated environment. Based on the hierarchy of ontologies, the conflicts in different
ontologies are resolved, thus the semantics in different ontologies are clear without ambiguities. Also,
these semantic-clear ontologies can be used to efficiently process the semantic information in Semantic
Web and E-Business.

Chapter XIX
User-Centered Design Principles for Online Learning Communities: A Sociotechnical
Approach for the Design of a Distributed Community of Practice..................................................... 267
Ben K. Daniel, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
David O’Brien, University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Asit Sarkar, University of Saskatchewan, Canada

This chapter aims to introduce user-centered design and its basic concepts associated with online learning
communities. Another aim is to search for guidelines to ensure quality in online learning. Human-com-
puter interaction for education provides the missing holistic approach for online learning. Functioning
in a sociotechnical framework, online learning communities combine information and knowledge stores
situated in shared social spaces using social learning software. In recent years, educational technologists
linked theory and systems design in education. However, several disciplines combine in online learning.
User-centered design provides the cross-disciplinary approach that appears to be essential for quality in
online learning design and engineering. Thus, seven guidelines for experts’ evaluation are proposed as
signposts: intention, information, interactivity, real-time evaluation, visibility, control, and support.

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 280

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 309

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 318
 xvii

Preface

As semantic technologies prove their value with targeted applications, there are increasing opportunities
to consider their application in social contexts for knowledge, learning, and human development.
Semantic Web and Knowledge Management has been accepted as a critical enabler aiming to in-
crease knowledge-related performance by better use of intellectual assets, in addition to which many
governments are forced to increasingly deal with knowledge services that form larger parts of the global
economy and society.
Thus there are recent examples of applications of semantics for empowering knowledge management
or better supporting knowledge services for social networks. In this edited book we explore the poten-
tial of Web 2.0 and its synergies with Semantic Web, and we provide the state of the art in theoretical
foundations and technological applications. In the context of Social Web Evolution, social and human
issues are of equal if not higher importance than the technical issues that have tended to receive the bulk
of attention in the past. Consequently, chapters that touch these aspects, or those that extend technical
and domain knowledge to social and human issues are especially sought. This is intended to initiate a
dialog between the social, psychological, and technical views of the field.
Web 2.0 is one of the hottest topics in Information Systems. Currently, the main discussion is empha-
sized on technologies while there is a great demand for editions that will analyze the business models
and business perspectives of the new generation Web. This book is one of the first attempts to discuss
in an integrated way the business implications of Web 2.0 and its linkage to business value.
Web 2.0, refers to a perceived or proposed second generation of Internet-based services—such as
social networking sites, Wikis, communication tools, mashups and folksonomies—that emphasize on
online collaboration and sharing among users.
Additionally we also include further readings of a complimentary nature to the contents of the rest of
our publication. As an added value to our readers, the further readings are to provide additional related
data in support of the book’s comprehensive concepts, principles and results, as well as studies that build
upon the appeal of this publication as a one-stop reference source.
We do not want to miss this opportunity to say thanks to IGI Global, and in particular to Jan Travers
and Kristin M. Klinger for giving us the opportunity to develop this book. Also thanks to all authors of
chapters, for their interest in collaborating in this book.

Miltiadis D. Lytras
Athens, Greece, October 2008

Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos

Gijón, Spain, October 2008
 

Chapter I
Exploring a Professional
Social Network System to
Support Learning in the
Workplace
Anthony “Skip” Basiel
Middlesex University – IWBL, UK

Paul Coyne
Emerald Group Publishing Ltd, UK

ABSTRACT

This chapter sets out to explore how professionals can network, collaborate and capture informal learning
in an online work-based environment. It addresses the pedagogical approaches that underpin emerging
Web 2.0 technological trends and provide recommendations for future use of such online environments.
Existing Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs) are primarily content driven with little provision for
social engagement and stakeholder-generated material. Similarly, many organisations have little or no
structure for facilitating online interaction in a work based learning context. Since 2006 Emerald Group
Publishing and the Middlesex Centre for Excellence in Work Based Learning have been partnering to
develop, test and implement an online platform that will support collaborative, interactive learning. This
link between Industry and Higher Education is critically reviewed. The InTouch (2008) platform was
incorporated into the syllabus for MCEWBL’s work-based Professional Practice BA Honours programme
in 2007 to support newly trained professionals as they worked through a professional development work
based learning programme. The pedagogical underpinning of the course was reflective, self-directed

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

learning and the blog, Wiki and profiling tools provided had the potential to either contribute to this aim
or become a major part of how students construct their understanding of themselves in their professional
practice. Emerald and MCEWBL have been monitoring the adoption, use and challenges associated
with using Web 2.0 technology to support work based learning in order make recommendations about
future pedagogical frameworks and approaches. This platform and related online pedagogic principles
fills the gap between informal, free tools that provide little security or structure and heavyweight VLEs
that offer tutor-made content, but do not naturally support social interaction for learning. The chapter
provides some ideas and strategic options about implementing similar tools in other organisational
settings and provides frameworks to evaluate these options in line with existing resources and capabili-
ties. It concludes with an in-progress web-based learning design or ePedagogy that unifies the threads
of the online learning experience.

INTRODUCTION Cohorts of WBL candidates identified the

need for a shift from a content-driven eLearning
Middlesex University work based learning (WBL) system to one which could support the type of
has been operating for over ten years at the time of peer review that WBL was growing into. The
this writing. Its original distance learning design WBL programme structure has three main stages.
was a paper-based correspondence model which First, students construct a portfolio of their prior
relied heavily on the content in the handbooks professional knowledge. This Recognition of Ac-
and one-to-one (1-2-1) tutorial support from WBL credited learning (RAL or a.k.a. Accreditation
Learning Development Tutors predominantly of Prior Experiential Learning (APEL)) stage
through email and phone feedback. Over the past benefited by candidates sharing professional
few years there has been a steady transition into the experiences in constructing their areas of learn-
use of a commercial virtual learning environment ing claims (Armsby, 2006). Next, WBL students
(VLE) in the form of Blackboard/WebCT. would formulate an individual learning agree-
At first this system matched the WBL teaching ment that would guide the construction of the
and learning design since there was a strong reli- degree programme based on how much Higher
ance on the course handbook for information and Education (HE) credit was attained in the RAL
guidance. However, as student numbers increased stage. In conjunction with this activity they would
the student-teacher ratio meant this model was not learn about methods of conducting research in
sustainable for the future. The 1-2-1 pedagogic the workplace which would prepare them for the
model would need to expand into a triad that final stage of the degree. Lastly, research systems
would promote and support peer involvement. would be carried out in the workplace to amass
Students were growing in their ICT confidence enough credit to complete the programme. The
and capability with the increased use of Web 2.0 nature of this learner-managed-learning approach
social network systems such as Facebook and to WBL meant that as the candidate progressed
YouTube. This was evidenced by student repre- through the programme peer-support became
sentatives at the WBL Board of Studies sighting increasingly beneficial (Stephenson, 2007).
the need to continue to improve the VLE for the In a work based learning context, then, there
future (BOS, 2007). can be both a formal and informal learning sce-


Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

narios. The traditional formal learning setting A PROFESIONAL SOCIAL

might be one of the blended learning tutorial NETWORK (PSN) APPROACH
sessions for WBL candidate getting an induction
on how to compose a prior learning accreditation A variation of social networking focuses on a
portfolio. Here the training pedagogy would be professional context which demonstrates how an
teacher-led and supported by on/offline discus- innovative combination of existing technologies
sions. But it could be argued that the ‘real learning’ and interoperability standards can be harnessed to
transpired informally after the ‘taught session’. support the learning paradigm shift taking place
Informally the students may meet to debrief with from learning by knowledge transfer to learning
each other at the café over coffee. There they by knowledge construction. This next section of
would compare their interpretation of the learning the chapter discusses a European Commission
event which would lead to the formation of learn- (FP7, 2008) project proposal.
ing partnerships. This learning support network The PSN group brings together a range of ex-
would communicate to provide peer-review of tant and emerging standards and technologies to
draft work for the portfolio. An online system provide a next generation platform for Technology
was needed to facilitate this evolving professional Enhanced Learning that will have a significant
social network for practitioner researchers. impact on learning outcomes.
It was at a conference at University College The PSN enables:
London (2006) that a dialogue opened between
the MU-WBL group and the Emerald Publish- • Faster and more effective learning, ac-
ing InTouch contingent. The open source Elgg quisition of knowledge, competences and
Social Network platform being developed by skills.
Emerald would be the new approach to address • Unlocking people’s and organisations’ abil-
these needs. ity to master knowledge and apply it.
A university / industry partnership association • Increased knowledge worker productivity.
was also a positive deliverable of this network • More efficient organisational learning pro-
collaboration. Emerald Publishing had a good cesses.
test bed and source of evaluation data in the WBL
pilot case study group. This is discussed in detail SOUTCOMES
later in the chapter. The Institute for Work Based
Learning benefited by having a professional social The motivating factor for the technology objec-
network to support its learners. Additionally, both tives is not the technology itself but the compre-
groups collaborated in scholarly activity. Co-au- hension and application of specific technology in
thored research system proposals were written the service of learning and development.
for JISC (2008) in the UK and the FP7 European Our semantically rich PSN platform promotes
Commission (2008). networked learning by connecting stakeholders in
Another joint effort was seen in interna- real-time through an agent or ‘mentor-help’ sys-
tional conference publications and poster-demo tem. This can be achieved through a combination
presentations. The 7th European Conference on of technologies and standards, including the Elgg
e-Learning (2008) held in Cyprus gave both or- server, RDF (Resource Description Framework),
ganisations the opportunity to get feedback from SKOS (Simple Knowledge Organisation System)
the eLearning community and share the services and FOAF (Friend of a Friend). Interoperability
they provide to potential clients. Future collabora- with existing services and standards ensures the
tions are currently being investigated. long term sustainability of the system. Therefore


 Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

the PSN, where possible, offers users the ability An intelligent and adaptive support system
to search across currently popular network sites provides end-users with the resources to engage
using a web services approach – e.g. OpenSocial, confidently with the network members and main-
OpenID, FaceBook, and Explode.us. tain motivation within the online community.

