Structure of the Earth

Grade 9
Class Notes

01
 Structure
1 of the Earth

1 Interior of the Earth

2 Lithospheric Plates

3 Forces Acting on the Earth’s Surface

4 Volcanoes

5 /Earthquakes

6 Landforms of the Earth

7 Rocks

8 Weathering

9 Denudation

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 Structure of the Earth

1. Interior of the Earth

Inner core
Outer core
Mantle
Crust

• Divided into several layers

• Each with its own distinct properties
• Classified based on their composition, physical state, and
other characteristics

Crust
• Outermost layer of the Earth
• Divided into two types: Continental crust and oceanic crust
Mantle
• Located beneath the crust
• Divided into two parts: Upper mantle and lower mantle
• Extends to a depth of about 2,900 kilometres
• Composed of solid but partially molten rock called magma,
which flows in convection currents due to heat generated
by radioactive decay and residual heat from the planet's
formation

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 Structure of the Earth

Core
• Innermost layer of the Earth
• Divided into two parts: Inner core and outer core
• Composed mostly of iron and nickel
• The inner core is the hottest part of the Earth.

Composition and thickness

Layers Composition Thickness

Continental Silica and Aluminum:

crust SIAL
Crust Silica and 5–35 km
Oceanic crust Magnesium:
SIMA

Upper mantle Silica and

Mantle Magnesium: 35–2900 km
SIMA
Lower mantle

Outer core 2900 km–5100 km

Iron and Nickel:
Core NIFE
Inner core 5100 km–6371 km

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 Structure of the Earth

2. Lithospheric plates
• Also known as tectonic plates
• Composed of the crust and the uppermost part of the
mantle
• Large, rigid pieces of the Earth's outermost layer called the
lithosphere
• Broken into several large and smaller plates
• These plates move relative to each other.
• The interactions between plates give rise to various
geological phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanic
activity, mountain building, and the formation of ocean
basins.

Why do plates move?

Convection Currents Convection Currents

Mantle

• The lithospheric plates are driven by the underlying

movement of material in the Earth's mantle.
• The driving force behind plate motion is the convective
motion of material in the mantle caused by the transfer of
heat from the Earth's interior to the surface.

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 Structure of the Earth

3. Forces acting on the Earth’s surface

• The movement of these plates causes changes on the surface

of the Earth.
• Endogenic forces: Originate from within the Earth's interior
• Exogenic forces: Act on the Earth's surface

Endogenic forces
Sudden forces
• Result in abrupt alterations to the
Earth's surface
• Lead to widespread destruction
• Noticeable impacts on human
perception
• Example: Volcano, earthquakes
Diastrophic forces
• Geological forces that induce
movement, uplift or construct
segments of the Earth's crust
• It took millennia for the changes to
become visible.
• Not discernible to human perception
• Example: Mountain building

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 Structure of the Earth

4. Volcano

• Vent or opening in the Earth's

crust through which molten rock,
ash, and gases are ejected from
the interior of the Earth onto the
surface

Components of volcano

Bowl-shaped
Crater
depression

Outlet for air,

Vent smoke, fumes,
and magma

Volcanic Cone-shaped
cone landform

Magma Large pool of

chamber liquid chamber

5. Earthquake

• Sudden release of energy stored

in the Earth's crust, resulting in
the shaking or trembling of the
ground

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 Structure of the Earth

Causes of earthquakes
• Caused by the movement of tectonic plates
• When the plates shift or slide past each other, stress and
pressure build up along their boundaries.
• The accumulated energy is released, it causes seismic waves.
• These waves propagate through the Earth, causing the
ground to shake.

Focus and epicentre

Focus
Epicentre • Point of origin of an earthquake
• Also called hypocentre
Epicentre
• Point on the Earth's surface that
lies directly above the focus
Focus • The intensity of seismic waves is
high.

Seismograph
• An earthquake is measured with a
machine called a seismograph.

Richter scale
• The magnitude of the earthquake is
measured on the Richter scale.
• 2.0 or less: Not perceptible
• 5.0 or above: Perceptible
(falling things)
• 6.0 or higher: Greater damage to life
and property
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 Structure of the Earth

6. Landforms of the Earth

Mountains
• Mountains are natural elevations of the Earth’s surface,
considerably higher than the surrounding level.
• Formed by the movement and collision of tectonic plates,
volcanic activity, or erosion by wind and water
• Characterised by rugged terrain, diverse ecosystems, and
significant climatic variations at different elevations

Peak Mountain
Range

The top or crest of a single Mountains arranged in a line

mountain is called the peak. are called mountain ranges.