Social and Organizational Learning Technology Objectives

Objectives
The PSN group are developing a next-generation
Our initial proposition is that effective learning in multi-modal, multi-lingual professional social
a networked society includes the natural discovery networking platform with the following charac-
of learning resources, contextualised support ser- teristics:
vices (i.e. Mentor-Help) and the mining of personal
profiles, opinions and social networks, wherever • Organisational Design: Structurally neu-
they are located. Specifically, the system aims to tral to allow a generic PSN to be deployed
develop a deep understanding of the pedagogies to academic, corporate or government or-
and technologies required to exploit the strategic ganisations.
learning opportunities that a richly connected • Simple System Design: Scaleable and
society offers European businesses, government portable and easy to deploy technology that
agencies and academic organisations. requires little or no overhead to existing IT
The system also aims to advance the collective investments.
understanding of the issues involved in deploying • Plug-in Technology Architecture: Can
and integrating PSNs in organisational learning be flexed in a number of directions to sup-
infrastructures. This work uncovers reasons for port content and services supporting many
success or failure and asks if these outcomes are subjects/disciplines and industry sectors
related to culture, technology or something else through the addition or removal of plug-in
entirely. The findings help inform non-techno- software modules.
logical strategies for organisations attempting to • Open Standards Compliant: SKOS, SIOC,
exploit these new tools to achieve and sustain EU FOAF, OpenID, OpenSocial.
competitive advantages regardless of industry or
sector. As such, the system models are scalable Progress Beyond the State-of-the-Art
and flexible for re-use.
System design should allow for scalability in We can form a common ground of understand-
the provision of adding languages to the system ing that the ‘state of the art’ is the current stage
database: of development of a practical or technological
subject; freq. (esp. in attrib. use) implying the use
• This would allow real-time text communica- of the latest techniques in a product or activity
tion in a trans-national fashion. (OED Definition 2008).
• Support system can be accessed via mobile
interfaces via text and/or voice. In this section we broadly define the ‘State of
• Feedback from the support system will fac- the art’ for the key technical and infrastructural
tor in psychological considerations to match and pedagogical components of the system. We
appropriate levels of help to the user making refer to both the theory and practice surround-
the query. ing:


Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

• Social networks interlocking set of statements (known as “triples”).

• Semantic web “Information is given well-defined meaning,
• Organisational learning models of European better enabling computers and people to work
SMEs in cooperation” (Berners-Lee et al., 2001). The
• Mobile and Multimodal interfaces for semantic web is therefore, a network of statements
social and professional activities via web about resources.
platforms Outside professional and academic circles,
arguably the most widespread adoption of the
Once the state of the art has been defined we semantic web has been in the use of RSS. RSS,
proceed to describe how the PSN system moves known variously as rich site summary, RDF
beyond what is currently the state of the art in site summary or really simple syndication, was
order to achieve the goals of the system. devised by Netscape in order to allow content
In an attempt to understand the current state publishers to syndicate their content, in the form of
of the art, as it relates to the strands of develop- headlines and short introductory descriptions, on
ment of the PSN we have carried out an extensive its My Netscape web site (Downes, 2000). The use
literature and patent review. of RSS has increased exponentially, and now RSS
descriptions (or its closely related cousin, Atom)
Scial Networking and the Semantic are used to summarise the contents of hundreds
Web of newspapers and journals, weblogs (including
the roughly eight million weblogs hosted collec-
Social networking web sites fostering the devel- tively by Emerald InTouch, Blogger, Typepad,
opment of explicit ties between individuals as LiveJournal and Userland), Wikis and more.
“friends” began to appear in 2002. Sites such Initiatives to represent information about
as Friendster, Tribe, Flickr the Facebook and people in RDF or XML have been fewer and
LinkedIn were early examples. Less explicitly demonstrably much less widely used. The HR-
based on fostering relationships than, say, online XML (Human Resources XML) Consortium has
dating sites, these sites nonetheless sought to developed a library of schemas “define the data
develop networks or “social circles” of individu- elements for particular HR transactions, as well
als of mutual interest. LinkedIn, for example, as options and constraints governing the use of
seeks to connect potential business partners or those elements” (HR-XML Consortium, 2005).
prospective employers with potential employers. Customer Information Quality TC, an OASIS
Flickr connects people according to their mutual specification, remains in formative stages (OASIS,
interest in photography. And numerous sites offer 2005). And the IMS learner information package
dating or matchmaking services. Emerald InTouch specification restricts itself to educational use
connects researchers, academics and practitioners (IMS, 2005). It is probably safe to say that there
concerned with, amongst other things, manage- is no commonly accepted and widely used speci-
ment theory and practice, publishing, learning fication for the description of people and personal
and research. information. As suggested above, developments
The semantic web, as originally conceived by in the semantic web have addressed themselves
Tim Berners-Lee, “provides a common framework almost entirely to the description of resources,
that allows data to be shared and reused across and in particular, documents.
application, enterprise, and community boundar- Outside the professional and academic circles,
ies” (W3C, 2001). Developed using the resource there have been efforts to represent the rela-
description framework (RDF), it consists of an tions between persons found in social networks


 Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

explicitly in XML and RDF. Probably the best sons (authors, editors, and the like) with a string
known of these is the Friend of a Friend (FOAF) rather than with a reference to a resource. And
specification (Dumbill, 2002). Explicitly RDF, such strings are ambiguous; such strings do not
a FOAF description will include data elements uniquely identify a person (after all, how many
for personal information, such as one’s name, people named John Smith are there?) and they do
e-mail address, web site, and even one’s nearest not identify a location where more information
airport. FOAF also allows a person to list in the may be found (with the result that many speci-
same document a set of “friends” to whom the fications require that additional information be
individual feels connected. A similar initiative is contained in the resource description, resulting
the XHTML Friends Network (XFN) (GPMG, in, for example, the embedding of VCard infor-
2003). XFM involves the use of “rel” attributes mation in LOM files).
within links contained in a blogroll (a “blogroll”
is a list of web sites the owner of a Blog will post The Learning Organisation and
to indicate readership). Networks
Currently there is little in the way of personal
description in the semantic web. The vast majority A recent benchmark study from Nemertes Re-
of XML and RDF specifications identify per- search (2007) showed that 83 percent of organi-

Figure 1. Current mechanisms for social network interactions and interactive media for organisational
learning. ©2008 Basiel & Coyne. Used with permission.


Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

sations now consider themselves to be “virtual” It is also clear however from the following
with workgroups spread across multiple locations research, and from Nemertes, that the competi-
and geographies. The workforce is increasingly tive advantages that can be created through the
mobile. According to Nemertes, fully 91% of com- networked relationships formed in the pursuit of
pany employees do at least some work outside of learning and training is uneven.
traditional headquarter locations, and 96 percent However, co-operation between organisations
use some form of real-time collaboration tools (e.g. within markets has long been identified as a fac-
IM, Web or audio/video conferencing). tor in economic success and networking between
But Nemertes also found that only 43% of organisations can contribute to stability and re-
global organisations had a mobility strategy (with duce uncertainty (Porter, 1990). These networks
another 26% currently developing one). Among can evolve over time as ‘natural’ clustering’s of
US and EU based companies, only 35% had a enterprises, or can be ‘induced’ artificially as a
strategy, with another 16% having one in develop- result of interventions like the development of
ment; thus, almost half of US and EU enterprises business or science parks.
have no organisation-wide strategy for supporting
the needs of the mobile workforce. Even more Mobile and MultiModal/MultiLingual
noteworthy, only 15% of all organisations inter- Scial Networks for Organisational
viewed had a specific mobility budget. Learning
Although collaboration is an increasingly
vital feature of business life, companies often A key design requirement of a Professional So-
promote collaboration indiscriminately. Directive cial Network is that is should be able to support
mandates to “just collaborate” create confusion multiple languages and modalities.
and bottlenecks, diminishing organisational ef- A brief survey of Social Professional net-
fectiveness (Cross et al., 2004). Creating a busi- working sites that exhibit mobile characteristics
ness case for exploring and creating cooperative produced list shown in Table 1.
workplaces seems to be more fitting. The word Many of these sites and services offer a simpli-
cooperative is defined as the engagement in joint fied location-based service for connecting with
economic activity. It also suggests an enterprise friends and groups to coordinate activities and
may be operated jointly by those who use its stay in touch and have little impact or relevance to
facilities or services. issues of work based or organisational learning.
However new developments centred on the
convergence of location based services, social
networking and semantic web are underway.
Table 1. Mobile social networks Artilium (2008), a US based provider of enhanced
mobile communications is leading the way on next
Dodgeball Veeker
generation context-aware services, presence and
ZingKu Zemble
personalisation in the mobile networking arena
Groovr Socialight
and their expertise in this area is acknowledge.
Friendstribe Hobnobster
The PSN team however believe that many of
JuiceCaster Flagr
the characteristics of the Artilium offer can be
Rabble Twitter
provided through the applied combination and
Moblabber Jambo
improved interoperability of the component parts
Wadja Nakama
the PSN team bring to the system.
Treemo


 Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

Table 2. Patent summary

Patent registers of the EU, Europe and the US
‘Learning ‘Learning
Social Social ‘Organisational Learning’ Interactive social network’ ‘Semantic Social Network’
Network’ Network’
SYSTEM AND METHOD
SYSTEM FOR SUPPORTING A FOR DYNAMICALLY Knowledge discovery agent
VIRTUAL COMMUNITY GENERATING AND system and method
MANAGING AN ONLINE Inventor: ESTES TIMOTHY
Inventor: SCHLACK JULIE W CONTEXT-DRIVEN W (US)
(US) INTERACTIVE SOCIAL
NETWORK Applicant: EC:
Applicant: COMMUNISPACE G06N5/02K IPC: G06E1/00;
Inventor: REICH ROBERT (US);
CORP (US) EC: NEWCOMB PETER (US) G06E1/00
IPC: G06F3/14; G06F3/14 Applicant: EC: IPC: Publication info:
Publication info: US2007226628 - G06F15/173; G06F15/16 US2006112029 - 2006-05-25
2007-09-27 Publication info: US2007192461
- 2007-08-16
No results No results
SOCIAL NETWORK-
ENABLED INTERACTIVE
MEDIA PLAYER
Inventor: CRULL ROBERT
WAYNE (US); MILLER BILL
CODY (US); (+2)
Applicant: CATALOG COM INC
(US); CRULL ROBERT WAYNE
(US); (+3) EC: H04L29/06S8B
IPC: G06F15/16; G06F15/16
Publication info: WO2007076072
- 2007-07-05

Additional searches through the patent reg- Open API (often referred to as OpenAPI) is
isters of the EU, Europe and the US highlighted a word used to describe sets of technologies that
some basic work in this area from the private enable websites to interact with each other by us-
sector. ing SOAP, JavaScript any other web technology.
While its possibilities aren’t limited to web-based
Standards and Interoperability applications, it’s becoming an increasing trend in
so-called Web 2.0 applications including social
The Social Networking phenomenon, as de- and professional networks. The term API stands
scribed in the previous section began to appear for Application programming interface. With the
in 2002. Sites such as Friendster, Tribe, Flickr advent of the Facebook Platform, launched June
the Facebook and LinkedIn were early examples. 1st 2007, Facebook incorporated an OpenAPI
Recently there has emerged a move towards the into its business model.
standardisation of Social Network Profiles in an OpenSocial is currently being developed by
attempt to manage Access and Identity Manage- Google in conjunction with MySpace and other
ment (AIM) and provide more opportunities to social networks including Bebo.com Engage.
connect across networks from LinkedIn, Google, com, Friendster, hi5, Hyves, imeem, LinkedIn,
FaceBook and so on. Such a development is often MySpace, Ning, Oracle, orkut, Plaxo, Salesforce.
referred to as OpenAPI. com, Six Apart, Tianji, Viadeo, and XING. The


Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

ultimate goal is for any social website to be able As matters currently stand, if I conducted a
to implement the APIs and host 3rd party social search for “social networking” then probability
applications. Explode.US is the OpenAPI of the dictates that I would most likely land on the pages
Emerald InTouch platform. of Tony Karrer, since he is cited in most places
I am likely to find through a random search. But
Beyond State of the Art? Karrer’s organisational affiliation and location
may be very different from mine; it may also be
The previous section reviewed developments and preferable to find a resource authored by someone
current capabilities in: who shares my own perspective more closely or
is, geographically more convenient. Therefore, it
• Social & professional networks is reasonable to suppose that if I were to search
• Semantic web for a resource based on both the properties of the
• Organisational learning resource and the properties of the author, I would
• Mobile and Multimodal Interfaces to social be more likely to find a resource than were I to
networks search for a random author.
• Standards and interoperability Such a search, however, is impossible unless
the properties of the author are available in some
We identified the key technologies, trends and form (something like a FOAF RDF file), and also
theories that one should be aware of in any discus- importantly, that the properties of the author are
sion of professional networks, interoperability and connected in an unambiguous way to the resources
organisational learning as seen in Table 3. being sought.
The explicit conjunction of personal informa-
Development of a Semantic Web tion and resource information within the context
Capability within a Mainstreamed and of a single distributed search system will facilitate
Practical Platform for Organisational much more fine-grained searches and levels of
Learning rich interactivity than either system considered
separately.
The links found in the web pages of social net- A convergence of these disparate technolo-
works are instances of what are known as “weak gies brought together in a unified and applied
ties”. Weak ties are acquaintances that are not format represents a true step beyond the current
part of your closest social circle, and as such have state of the art in Professional Social Networks
the power to act as a bridge between your social for learning.
cluster and someone else’s (Cervini, 2005). Figure 2 presents a simplified schematic of the
PSN. With reference to Figure 1, it is now possible

Table 3. Professional networks summary

Current State of the Art Beyond State of the Art

• Social & professional networks [1] Development of a Semantic Web capability within a mainstreamed and
• Semantic Web practical platform for Organisational Learning
• Mobile and Multimodal Interfaces to Social [2] Multimodal access to a PSN
Networks
• Standards and Interoperability [3] Standards and Interoperability


 Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

Figure 2. The PSN Architecture. ©2008 Basiel & Coyne. Used with permission.

to perceive the step forward in interoperability quest to the agent facilitating a natural, although
and the concomitant benefits for personal and remote, interaction with the PSN to discover
organisational learning that the PSN offers. network human resources and content.
The agent and the PSN platform interact with
Mobile and MultiModal Interfaces to each other as a direct benefit from the newly de-
Social Networks: The PSN Agent veloped semantic profiling work provided through
the FOAF module and the inclusion of a SKOS
The PSN agent provides a natural language style conformant ontology. Such interactions allow for
interface to the people and resources of the site. complex queries to be made in a natural and lan-
By employing ‘Call-Centre-like technology’ any guage neutral fashion. We believe this represents
user will be able to call the PSN and submit a re- a step forward in multilingual and Multimodal
access to professional social networks.

10
Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

Figure 3. New Media captioned web video

Adoption and Support Standards and Interoperability: The

PSN API
The biggest threat to the system is that we have a
well designed online Professional Social Network The current methods of accessing disparate social
that no one uses. Our answer to this challenge is and professional networks are limited. However,
addressed by our New Media Induction design. as mentioned in the previous section, there is
First, state of the art of induction and training much work underway to develop an OpenAPI
applies a marketing approach. The pedagogic approach to network connectedness. Mobile and
design of the induction is closer to a movie trailer Multimodal access is developing at a variable rate
or television advertisement than the traditional but is limited to leisure and social networks.
instructional design. Information is provided in The work of the PSN team seeks to build upon
smaller chunks with an emphasis on building the work of the SIOC, SKOS and FOAF work-
personal connections as much as learning how ing groups and in addition seek to incorporate
to use the system. Next, our blended approach to the work of the OpenSocial and OpenID move-
dissemination is taken to this induction process. A ments to ensure the long term sustainability and
face-to-face session is sandwiched between online interoperability of the PSN.
sessions to strengthen motivation. Figure 3 shows The PSN API and in particular the documen-
a collection of short 10 minute digital videos that tation supporting the architectural development
are used to reinforce the issues addressed in the work will we believe provide other groups with a
induction process. solid basis for extending and creating professional
The innovative PSN induction pedagogic and social sites which will be quite different from
design builds on the members’ prior knowledge the PSN but backwards and forwards compatible
of ICT systems and human networks to apply to dues to the adoption and integration of multiple
our new eLearning environment. Just-in-time/ and non-proprietary standards.
case pedagogic design appeals to the full-time
workplace based learner in our busy knowledge
economy.

11
 Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

Case Study ness of a students’ contribution to the collective

discussions on the blog or the wiki:
The following case study explores the use of
Emerald InTouch (2008) social network environ- This approach may be something we consider
ment where the programme tutor, Alan Durrant, at Middlesex, but at present we are starting by
shared his experience: creating situations where students must record
reflections via InTouch without the assessment
… I thought about how to use Web 2.0 technol- imperative. At the start of the course this was
ogy as part of my teaching (and) considered the very tutor-driven but we are now seeing more
requirements of learners coming onto the Profes- peer-to-peer interaction as compared with a lot
sional Practice BA Hons. programme. The course of e-learning systems. InTouch is very intuitive.
is for professional performing arts students (i.e. However, like any system, you need to use it often
dancers, musicians or actors) where training has enough to feel confident on it. We have found that
been very hands-on and directed. I wanted to the students that did not attend the induction ses-
give these students a higher education experience sion took a long time to understand the system.
counter to this approach, where they would have Next year it will be essential for students to attend
to take much more autonomous control over their the (face-to-face or online) induction where we
programme of study. The pedagogical underpin- will carry out a more in-depth introduction to
ning of this method is reflective, self-directed this platform.
learning. I wanted to help students develop their
career management, critical and reflective skills Alan’s conclusions highlight the importance of
in order to pursue their career more effectively. a well designed new media induction resource. If
you want to use this type of social network system,
The biggest challenge for the pilot study was it is important to identify the value of the new
that of adoption. Although it was one of the course media system induction that can be designed to
requirements to use Emerald InTouch, there were engage the stakeholders of the Professional Social
mixed levels of usage. Some students regularly Network (PSN) System.
posted blogs and updated their profiles, whereas As well as student usage, it has also been im-
others did not log-on since the induction sessions. portant to ensure that there are protocols in place
Durrant said he “adopted an approach of strong for the tutors. Durrant acknowledges that he also
encouragement”. As he points out: had to do some work to ensure complete familiar-
ity with the platform and also to regularly check
there are always going to be questions about InTouch for comments and new blog posts as, he
how a system like InTouch fits into an academic asserted, “There was nothing more demoralising
programme. My feeling is that students are often than posting a comment and your tutor does not
busy people who may not take time to reflect and respond to because they have long since stopped
will simply do what they need to do to complete the checking the site.” In response the Emerald techni-
course. So if we want to develop them as reflective cal team have added an ‘alert tool’ to email when
practitioners then we have to create situations changes are made to the system.
where they are forced to reflect. Basiel (1999) refers to this accessibility is-
sue as a ‘push-pull learning preference’. Some
One of the ways to do this would be by replac- online learners like to go to a website or learning
ing assignments with assessment of the effective- system to engage with the learning resources or

12
Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

Table 4. Media literacy spectrum summary

‘Millennials’
eLearning events ‘Of.ine students’
networked learners
Synchronicity Asynchronous ‘Live interaction’
Learner age pro.le Mature learner Millennium kids
Learning style Reflective Spontaneous
Learning design Just-in-case Just-in-time
Learning platform Local hard drive Server-side & client-side web browser
Bluetooth & Broad band wireless social
Mobile applications ‘off network games’
online games & simulations
Historic perspective ‘90’s multimedia stand alone resources’ ‘00’s new media streaming ‘
Expert generated ‘Stakeholder generated’
Content source
Content focus Process focus
Revise content Slower turn-around on revised materials Online revisions more quickly achieved
Tend to have up-to-the-minute
Push-pull preference Tend to go to sources of knowledge
information sent

communication / collaboration tools. They ‘pull’ social software such as Facebook and were more
their learning from the system. Others prefer to comfortable about uploading information about
have prompts sent to them. This may take the themselves rather than starting off with some sort
form of an email alert or a text SMS message to of course-related or professional blog.
their phone. This preference may differ for the An instantiation of the success behind the
various functionalities of the VLE. For example, pedagogic design of the system to develop an
the learner may want to have a text message sent online community was demonstrated by one of
when a new meeting is posted in the online diary, the distant (off-campus) German students invit-
but not get an alert every time someone enters a ing a UK colleague to visit over the Christmas
message on the text discussion board. holiday. This comradery was fostered through the
This ‘media literacy spectrum’, as coined InTouch online social system design.
by Basiel et. al. (2008) can be observed when
developing the learners’ profile. Some attributes
are summarised in Table 4. SUMMARY DISCUSSION
A functionality of the platform was the profil-
ing tool which connected students through shared This chapter has addressed some interesting issues
interests, research areas, courses or via a simple about the evolution of learning from an individual
keyword search. According to Durrant, “(this) face-to-face context to one of an online profes-
tool was extremely helpful because students sional social network model. We have stressed
would be coming onto the programme largely, if the importance of examining the underpinning
not completely working at a distance. Keyword pedagogic designs of the learning systems to guide
linking made instant connections between people the appropriate choice of online support tools.
with the same interests, a great icebreaker.” In summary now we provide a critical dis-
Campus based induction focused on the profiling course in the current ‘gap in state of the art’. The
tool to allow students to become familiar with the main issues concerning social networks that are
system. Many of the students were already using flourishing on the web now focus on the Web 2.0

13
 Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

semantic web design. Present tagging conven- and analysis of data from PSN stakehold-
tions are not adequate to progress the value of ers the natural evolution of the system can
the systems forward. Accessibility to multimodal continue.
interfaces is improving with mobile systems, but
there is a need to adapt and apply pedagogic design The closing thoughts for our chapter on profes-
principles from this chapter to improve mobile sional social networks offer some recommenda-
performance. Standards and interoperability is tions to those readers that may want to venture
in its early stages with web 1.0 content. More into this area of organisational eLearning:
work is needed to synthesise these guidelines to
professional social network system. • Establish learner’s profiles: Profiles of
The case study offered in this chapter provided the PSN members should be done at several
us with a grounded experience of using a profes- levels. First, a feasibility study will show the
sional social network. Both barriers and lessons needs identified by the stakeholders. Next,
learnt are now highlighted. personal Web 2.0 profiles identify learning
Barriers to professional social networks: styles and preferences.
• Define the type of VLE (online pedagogy):
• Adoption: How can we get full-time work- Will the eLearning model be content driven
ing professionals to use a PSN? No evidence with a strong set of digital resources? Or, will
has emerged in this chapter to suggest that a the focus be on the communication and sup-
‘silent member’ of the PSN is not learning. port needed to network and collaborate?
Further studies are needed to challenge this • Define the tools to use (eg: blogs, Wikis,
possible misconception. etc.) and the deployment strategy (eg:
• Induction design: To address the concern how many and at what stage): Appropriate
about active participation through to the eLearning toolsets should be mapped over
completion of the eLearning event the from the PSN member profiles.
value of new media design was emphasised. • Design induction pedagogy and new me-
Traditional instructional design training dia presentation: Get good initial motiva-
strategies should be challenged in this new tion to promote a culture of change to adopt
PSN context. regular use of the PSN. By getting its use to
be part of the daily routine you can address
Lessons learnt from the case study: drop out prevention.
• Explore organisational learning for your
• Protocols: Communication and collabora- context: Can you progress individual learn-
tion guidelines are needed to be made explicit ing to a networked context? What system
in a PSN system. A mix of top-down (man- changes will be needed to adjust for this
agers) and bottom-up (learners) approaches scalability?
should be taken to get feedback from PSN • Plan a shift to a professional network con-
stakeholders. These protocols are negotiable text: How can you adapt existing eLearning
over time and will continue to adapt with protocols and systems to a PSN context?
the flexibility of the system. Or, will it be easier to start over fresh with
• Evaluation: The PSN must have in place an a new system?
evaluation strategy and associated technical • Decide on the appropriate online support
system. Through the constant collection model for your PSN: The range of support