Types of mountains

Fold mountains • Fold mountains are formed when

two tectonic plates collide.
• At the point of collision, the edges
of the plates clump together and
start rising.
• As the plates push into each
other, fold-like mountains are
formed, which are called fold
mountains.
• Examples: Himalayas, Rockies,
and Andes

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Structure of the Earth

Block mountains
• Block mountains are formed when
the plates move along the fault lines.
• The middle portion slips down.
• The elevated portion thus formed on
either side are called block
mountains.
• Examples: The Vosges and the Black
Forest

Volcanic mountains

• Magma, which is the molten rock

beneath the Earth's surface, rises up
through a vent and erupts onto the
surface.
• As the magma cools and solidifies, it
forms different types of rock that
build up and form the mountain over
time.
• Examples: Mount Fujiyama in Japan

Plateaus
• A plateau is an elevated flat land
that is higher than surrounding
areas.
• These are also called tablelands.
• Characterised by steep slopes or
cliffs
• Formation: Volcanic activity, uplift
due to tectonic forces, and erosion

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 Structure of the Earth

Types of plateaus
Intermontane plateau
• Plateau situated between mountain
Intermontane ranges
plateau
• Formed by the uplift and subsequent
Mountain Mountain erosion of mountain ranges
• Examples: Tibetan Plateau in Asia,
the Altiplano in South America, and
the Great Basin in North America

Volcanic plateau
• Internal forces cause lava to be
pushed through vents, leading to its
accumulation over a wide expanse of
land and resulting in the formation of
•Continuous action of. plateaus.

Erosional plateau
• Formed due to external forces like
wind and water when they act on a
mountain and erode it to form a
plateau

Dissected plateau
• Continuous action of natural agents
such as rivers, glaciers, and wind cause
weathering and erosion.
• Reduction in level of the extensive high
plateau into smaller blocks of plateau
with irregular surfaces

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 Structure of the Earth

Plains
• Plains are large stretches of flat land
without much elevation difference.
• Formed by the deposition of fertile
sediment loads along the riverbanks.
• Hence, they are good for agriculture.
• More than half of the Earth's surface
is covered by plains.
• Example: The Indo-Gangetic plains
located in the northern region of
India

Types of plains
Structural plains Erosional plains

Created as a result of the Formed by the continuous

uplifting of either a section action of erosion by various
of the continental crust or agents of weathering such as
the oceanic floor water, wind, and ice over a
long period of time

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 Structure of the Earth

7. Rocks
What are rocks?

• Natural solid material that make

up the Earth’s crust
• Aggregate of various minerals
• No definite chemical composition
• Rock can be soft or hard.
• Rocks are of varied colours.

What are minerals?

• Naturally occurring organic
or inorganic substances.
• Definite chemical composition
• Most minerals have crystal forms
and well-defined structures.
• Different characteristics like
colour, hardness, and lustre of
rocks depend on mineral
composition.

Classification of minerals
Igneous rocks

• Formed by the solidification of

molten lava
• First to form
• Formed directly
• Primary rock or parent rock

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 Structure of the Earth

Sedimentary rocks
• Rocks formed out of sediments
• Example: Limestone, sandstone, and
more
• Many layers (Stratified rocks)
• Fossil presence

Metamorphic rocks
• Rocks formed by changing the
original characteristics the source
rock
• Example: Marble formed out of
limestone

Rock cycle
Process of transformation of rock from one form to another

Igneous rock

Magma Sediments

Metamorphic Sedimentary
Rock Heat and Rock
Pressure

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 Structure of the Earth

8. Weathering
Exogenic forces
• Also known as external forces
• Forces that act from outside the Earth’s surface
• Weathering and erosion are two related geological processes
that involve the breakdown, transport, and deposition of rocks
and other materials on the Earth's surface.

Weathering
• Process of breaking down of rocks and minerals into smaller
fragments through physical, chemical, or biological means

Erosion
• Process of the movement and transport of weathered
materials such as rocks, soil, and sediment from their
original location to another location by natural agents like
water, wind, ice, or gravity
• Erosion typically occurs after weathering.