14
Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

may range from a static FAQ to mobile web Basiel A., Commins R., & Howarth M. (2008). Re-
bot agent model. From your feasibility study trieved June 27, 2008 from http://www.elearning.
data pick an appropriate set of tools to pro- mdx.ac.uk/research/index.htm.#digital_literacy
vide academic, technical and administrative
Berners-Lee et al. (2001). The Semantic Web.
help in the media and mobile platform that
Scientific American. Retrieved from http://www-
the learner’s need.
personal.si.umich.edu/~rfrost/courses/SI110/
• Formative feedback: In the annual review
readings/In_Out_and_Beyond/Semantic_Web.
strategy be sure to have systems in place to
pdf
act on the changes needed to keep the PSN
current to the learner’s needs. BOS (2007). Retrieved June 27, 2008 from http://
oasisplus.mdx.ac.uk/webct/urw/lc4831306002.
If you are a member of a professional organi- tp4831347002/CourseContentDispatch.dowebct
sation then this chapter has critically discussed ?tab=view&displayinfo=47723305021
some issues to take you forward into the 21st
Cervini (2005). Semantic networks and social
century learning society. The Web 2.0 pedagogic
networks. The Learning Organization, 12(5).
models, tool sets and protocols have been offered
to provide a framework by which you will be able Cross et al. (2004). An informal history of eLearn-
to open and establish the communication needed ing. Retrieved from http://www.emeraldinsight.
to help your organisation progress. com/Insight/viewContentItem.do?contentType=
Article&hdAction=lnkpdf&contentId=839895
Downs S. (2006). E-Learning 2.0. National
Refeen
Research Council of Canada. Retrieved from,
www.elearningmag.org/subpage.cmf?section=a
7th European Conference on e-Learning (2008).
rticles&article=29-1
Retrieved June 27, 2008 from http://academic-
conferences.org/ecel/ecel2008/ecel08-abstracts. Dumbill, E. (2002). Finding Friends with XML
htm and RDF, XMLWatch. Retrieved June 27, 2008
from http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/
Armsby, P., Costley, C., Garnett, J. (2006). The
xml/library/x-foaf.html
legitimisation of knowledge: a work-based learn-
ing perspective of APEL. Lifelong Learning and Emerald InTouch (2008). Retrieved June 27, 2008
Education, 25(4), 369-83. Retrieved June 27, 2008, from http://info.emeraldinsight.com/products/in-
from www.emeraldinsight.com/.../published/em- touch/index.htm
eraldfulltextarticle/pdf/0860190301_ref.html
Facebook (2008). Retrieved June 27, 2008 from
Artilium (2008). Educational technology—a http://www.facebook.com/
long look back. BJET, 39(4), 234-236. Published
FP7 (2008). Retrieved June 27, 2008 from
online.
http://www.elearning.mdx.ac.uk/research/index.
Basiel (1999). Retrieved June 27, 2008. Paper: htm.#4_April_
http://www.elearning.mdx.ac.uk/research/push-
FP7 European Commission (2008). Retrieved
pull/pushpull/Push&Pull.htm. Toolkit: http://
June 27, 2008 from http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/
www.elearning.mdx.ac.uk/research/pushpull/
pushpull/PROFILE.HTM

15
 Exploring a Professional Social Network System to Support Learning in the Workplace

GPMG (2003) XHTML Friends Network (XFN). OASIS (2005). Customer Information Quality
Retrieved from, http://gmpg.org/xfn/ and http:// TC, available at: www.oasis-open.org/commit-
www.downes.ca/cgi-bin/page.cgi?post=31624 and tees/ciq/charter.php
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewCo
OED Definition (2008). Retrieved June 27, 2008
ntentServlet;jsessionid=0672AB01BCFD4DC91
from http://www.oed.com/
0E9F3D12B123297?Filename=Published/Emer-
aldFullTextArticle/Pdf/1190120502_ref.html Porter (1990). Retrieved June 27, 2008 from
http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id
HR-XML Consortium (2005). Retrieved from,
=TT596zcGF0oC&oi=fnd&pg=PT454&dq=Por
http://www.hrcertify.org/index.php
ter,+1990&ots=Wl4aMVx-NL&sig=MAonDDT
IMS Global Learning Consortium. (2005). IMS cOBsSLJR31MnGmXxGTu8
Learner Information Package Specification.
Stephenson J. & Young D. (2007) The Use of an
Available at: www.imsglobal.org/profiles/
Interactive Learning Environment to Support
InTouch (2008). Retrieved June 27, 2008 from Learning Through Work, in Work-based Learning
http://intouch.emeraldinsight.com/ Futures. Young D & Garnett, J, University Voca-
tional Awards Council, Bolton. June 27, 2008 from
JISC (2008). Retrieved June 27, 2008 from www.
http://www.johnstephenson.net/jsfullcv.htm
jisc.ac.uk/
University College London (2006). Retrieved
Nemertes Research (2007). Supporting mobile
June 27, 2008 from http://www.publishing.ucl.
worker networks: components for effective work-
ac.uk/events.html
places. Retrieved June 27, 2008 from http://www.
emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServle W3C (2001). Retrieved June 27, 2008 from www.
t?Filename=Published/EmeraldFullTextArticle/ w3.org/
Articles/3120090303.html
YouTube (2008) Retrieved June 27, 2008 from
www.YouTube.co.uk

16
 17

Chapter II
Knowledge Producing
Megamachines:
The Biggest Web 2.0 Communities
of the Future

Laszlo Z. Karvalics
University of Szeged, Hungary

ABSTRACT

In the present study, the authors point of departure is the control crisis of science whose resolution re-
quires radical social innovation. The author then shows that the only possible way for achieving this is
the partial fusion of certain portions of scientific activity with the system of public education, by means
of organizing scientists, teachers, as well as middle and high-school students into hybrid, knowledge
producing mega-machines. The author shall subsequently argue that doing so will at the same time bring
about a pragmatic shift in public education, for which professionals in the field of pedagogy have long
been ready in principle and in theory. As a final result we shall see the emergence of science and public
instruction tailored to the global system level, within the framework of the information society.

InTROoduion search workshops of particular countries produce

sensational results day by day, and the national
The best way to predict the future is to invent it. systems of public education undergo continuing
(Alan Kay) renewal, nonetheless in terms of their interest
structures, their institutional mechanisms, and
The two perhaps most important sub-systems their financing, both science and public education
of the Information Society, Science and Public have up to the present day continued to carry the
Education, are confronting a social innovation imprint of the industrial era. For that reason, their
process of staggering force. Even though the re- functional disturbances can be managed ever

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 Knowledge Producing Megamachines

less effectively by short lived pseudo-reforms of Theonol CRISIS Oof

purely transitional impact. SCIien and inele
The information technology background sys- COonol REVOolu
tems of modern sciences produce an incredible
quantity of output signals. For many of the sciences In the relevant literature there is a general ac-
(primarily genetics, oceanography, meteorol- ceptance of statements such as that the global-
ogy/climatology, environmental sciences, nuclear ization of science has accelerated, that modes of
physics, pharmacology, archeology, and, first of knowledge production are emerging which follow
all, astronomy) it is more and more problematic to new patterns, or that the rapid build-out of the
manage the content of their permanently swelling new cyber-infrastructure of science introduces
background stores Beside financial resources the radical changes in methodologies of numerous
“human agent”, human infrastructure, is becom- scientific fields. There is, however, a considerable
ing one of the bottlenecks. If we need brains in divergence of opinions concerning the depth of
a “pre-digestive” process, it can easily find them the challenge facing science and what the most
where the task is exactly to make these brains able comprehensive framework might be for interpret-
to do (even) scientific work: in the school benches. ing the respective changes.
With the pupils socialized in the adequate com-
munity scope, involving resources and learning Beniger
basic knowledge to satisfy their sateless desire to
know and with their teachers an alliance may be On my part, I consider the model introduced by
created, and the biggest human GRID (the biggest James Beniger in his epochal work, The Control
Web 2.0. community) will be composed from these Revolution (Beniger, 1986), to be the most fertile
hybrid online clusters – the new type of knowledge theoretical approximation. I hold so because the
producing and learning communities. current situation of science can be elegantly inter-
This process will, however, not run its course preted using Beniger’s category of a control crisis
automatically. It requires efforts aligned with while also convincingly revealing the defining
the same orientation, over several decades, by features of the incubating control revolution.
scientists from the various specialized fields, Shortly after the publication of his book,
coordinators of instruction, political decision Beniger himself attempted to summarize in an
makers, teachers, social researchers, and informa- independent study how his model might be ex-
tion technological system developers. The final tended to global science (Beniger, 1988).
result guided by a vision, and the broad sweep The control revolution was the successful
of the project that builds the path leading to that answer given to the lightning-fast process of in-
goal, make for social innovation of a scope and dustrialization which evolved during the century
importance whose like has never before been following the 1830’s. Beside reining in speed
formulated either by the sociology of science, and energy, adequate answers were successfully
by the philosophy of education, or by research found to governance and enterprise management
in futurology. through technological innovations supporting
At this point our assertions concerning the the flow and elaboration of information, together
future are hypotheses. Our aim is to elaborate with the social innovation of modern bureaucracy.
scenarios ripened in a series of debates and work Beniger’s attention is drawn early to the double
toward consensus-based conceptual structures, all role in this process played by telematics, the in-
of which will make it possible to initiate effective creasingly interwoven world of information and
and soundly based social action and coordination, communication systems. With its innovations,
if and when the vision gains acceptence.

18
Knowledge Producing Megamachines

telematics supports the broad establishment of capability. (For a summary of this point of view,
new and effective control structures. Yet in so see (Nentwich, 2005). And yet, at the same time
far as the very processes whereby information is Beniger’s general model is more relevant than
interpreted and evaluated for control purposes, ever. The current control crisis of science cannot
are not successfully subjected to regulation over be found along the obstacles of accessibility to
and over again by use of adequate methods, the results; it has shifted to the scenes of new knowl-
feedback weakens and the system runs into new edge creation. By to-day the lack of feedback can
forms of control crisis. already be attributed primarily and principally to
When Beniger applies this to science, as a sys- system-level constraints on the interpretation of
tem constructed par excellence from the streaming knowledge and of raw information and data.
of information flows, he perceives almost every-
where the indications of a growing control crisis. Revolution in Sign Production,
He finds the primary threat in the large-scale Sortage in Brains
startup of new systems of telematics which disturb,
or with their excessive radicalism—because they Modern sciences, with their up-to-date infor-
abandon a paper-based world—even disorganize, mation technology parks, are producing output
the accustomed flow patterns of already pro- data in quantities already so staggering as to
duced knowledge. Thereby they further weaken make these incapable of being overviewed in a
the functioning of the most important feedback properly interpretive manner by the scientific
mechanism, the citation system. community—which, to make things worse, is
It is strange how completely Beniger (1988:26) continually perfecting its capacity of producing
is mistaken when he has fears for scientific reports, and storing even more new information and data.
the publishing of specialized journals, or the pub- “New data – whole new types of data – are accu-
lication of conference proceedings in their capac- mulating faster than researchers can make sense
ity as feedback mechanisms, on account of their of them. The result is something like an optical
exposure to information challenges. “Telematics illusion” (Hugh Kieffer, cited by Norton, 2004).
threatens global science … [with] … a crisis of Those sciences which have high levels of demand
control. Many involved with the computerization for raw data and their interpretation—genetics,
of information systems have predicted—some oceanography, meteorology/climatology, environ-
gleefully—a decline in the formal scientific paper, mental sciences, atomic physics, pharmacology
a blurring of the distinction between research and above all astronomy—are currently undergo-
notes and papers and between papers and the ing the cyber-infrastructure revolution with their
response to them by others, an increase in mul- GRIDs, their enormous capacities for calculation,
tiple authorship by scores or even hundreds who simulation and visualization, their more and more
participate in a telematic discussion, and the intelligent agents and work-flow devices.
decline of formal journals, editors, and the gate- Yet the scientists are aware of the control cri-
keeping function more generally.” (Commenting sis. They all have the bitter experience that their
on Beniger’s work, Gerhard Fröhlich shares this efforts of building new models and coming up
anxiety (Fröchlich, 1996) with pioneering connections and hypotheses are
Surely, the last two short decades have brought constrained by the small capacity of the analytic
a control revolution precisely from this point of personnel available for handling lower-level, sup-
view, with the creation of the new environment of portive transformational tasks. These tasks in-
digitalization, web-browsing, or full-text search clude surveys of measurement data, of elementary

19
 Knowledge Producing Megamachines

objects, or of relevant singular events; the testing PREelude THE knowled

of map structures; or the confirmation/ verification poduinmeama
of masses of elementary correlations. Any suc-
cesses achieved in automating or computerizing During the past three decades the science estab-
the analysis of the raw data will only reproduce lishment has tried to ease the intensifying pressure
at the next higher analytic level the experience with three parallel minor innovations:
of support personnel being unable to cope with
the mass of transformational tasks. 1. Organizational and institutional solutions
In the past, scientists had met this experience facilitating the optimal use of the available
only when surveying the specialized literature and capacities and numbers of human brains
running into the limits of the library services or (intensification).
the reference/abstract/search systems. Yet by now 2. Interconnection of existing research staffs
the capacity limit shows up in relation to the output into virtual communities of ever growing
of each scientist’s own data—a control crisis that size (concentration).
cannot be managed by traditional approaches. This 3. Attempted massive mobilization of new
is because until now the preferred tool of control brains capable of being involved in the
revolutions was the automation/computerization solution of scientific problems (extensive
of the kind of human intellectual effort that could growth).
be translated into appropriate algorithms, just as
the computer itself had replaced human computa- Each of these solutions yielded some tem-
tions done by pencil and paper. (Grier, 2005) porary and partial results—but these results
Wherever this algorithmic translation can be paradoxically ended up by reinforcing the basic
continued—as in the case of robot librarians or problem, because of the increased demand for
the “robot scientist” used in gene sequencing—the data production stimulated precisely by the suc-
impact of the control crisis can be moderated. As cessful feedback. We shall show below, one by
A. M. Weinberg says, “extreme automation may one, why neither of the three approaches can be
be appropriate for those activities that are time expected to promise further advance. Yet each of
constrained, it may lead to clogged information these three attempts has made a significant con-
channels for those scientific activities for which tribution to identifying the feasible path toward
time is less important than depth of understand- the real control revolution.
ing.” (Weinberg, 1989). Thus the scientific com- Intensification has time as its equivalent. When
munity has come step by step to the recognition the staff of research assistants suddenly increases,
that the bottleneck is in the areas of knowledge and this also means that we have to discover a way
insight that cannot be reduced to algorithms; the of reassigning the precious time of leading sci-
process of knowledge production is constrained entists to activities that yield higher added value.
by human brains capable of interpreting, placing Sophisticated bibliographic software is meant to
in context, and thereby counterbalancing the sheer serve the same objective. And scientists gather
mass of raw data being generated. Therefore the into problem-centered invisible colleges which
new scientific control revolution can only arise are arising in parallel with the hierarchies of
from the human infrastructure, it can only be traditional authority, in order to make sure that
a human revolution—and as such calls not for the time required to arrive at new insights will be
technological but for social innovation. shortened by means of an intensive exchange of
knowledge. The fundamental constraint on such

20
Knowledge Producing Megamachines

ways of intensification arises from the ever smaller or problems. On www.academici.com those in-
part of the aggregate knowledge in a given area terested can search according to several criteria,
of science that has come to be represented as the such as research field or scientific interest. In this
personal knowledge of any one individual. As for- way educational or scientific institutions located at
mulated close to forty years ago by an outstanding the greatest world distances from each other can
Hungarian economist, Ferenc Jánossy, “Precisely mutually get in touch in a matter of minutes.
this is why we have to beware of tugging by sheer The DILIGENT project of the European
force at the net of individual knowledge, trying to Union develops safe, coordinated, dynamic and
cover all of the increased area, until the meshes cost effective test beds for virtual scientific com-
are torn and only large holes remain instead of munities, to facilitate the sharing of knowledge and
the dense coverage of the net.” (Jánossy, 1975). cooperation. Involving the website (http://www.
This recognition opens the way to the search for diligentproject.org/), experiments are proceeding
more decentralized and democratic knowledge in two real-time application fields, an environmen-
production models. tal sustainability project and a cultural-heritage
Concentration is embodied in ever larger preservation topic, by combining the Grid and
cooperating communities of researchers. The the DL (digital library) technologies.It is readily
pioneering Human Genome Project has been fol- apparent that from the point of view of control
lowed by several similar research undertakings structures, the size constraint is given by the
whose common element is the allocation of human maximal number of the scientists who can be
resources required by such extensive research meaningfully interconnected. Meanwhile, the
tasks, on the basis of novel principles. cooperative forms, workflow solutions, software
systems, and online cooperative cultures created
Precursors for several tens of thousands of participants are
already paving the way for making possible the
At the end of 2006 more than 100 thousand sci- operations and organization of research com-
entists from more than 175 countries have taken munities of several-million-members which are
part in the Innocentive initiative. The website expected to emerge in the course of the control
(http://www.innocentive.com) organizes the co- revolution.
operation of world-level researchers as problem
solvers, and companies wishing to solve their The Advent of Participatory Citizen
development questions focusing on science, as Sience
seekers. It is effective primarily in the search for
innovative answers given to complex challenges, Extensive growth comes from drawing into
mainly in the fields of pharmacology, biotech- science some social groups that had earlier, to
nology, chemistry, food industry and plastics some extent consciously, been excluded. The
industry, with financial awards often exceeding orientations of citizen science and participatory
$ 100,000. research (Irwin, 1995, Park et al., 1993) do not
The Academici website offers a search frame- fight for the renaissance of amateur science but
work constructed for facilitating any emerging for the integration of knowledge created outside
scientific cooperative initiatives and has thereby the scientific establishment, into the scientific
made it possible for scientists and researchers problem solving processes. Typical examples,
anywhere in the world to share their experiences often with the spirit of movements, come into
at any time without limits and restrictions or to being and evolve in order to support the scientific
discuss any questions, proposals, suggestions, emancipation of indigenous knowledge, that is,

21
 Knowledge Producing Megamachines

knowledge concerning the local environment, etary.org/programs/projects/stardustathome/).

weather, therapies, animals or plants. This monotonous and tiring work required what
There exists, however an even more compre- amounts almost to a hunt for volunteers, who
hensive context, the aspect of “open science” were permitted to join the search after success-
which fights, on theoretical and historical grounds, fully passing a test.
for breaking down the walls between Science and Practices of bringing new brains into science,
Non-science (Dasgupta and David, 1994). Open undertaken so far, clearly demonstrate that in
science, in the spirit of a new ethos (actually, one selected cases this may lead to success; it does,
harking back to the 17th century) and fired by pow- however, not provide a system-level solution to
erful economic arguments, carries the banner for a the problem of the missing human infrastructure.
program of broadly spreading out such knowledge Voluntarism and contingency cannot be reconciled
as already exists, and hopes from this — among with a systemic revolution of control. And yet,
other things — for a growth in the number of we owe a lot to these projects, because they are
persons involving themselves in the cultivation proving day by day they that it is possible both
of science. The attraction of new brains has been to imagine and to operate problem solving com-
started in several ways, based not upon theoreti- munities of never seen size, and to boot, with
cal but rather very practical considerations, by outsiders. In the public discourse, they strengthen
drawing participants primarily into problems of narratives relating to the decentralization, democ-
the environment and sustainability, because of ratization and massive expansion of science, and
their personal exposure and ready competency. thereby they open up the door to the real control
The projects with the broadest participation are, revolution—the creation of knowledge producing
however, connected to space research where mil- mega-machines.
lions of amateur astronomers have even earlier
been able to get into the scientific establishment
with their observations and results. In the highly Plan of a mema
computation-intensive SETI@home project only
the redundant computer time was lent by more than The mega-machine is Lewis Mumford’s noted
four million people, but in the Stardust@home category (Mumford, 1967, 1970). Studies in the
project voluntary brains were already also being history of technology often refer to it as the term
needed, in order to act as virtual microscopes in for a large and hierarchically organized task com-
the identification of collected micro-particles. munity—from the pyramid builders to the many
(The Johnson Space Center, with the help of the armies of history. Mumford intended, however,
Planetary Society and the University of California to convey more than a simple metaphor. He was
at Berkeley, has performed a high-resolution scan in part also interested in how the human com-
of the so called aerogel used for capturing spatial ponents of a mechanism cooperate with the tool
dust. The scanned micro-images are available in components, the mega-technics; how a few large
700,000 movie-length segments via the Internet, cities which attain a central role in communica-
containing less than 50 expected micro-particles tions, labeled megalopolis, become the scenes of
scattered like needles in a vast haystack. Results these events; how social control of technology
obtained in interpreting the images by voluntary emerges; and how communities of this size can
scientific participants joining in from the public, be described with the terminology of cybernetics.
if proven reliable by tests, will help in finding Mumford (1967:191-192) was interested in how “…
and isolating individual micro-particles. These to turn a random collection of human beings...into
will be named by their discoverers (http://plan- a mechanized group that could be manipulated

22
Knowledge Producing Megamachines

at command. The secret of mechanical control students in the 12-18 age cohort, supervised in
was to have a single mind with a well-defined aim an orderly and structured manner by some 40
at the head of the organization, and a method of million teachers. Public education is a human
passing messages... (to) the smallest unit.”. mega-machine that is already at hand, striving,
We can even consider the information society to boot, toward a fully online existence at aston-
itself, in its most comprehensive sense, as a mega- ishing speed. It appears to be perfectly suitable,
machine (May, 2000). Yet we find the expression while radically renewing its current functioning,
especially useful when we are looking for a name to become at the same time also a mega-machine
to designate the kind of knowledge-producing for research, thereby solving the control crisis of
communities that will be able to exceed the largest science. Or put in a different way, other than the
present scales of scientific cooperation perhaps a hundreds of millions who are now articulated into
hundredfold. And since we have seen the short- the national systems of public education, we can
comings of current efforts aimed at increasing find no social group on earth or in heaven that
the number of brains participating in scientific would so completely satisfy our prior expectations
research tasks, the conditions outlining the criteria concerning size, availability and organization.
that future scientific mega-machines will have to Why is it then that this statement, when we first
fulfill have become quite clear: come upon it, should nevertheless feel so startling,
bizarre, and utopian? Indeed, once we realize that
• Guarantee of staffs of sufficient size. it is necessary, we only have to convince ourselves
• Guarantee of staff availability. that it is possible. If we accept the goal — to plan
• Professional-methodological quality assur- and put in motion the new mega-machines built
ance of activities. on public education — then we can take our time
• Accountability, dedicated areas of respon- pondering the details of the path that will lead us
sibility, deadlines met and capable of being there. So the challenge does not lie in listing all
met, clear project scenarios, and professional the steps that are indispensable for implement-
management. ing the initiative but rather, in figuring out how
• Organized transfer of or instruction in the to make the vision itself realistic. Can it possibly
knowledge minimally necessary to join a be sustained as a hypothesis? Is a mega-machine
project. conceptualized in this way at all imaginable? Is
• Facilitation of tasks, continuous mediation it outlandish in relation to the institutional and
among individual participants of the sys- functional order of public education or to the
tem. contrary, is it wonderfully adaptable to that order?
• Flexible, many-sided online system man- But above all, why do we find it so hard to throw
agement service, oriented to facilitating ourselves enthusiastically into listing the fantastic
horizontal as well as vertical interactions. functional consequences that we hope will flow
from the birth of the new mega-machine?
But where could the many tens of millions of Perhaps it sounds strange at first but it is
brains be found for this? How could communities impossible to find a single serious and objective
of this size be made manageable and operable in counter-argument. Yet acceptance of the vision is
line with the above expectations? all the more impeded by hardened views, mistakes,
According to a rough but conservative ex- preconceptions, misunderstandings and optical
trapolation based on UNESCO data for the year illusions, which must be brought into the open,
2004 (http://gmr.uis.unesco.org/ViewTable.aspx), exhibited, and demolished before we can once
by 2007 there were approximately 800 million again take a searching look at the vision itself.

23
 Knowledge Producing Megamachines

As it usually happens, when seeking to define the course the alarm bells are immediately rung as
outlines of the Future, we run into the attitudinal soon as the process begins to falter somewhere,
roadblocks of the Past. with particular disciplines attracting insufficient
interest on the part of the relevant age groups.)
But let us now replace the out-of-date objective
EduN: THE SPpiof THE function with that of the information era. From
induial e o the point of view of up-to-date knowledge asset
delayed CEen of THE CHILD management, is the school getting a suitable return
from the brains committed to its care? Does it
Ellen Karolina Sofia Key wrote her emblematic deal with the knowledge carried by the students
book entitled The Century of the Child in 1900 on the basis of an appropriate valuation, does it
(Key, 1900), a polemic discourse in which she at- regard such knowledge as a capital asset, does it
tempted a showdown with the shadows of the 19th make an effort to integrate that knowledge in a
Century. Ellen Key envisaged a radically new 20th truly transformative fashion as much as possible
Century built on a positive child image, in which with the total mass of knowledge?
the schools would no longer deliberately freeze If we measure the school’s quality of func-
but rather set free the intellectual and spiritual tioning by how well it creates a foundation for
energies hiding in the child. Sadly, the Swedish the holistic image of the human essence as one
author was mistaken. Despite all the emancipa- of life-long learning, then it is immediately ap-
tory, promising initiatives of that century, the real parent that we are in deep trouble. The crucial
turnaround is still waiting in the wings. The school question therefore becomes whether a totally and
as an institution has shown an appalling lack of essentially industrial-era mega-machine might
change ever since the end of the 19th Century. Its be capable of renewing itself by assimilation to
objective function pursues social and labor market the demands of the information age, or whether
integration, its image of the child is paternalistic, the imperative of change must necessarily aim
and its pattern of knowledge flow is determinedly at dismembering the mega-machine itself. Ivan
one-way. The school decants the necessary abili- Illich’s answer was clear, definite and scandal-
ties, skills and knowledge into the child’s head izing: the school as an institution was itself the
with the help of the teachers and the material of chief obstacle to renewal.
instruction, while keeping the child’s time budget,
comportment, and knowledge organization under The current search for new educational funnels
strict control, standardizing the required minimal must be reversed into the search for their institu-
levels of knowledge. The reason why the tired tional inverse: educational webs which heighten
commonplaces of the so-called world crisis of the opportunity for each one to transform each
education never mature into an interpretation as moment of his living into one of learning, sharing,
a control crisis, is simply that the school is actu- and caring. (Illich, 1970)
ally experiencing no crisis at all, it is fulfilling its
task, the feedbacks are working — just so long In my personal opinion, a process of creative
as the fundamental assumptions and criteria of destruction leads to far more difficulties than
success continue to be those of the industrial era. the re-planning and re-engineering of the mega-
Likewise, the science of the industrial era is not machine of public education. The school has
in crisis, either, because the processes of selection changed much, to its advantage. For a long time,
for the replacement of its cadre of scientists are pedagogical theory has also been knocking on
continuing smoothly without any hitch. (And of the door with a set of claims that it delineates

24
Knowledge Producing Megamachines

normatively in connection with the school, the of the 12-18 age group for active and creative
teaching/learning processes, and the children of participation in scientific group work.
the information age. Specifically:
Mini-Einsteins Versus Intellectual
• Education should move away from au- Immigrants
thoritarian orthodoxy toward a world of
horizontal communications and of coop- It may seem gratifying to collect a colorful posy
erating, problem solving teen-age student of the latest acts of student geniuses. How a Hun-
communities. garian high-school student living in Calgary, with
• Let us teach each child from an early age to two weeks’ work, succeeded in proving Albrecht
think critically, thereby supporting the de- Dürer’s five-hundred-year old geometric conjec-
velopment of a facility that allows pondering ture which had earlier resisted the mathematical
problems from different perspectives and, community’s best efforts? How a fifteen-year-old
even independently, with a thoroughness boy, jointly with his world famous co-author,
maturing toward the scientific level. published an excitingly original astrophysical
• The teacher should be an animator, not hypothesis? How teen-age girls were involved in
a device for the recitation of instruction choosing the optimal landing point for the Mars
material. The teacher should smartly direct terrain exploration robot?
the independent knowledge operations of Yet, what needs proof is not that talented
the students that also make use of library teen-age students are at times capable of produc-
and Internet resources, intervening only at ing results comparable to those of grey-haired
critical points. professors. We lose our way if we try to look for
• Wherever possible, the principle of learning economy-size scientists among 12-18 year old
by doing and getting the children to make children; the mega-machine demands something
their own discoveries should replace mind- entirely different. The students, with the help of
less cramming. their teachers, must be capable of and suitable for
• Education should build on children as self- appropriately undertaking massive partial tasks,
confident and smart users of the world of in- typically of a low level of abstraction, yet still
formation-technology devices and systems calling for natural intelligence. Let us replace one
who are already on the brink of absorbing single research assistant with a hundred children
this experience and knowledge at the same and four teachers, and we will begin approaching
time as their mother tongue. realistic proportions. And ten thousand children
with four hundred teachers may well provide us
If we want to build a pragmatic pedagogical with as much problem-solving power for a scien-
program on the above theoretical expectations, we tific program as a research staff of one hundred.
could nowhere find a better option than to involve Of course, what we should expect from a student
teen-age students and their teachers by the mil- is, accordingly, one hundredth of what we may
lions into the suitably prepared and well-organized expect from an adult scientific researcher.
problem-solving processes, involving network All this is well known by all those who had
communications and cooperative work, that are tried their hand at on-site scientific work jointly
emerging in a number of scientific areas. with massive groups of students. Where research
The spirit of the out-of-date industrial era is left programs, because of their very nature or a lack
with just one position it can take to save it from of support, have to make do without sufficient hu-
retreat. That is to call into question the suitability man resources, they increasingly turn to teenagers

25
 Knowledge Producing Megamachines

under the whip of necessity. Our space limitations Still, many think that scientific activities are
preclude displaying the variety of color and the not for teenagers, that it is better to keep science
richness of form of currently running efforts at the level of illustrations meant just to awaken
of this kind. Tens of thousands of students are their interest, in order to make them disposed
becoming articulated into research programs of to learn. Their situation is therefore powerfully
great vitality, in the course of which they undertake illuminated by the results of comparative educa-
full-valued ornithological observations, ecologi- tional surveys which show that if we integrate
cal surveys and measurements, or data collection a broad collection of scientific problem solving
efforts pertaining to local history. The exacting methods, approaches, and philosophies into
database of Estonian trees has been compiled educational practice from an early age, we find
by the student participants of the Tiger Leap an abrupt increase in children’s disposition to
program of the Estonian Schoolnet. The SG@ learn as well as in their learning performance.
Schools project in Singapore is being planned Pedagogical action research has also shown that
with reliance, in part, on the efforts of students in just as the acquisition of computer skills creates
gene sequencing, animation tasks, and complex no particular problems, in the same way neither
financial calculations. are there cultural, linguistic, religious or social
The screenagers, representatives of today’s obstacles to the acquisition of skills in undertaking
generation that had grown up on television and activities of a scientific type. By transforming the
the computer, are adapting to the new cognitive public education system in a way that integrates
environment —according to Douglas Rushkoff’s information and science literacy into education
apt remark (Rushkoff, 1996),— as naturally and from a very early age, we can promote an equal-
flexibly as the children of immigrants learn the ity of opportunities more effectively than in any
language of the recipient country, faster and more other way.
effectively than their parents. And it is hard to The children stand ready to become parts
imagine that the digital kids, who effortlessly cope of the knowledge producing mega-machines. It
with directing the traffic of the Chicago airport is only the scientists, education-policy leaders,
on a simulation game, who are daily managing parents, and teachers who will have to come to
extended online contact networks, and who can believe this.
smartly transform information from one complex
format into another, were not to be destined to ac- The Architecture of the
complish even more. Would they not be suitable for Mega-Machine and its Impacts
administering questions in sociological surveys
— perhaps concerning precisely their own age In the coming years or decades, a series of re-
group? Or to read original sources and abstract search projects and experimental programs will
their contents? Or to translate professional texts put together and give precise shape to the basic
with their teachers’ help? Or to answer questions, structure and to the thousands of small details of
even by the thousand, put to them by scientists the operation of knowledge producing mega-ma-
about what they find digging deep into their in- chines. In the discussion below I wish to survey,
dividually assigned little fields of inquiry? Or to without any pretense to completeness, some of
try aggregating their partial bits of knowledge the fundamental aspects and characteristics that
within flexible ad hoc communities? Of course will almost certainly be relevant to the future
they would. It would take no more than looking at system:
them and seeing them in this particular way.

26
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
secreto alguno, entendieron que
se les començaua a descubrir, y
ansi[615] acordaron de se
hurtar[616] y venirse en Brauante,
por no caer en las manos del Rey
que con cruel muerte castigara
ambos a dos. El qual con mano
armada vino a esta tierra por los
auer; y porque el duque los
defendió hizo tanto daño y mal en
esta tierra que..... Como el
huesped llegaua aqui dieron a las
puertas del meson golpes con
gran furia, y como yo estaba tan
deseoso que viniesse Arnao
arremeti a las puertas por las
abrir, y vile que se queria apear.
Regoçijosseme el alma sin
conparaçion y di graçias a Dios
por hazerme tan gran merced.
Senti en Beatriz vna tristeza
mortal, porque çierto aquella
noche esperaua ella hazer
anatomia de mi coraçon, por ver
qué tenia en él. Luego dimos de
çenar a Arnao y se acostó con su
muger. Otro dia de mañana
partimos de alli con mucho
regoçijo, avnque no mostraua
Beatriz tanto contento,
pareçiendole a ella que no se le
auia hecho a su voluntad. En esta
manera fuemos continuando
nuestras xornadas hasta llegar a
Paris, donde llegados procuró
Beatriz proseguir su intinçion[617]
y ansi en todos los lugares donde
auia oportunidad y se podia
ofreçer mostraua con todos los
sentidos de su cuerpo lo que
sentia su coraçon; y vn dia que se
ofreçió entrar en casa y hallarla
sola, como ya no podia disimular
la llaga que la atormentaua,
ençendido su rostro de vn
vergonçoso color se determinó
descubrir su pecho diziendo
padeçer por mi amor: que la
hiziese tanta graçia que no la
dexasse más penar, porque no
tenia ya fuerças para más lo
encubrir; y yo le respondi. Señora,
Arnao ha sido conmigo tan liberal,
que despues de auer arriscado en
el mar su vida por mi me ha
puesto toda su hazienda y casa
en poder, y más dispongo yo della
que él, y sola tu persona reseruó
para sí. ¿Cómo podria yo hazer
cosa tan nefanda y atroz faltando
a mi lealtad? y ansi a muchas
vezes que me dixo lo mesmo le
respondi estas palabras; y vna
mañana suçedió que vistiendose
Arnao para yr a negoçiar la dexó
en la cama, y sin que ella lo
sintiesse se entró Arnao en vn
retrete junto a la cama a vn
seruidor que estaua a la contina
alli, y luego suçedió que entré yo
preguntando por Arnao: y como
ella me oyó pensando que Arnao
era ya salido de casa me mandó
con gran importunidad llegar á sí,
y como junto a su cama me tubo
apañóme de la capa fuertemente
y dixo: Alberto, echate aqui, no
me hagas mas penar; y yo
dexandole la capa en las manos
me retiré fuera no lo queriendo
hazer; y luego me sali de casa por
no esperar mayor mal; y ella
como se sintio menospreçiada
començó a llamar sus criados a
grandes bozes diziendo que la
defendiessen de Alberto que la
auia querido forçar; y que por
muestra de la verdad
mostraua[618] la capa que le auia
yo dexado en las manos y que a
las bozes auia yo echado a huyr,
y añadió: llamadme aqui a Arnao
porque vea de quien fia su
hazienda y muger. Y a estas sus
bozes salió Arnao del retrete
donde estaua y dixole: Calla
Beatriz, que ya tengo visto que
corre él mas peligro contigo que
tú con él; y fue tanta la afrenta y
confusion que ella reçibio de ver
que todo lo auia visto Arnao que
luego alli delante de todos sus
criados y gente de su casa
subitamente murio; y como el
buen Arnao vio su desdicha, auer
perdido tan afrentosamente el
amigo y la muger acordó lo mas
disimuladamente que pudo
enterrar a ella y yrme a mi a
vuscar, y ansi de mi peregrinaje y
del suyo sabras en el canto que
se siguirá.

Fin del nono canto del gallo.

 NOTAS:
[566] G., acordado que por esa causa estuue en punto de perder
vn amigo.
[567] (Tachado). Siguesse el nono canto del Gallo de Luçiano,
orador griego, contrahecho en el castellano por el mesmo autor.
[568] G., fagrosa.
[569] G., Los vientos soberuios.
[570] G., çercauan.
[571] G., andauan.
[572] G., oyrse.
[573] G., grande.
[574] G., reconoçio.
[575] G., y.
[576] G., deuia.
[577] G., nuestro socorro y remedio.
[578] G., podimos.
[579] G., la.
[580] G., intinçion.
[581] G., podria ser mediçina.
[582] G., Dezia.
[583] G., intençion.
[584] G., parte.
[585] G., a.
[586] G., naçieron.
[587] G., reçibian.
[588] G., dormiendo.
[589] G., presa de sus amores.
[590] G., podiesse.
[591] G., alguna caça.
[592] G., veniendosele.
[593] G., bessa.
[594] G., pensatiua.
[595] G., cauallero afeminado.
[596] G., de.
[597] G., porque auian.
[598] G., del Rey.
[599] G., partes de.
[600] G., importunaua.
[601] G., su liçençia dellos.
[602] G., su.
[603] G., y le.
[604] G., briales y joyeles.
[605] G., la.
[606] G., de gozar los amores de Melisa.
[607] G., ricas y hermosas.
[608] G., conoçio.
[609] G., y.
[610] G., caualleria.
[611] G., la.
[612] G., y ansi siendo despojados de todos sus paños,
despidiendo su compañia, quedaron solos en una cama ambos
dos y sin luz.
[613] G., vna.
[614] G., contandole.
[615] G., por lo qual.
[616] G., salir secretamente.
[617] G., intençion.
 ARGUMENTO
DEL DEÇIMO
CANTO

En el deçimo canto que se sigue

el auctor prosigue lo mucho
que Arnao hizo por cobrar a
Alberto despues que su muger
se murio. En lo qual mostró
bien el valor de su amistad, y
quales todos los amigos
deuen ser[619].

Gallo.—Despierta, ¡o Miçilo! yo
te ruego porque quiero oy entre
los otros dias admirar con mi
facundia tu humana capaçidad,
quando veas por vn gallo
admirablemente mostrada la
grande y incomparable fuerça de
la santa y diuina amistad. Verás
con quanta razón dixeron los
antiguos que en este solo don y
virtud os quiso Dios hazer
semejantes a si. Exemplo
admirable nos dio, pues por esta
se hizo él semejante a vos,
vistiendo vuestra naturaleza y
miserable ser.
Miçilo.—Prosigue ¡o bien
auenturado[620] gallo, que no
tengo yo menos voluntad de te
oyr que tú de dezir, y llamote
generoso y bienauenturado pues
en algun tiempo mereçiste tener
vn amigo de tanto valor.
Gallo.—Pues sabras que luego
como Arnao enterró su Beatriz se
salió de su patria y casa con
intinçion de no boluer hasta me
hallar y ansi le pareçió que yo me
abria ydo para los amigos que
teniamos en Londres y Ingalaterra
para nuestras mercaderias; y ansi
partio derecho para allá, donde
me buscó con gran diligençia; y
dexemosle a él que con todo el
estudio y trabajo posible me sale
a vuscar; y quiero te dezir de lo
que suçedió en mi peregrinaçion;
yo luego que de casa de Arnao
sali me fue sin parar momento en
la çiudad el más solo, el más
miserable y aflito que nunca en el
mundo se vió, y acordandome de
lo mucho que yo deuia a Arnao
auiendo puesto la vida por mi,
como fuesse llamado de su
muger y le dixiesse lo que ella
fingió, que yo la auia querido
forçar y como ella le muestre la
capa que en las manos le dexé,
tan bastante indiçio de mi culpa,
qué dirá? que pensará? que
juzgará? que será razon de dezir?
Dirá luego: ¡o maluado! ¡o sin fe!
esto te mereçí yo; o este pago te
mereçió el peligro en que yo me
puse por ti? ¿En qué entrañas
sino fueran de un tigre cupiera tan
gran ingratitud? Pareçe que
vuscaste la espeçie de injuria en
que más me pudiste lastimar, por
mostrar más tu peruersa
condiçion. Pues si su nobleza y
su gran valor instigado del buen
destino que anda siempre vnido
con el estimulo de la verdad; si
esta lumbre de Dios que nunca al
virtuoso desamparó me quissiese
en ausençia faboreçer, ¿qué
alegará por mi parte? ¿que dirá
para me desculpar? ¡O! si yo
estuuiesse presente; y por
tenerme tan gran affiçion
deseasse oyr de mí alguna razon
avnque fuesse fingida ¿qué color
le podría dar yo quanto quiera
que fuesse verdadera? ¿o qué
fuerça ternia afirmando el
contrario su mujer? ¿Qué podrá
concluyr, sino, vete infiel,
maluado, ingrato, vilissimo, no
parezcas más ante mí? y ansí yo
le digo agora que no presuma de
mi ser yo de coraçon tan de
piedra que en mi vida parezca
ante él; y ansi acabadas estas
razones enxugando algun tanto
los ojos que yuan llenos de
lagrimas, que en ninguna manera
las podia contener ni agotar, me
apresuré al camino. Determiné en
my intinçion ofreçerme a los
peçes del mar si me quisiessen
comer, o rendirme de mi propria
voluntad a cosarios turcos infieles
que acabassen mi vida en
perpetua mazmorra, o prision; y
ansi yo me fue con la mayor furia
que pude hasta Marsella, donde
estauan a punto çiertas galeras
que haçia el Rey de Françia de
armada para yr por el mar, en las
quales me asenté por mi sueldo, y
como estuvo todo a punto y nos
dimos a la vela, no huvimos salido
del puerto ocho leguas quando
vimos asomar vna grande
armada, de la qual avnque luego
no alcançamos a ver más de seys
fustas, yendonos juntando más
vimos hasta diez, y despues
muchas más, y quando venimos a
reconoçer la deuisa de la naçion
hallamos que eran turcos; y como
nos vimos tan çercados de
nuestros enemigos y que ni
podiamos, ni era seguro, ni
honrroso huyr, avnque vimos que
era su flota doblada que la
nuestra nos determinamos
defender; y ansi estando la vna
flota a rostro de la otra y en
distançia que a vn golpe de los
remos se podian juntar,
leuantamos por el ayre de ambas
las partes tan grande alarido que
el tropel de los remos no sonauan
con la grita, ni las trompetas
podiamos oyr ninguno de la
pelea; y a este tiempo como los
remos hirieron a vna las aguas
con todas sus fuerças, ambas las
flotas se encontraron con gran
furia rostro con rostro, y todos
acudimos a la popa por herir cada
qual a su enemigo; y ansi
començó tan cruda la vatalla que
los tiros cubrian el ayre, y los que
cayan fuera de las galeras
cubrian el agua. Estauan vnas
con otras tan trabadas que no
pareçian las aguas, por estar
fuertemente aferradas con fuertes
gauilanes de hierro y cadenas, de
manera que todos podiamos ya
pelear a pie quedo como en
campo llano. Estauamos tan
apretados vnos con otros que ni
los remos podian aprouechar.
Estaua el mar cubierto de galeras
que ningun tiro heria de lexos;
pero cada qual estaua en su
galera ahinojado alcançando a
herir al enemigo avn con el
espada. Era tanta la mortandad
de los vnos y de los otros que ya
la sangre en el mar hazia espuma
y las olas andauan cubiertas de
sangre quaxada, y cayan tantos
cuerpos entre las galeras por el
agua que nos hazian apartar
avnque estauan fuertemente
afferradas, de manera que nos
hazian perder muchos tiros, y
muchos cuerpos que cayan al
agua medio muertos tornauan a
sorber su sangre, y apañados
entre dos galeras los hazian
pedazos, y los tiros que
desmentian en vaçio de las
galeras quando llegauan al agua
herian cuerpos que avn no eran
muertos, que con su herida los
acabauan de matar: porque todo
el mar estaua lleno de entrañas
de hombres que los reçibiessen.
Aconteçieron alli cosas dignas de
oyr y de notar, en las quales se
mostraua la fortuna a partes
donde queria espantosa y
arriscada. Acaeçio a vna fusta
françesa que ençendidos en la
pelea todos los que estauan en
ella se pusieron a vn borde
dexando del todo vaçio el otro
lado por donde no auia enemigos,
y cargando alli el peso se
trastornó la fusta tomando debajo
todos los que yuan dentro, que no
tuuieron poder para estender sus
braços para nadar, pero[621] todos
pereçian[622] en el mar
acorralados en agua çerrada.
Suçedió tambien que yendo
nadando vn mançebo françes por
el mar, que auiamos formado
amistad poco auia él y yo, se
encontraron dos fustas de rostro
que cogiendole en medio no
bastaron sus mienbros ni huesos,
tan molidos fueron, a que no
sonassen las fustas ambas vna
con otra, por quedar él hecho
todo menuzos y molido como sal.
En otra parte de la vatalla se
hundió vna galera françesa, y
viniendose los della todos
nadando a socorrer a otra
compañera, con el agonia de
escapar de la muerte alçauan
sus[623] braços asiendose a ella
para subir; y los miserables de
dentro temiendo no se
hundiessen todos si aquellos
entrauan los estoruauan que no
llegassen y ellos[624] con el temor
de las aguas echando mano de lo
más alto que podian de la nao,
cortauanles desde ençima los
braços por medio, y dexandolos
ellos colgados de la fusta que
auian elegido para socorro cayan
de sus propias manos, y como
yuan sin braços a manera de
troncos no se podian más sufrir
sobre las aguas, que luego eran
sorbidos. Ya toda nuestra gente
estaua sin armas, que todos
nuestros tiros auiamos arrojado; y
como el furor que trayamos nos
daua armas, vno toma el remo y
rebuelue con él a su contrario;
otro toma un pedaço de la galera
y no le faltan fuerças para tirarlo;
el otro trastorna los remadores
para sacar vn vanco que poder
arrojar. En fin, las fustas que nos
sostenian deshaziamos para
tener con qué pelear, o con qué
nos defender. Avn hasta aqui te
he contado el peligro sufridero;
pero avn el daño que nos hazia el
fuego con ninguna defensa se
podia euadir ni huyr. Porque nos
tirauan los turcos hachos
empegados con sufre, pez, çera y
resina, que arrojauan de si gran
fuego vibo, y como llegauan a
nuestras fustas luego ellas lo[625]
reçebian y los alimentauan de su
mesma pez de que estauan
nuestros nauios labrados y
calafeteados; y ansi las llamas
eran tan fuertes y tan vibas que
no bastauan las aguas del mar a
las vençer y apagar, mas antes
yua en pedaços ardiendo la fusta
por el mar adelante con todo
furor. De manera que los que
yuan nadando ya no se podian
socorrer de las tablas que yuan
por el mar; porque visto que el
fuego vibo que en ellas estaua
ençendido los abrasaua, escogian
antes ahogarse en las crueles
hondas, o a lo menos gozar lo
que pudiessen de aquella
miserable vida con esperança de
poder de alguna manera ser
saluos, antes que faboreçerse del
fuego que luego en llegando a la
tabla los abrasaua y consumia. Ya
inclinaua a la clara la vitoria y nos
lleuauan a todos de corrida sin
poderlos resistir: de manera que
nos fue forçado rendirnos, porque
ya avn no auia quien nos
quisiesse dar la muerte, porque
eran tantos nuestros enemigos
que todo su ardid era prendernos
sin poder ellos peligrar. Y ansi
como nos entraron fuemos todos
puestos en prision; y dexado lo
que de los otros fue, de mí quiero
dezir que fue puesto en vna
cadena por el pescueço con otros
diez, y puestas vnas esposas a
las manos; y ansi nos metieron en
vna[626] susota debajo de
cubierta. Estauamos tan juntos
vnos con otros, y tan apretados
que ningun genero de exerçiçio
humano auia lugar de poner en
effecto sin nos ofender. En fin en
esta manera boluieron para su
tierra con esta presa, y llegados a
vna gran fuerça de Grecia en la
Morea fuemos todos sacados de
las galeras y metidos en prision
allí. Con aquella mesma
dispusiçion de hierros y miseria
fuemos lançados en vna honda y
horrible mazmorra y carçel de vna
humida y obscura torre, donde
quando entramos fuemos
reçebidos con gran alarido de otra
gran multitud de presos cristianos
que de gran tiempo estauan allí.
Era aquel lugar de toda miseria,
que en breue tiempo se acabauan
los honbres por la dispusiçion del
lugar, porque demas de otros
daños grandes que tenia era
grande su humidad, porque
estauan en dos o tres lugares dél
manaderos de agua para el
seruiçio de la fuerça. Teniamos el
cuerpo echado en la tierra, los
pies metidos en vna viga que
cabian çincuenta personas, y el
cuello en la cadena, y ningun
exerçiçio humano se auia de
hazer sino en el mesmo lugar. De
manera que solo el infiçionado
olor que de aquella carçel salia
era de tanta corruçion[627] que no
auia juizio que en breue tiempo
no le bastasse corrromper, sino al
mio, que huya la muerte de mi. Ni
yo nunca padeçi en ningun tiempo
muerte que no fuesse de mejor
suerte que aquella vil y miserable
vida que alli passé. No teniamos
otra recreaçion sino sacarnos en
algunos tiempos alguna cantidad
de nosotros a trabajar en los
edifiçios y reparos de los muros y
fuerças de la çiudad, y ansi
saliamos cargados de hierros, y
solo pan de çeuada, o zenteno,
era nuestro mantenimiento[628]; y
avn pluguiera a dios que dello
alguna vez nos pudieramos de
mediar. Esto quiero que notes;
que a la contina los maestros de
las obras escogian los mejores y
mas dispuestos trabajadores. De
manera que conuenia esforçarnos
en la mayor flaqueza nuestra a
trabajar más que lo sufrian
nuestras fuerças, por gozar de
aquella miserable recreaçion. En
fin comprauamos con nuestros
seruiles trabajos aquella captiua
libertad de algun dia que al
trabajo nos querian elegir. En esta
vida, o por mejor dezir muerte,
passé dos años, que del infierno
no auia otra differencia sino la
perpetuidad. Aqui auia vna sola
esperança de salud, y era que
quando se aparejaua armada,
escogia el capitan entre nosotros
los de mejor dispusiçion para el
remo, y aquellos salian que él
señalaua; desnudos y
aherrojados a vn banco los
ponian vn remo en la mano y los
auisauan que remassen con
cuydado; sino con vn pulpo o
anguilla que traya en la mano el
capitan de la galera los çeñia por
todo el cuerpo que los hazia
despertar al trabajo. Esta era la
mas cierta ventura en que nos
podiamos libertar, porque yendo
aqui el suçesso de la batalla era
de nuestro mal ó bien ocasion; y
ansi suçedió que por mandado
del gran turco aparejó vna gran
flota Baruarroja para correr la
Calabria y el reyno de Siçilia, y
quisieron los mis hados que
fuesse yo elegido con otros
cristianos captivos para vn remo,
donde fue puesto en aquella
dispusiçion que los otros; y ansi
pasando el mar Adriatico salio de
Genoua Andrea Doria capitan de
las galeras de la cristiandad[629]
con gran pujança de armada, y
dio en la flota turca con tan gran
ardid que en breue tiempo la
desuarató echando a lo hondo
quatro galeras, y prendio dos, en
la vna de las quales venia yo; y el
cosario Baruarroja se acogio con
algunas que le pudieron seguir.
Pues suçedio que luego nos
metieron con la presa en el puerto
de Genoua, y como se publicó la
vitoria por la çiudad, todos
quantos en ella[630] auia
acudieron al agua a nos ver.
Agora oye, Miçilo, y verás como a
lo que Dios ordena no podemos
huyr.
Miçilo.—Dichoso gallo, dy, que
muy atento te estoy.
Gallo.—Pues como ya te dixe,
Arnao auia corrido a Londres y
toda Ingalaterra, Brauante,
Flandes, Florençia, Sena,
Veneçia, Milan, y todo el Reyno
de Napoles y Lombardia
vuscandome con la diligençia y
trabajo posible; y no me auiendo
hallado en dos años passados
vino a Genoua por ver si podria
auer alguna nueua de mi, y ansi
suçedió llegar al puerto por ver
desembarcar la gente del armada,
donde entre la otra gente alcançó
a me uer y conoçer, de lo qual no
reçibio poca alegria su coraçon, y
auiendo conçebido que por causa
del temor y empacho que dél yo
ternia por ningunos regalos ni
palabras se podria apoderar de
mí, ni yo me confiaria dél, mas
que en viendole echaria yo a huyr,
por tanto penso lo que deuia de
hazer para cobrar el amigo tan
deseado; y ansi con este auiso lo
mas diligentemente que pudo se
fue al gouernador y justiçia de la
çiudad, haziendole saber que en
aquella gente que venia en las
galeras tomadas a Baruarroja
auia conoçido vn honbre que auia
adulterado con su muger; que le
demandaua[631] le pusiesse en
prisiones hasta que del hecho y
verdad diesse bastante
informaçion, y fuesse castigado el
adulterio conforme a justiçia y
satisfecha su honrra; y estando
ansi, que el capitan me queria
libertar, llegó la justiçia muy
acompañada de gente armada
por me prender, y como llegó con
aquel tropel de ruydo y armas que
la[632] suele acompañar y
apañaron con gran furia de mi
diziendo: sed preso; yo respondi;
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebooknice.com