Types of weathering
Mechanical weathering
• Disintegration of the rocks due to
various physical processes
• Like temperature change,
frost action, crystal growth, and more.
• More visible in arid or desert regions

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 Structure of the Earth

Mechanical weathering
Exfoliation
• When a rock is exposed to high
temperature, it expands.
• It contracts in low temperature.
• Due to stress and pressure over a long
period of time, rocks develop cracks.
• It tends to peel away layer by layer like
an onion.

Frost action
• Water accumulated in cracks of
rock freezes, which expands and
widens the cracks.
• During the day, the frost melts and
water seeps deeper into the cracks
• This repeated action leads to
weathering of rock.
• Common in regions where
temperature drops below freezing
point

Block disintegration
• Temperature variation leads to
repeated expansion and contraction
of rocks.
• Resulting stress in joints of rock
• Gradual disintegration in form of
blocks

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 Structure of the Earth

Granular disintegration
• Weathered rocks are in the form of
small granules or particles.
• Can occur in two ways:
• Due to unequal expansion of minerals
• Due to growth of crystals

Chemical weathering
• Long and slow process
• Chemicals in the air react with
chemicals in the rocks, which makes
the rocks weak, resulting in
weathering.
• Prevalent in hot and humid regions

Oxidation
• Minerals of rocks react with
oxygen.
• E.g., iron + oxygen = Ferric oxide
(reddish brown layer formed)

Carbonation
• Carbon dioxide present in the
atmosphere react with rocks, leading
to carbonation.
• Water reacts with carbon dioxide.
• Calcium carbonate created on the
surface of rock

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 Structure of the Earth

Hydration
• Minerals of rocks absorb water
and expand.
• This develops stress in the rocks,
leading to their decomposition.
• For example, olivine is converted
into serpentine during hydration.

Biological weathering

• It is a process by which living

organisms such as plants,
animals, and microorganisms
contribute to the breakdown and
alteration of rocks and minerals
on the Earth's surface.

9. Denudation
• Removal of material from the Earth’s surface by various
processes
• Denudation = Weathering + Mass wasting + Erosion

Landforms created by rivers

River
• A large flowing body of water moving in a
defined channel or course
• Usually flows from higher elevations to
lower elevations
• Draining into a larger body of water such as
an ocean, sea, lake, or another river .

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 Structure of the Earth

Erosional landforms
Waterfall
• When a river or stream flows down a
slope with increased energy, it can
forcefully crush and erode the rocks in
its path.
• This process can result in the river
cutting through the rock vertically,
forming a step-like structure over time
called a waterfall.

Meander
• As a river flows through a plain
region, its strength or energy tends
to decrease.
• This can result in erosion occurring
mainly on the sides of the river,
leading to changes in the river's path
and causing it to become curved.
• Over time, these curves, known as
meanders, can become wider and
more pronounced.

Oxbow lake
• Over the course of many years, the
curves of a river gradually become
wider.
• Eventually, the two bends of the river
may become cut off from the main
channel, forming a crescent-shaped
water body known as an oxbow lake.

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 Structure of the Earth

Depositional landforms

Flood plain
• Intense rainfall can cause a river to
overflow, resulting in floods.
• These floods can carry fine sediments
that settle away from the river,
eventually forming fertile floodplains.

Levees
• Over the course of many years,
recurrent flooding of a river can
occur.
• During these floods, the coarse
particles carried by the river tend to
settle near the riverbanks.
• As a result, the banks of the river can
become raised, forming natural
embankments known as levees.

Delta
• During the process of deposition, the
main river can divide into multiple
smaller streams known as
distributaries.
• As distributaries flow towards the
end of their course, they deposit
their sediments in triangular-shaped
regions known as deltas.

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 Structure of the Earth

Landforms created by wind

• Wind refers to the large-scale movement of air, and it can act
as a powerful agent of erosion and deposition in desert
environments.

Erosional landform
Mushroom rock
• In deserts, sand particles are often
moved from one location to another
by the action of wind, making them
effective agents of erosion.
• Due to the high speed of the wind,
the lower part of rocks may
undergo more erosion compared to
the upper part, resulting in the
formation of unique landforms
known as mushroom rocks, which
resemble giant mushrooms in
shape.
Depositional landforms
Sand dunes
• Eroded particles such as sand can
be transported by the wind from
one location to another.
• When the wind subsides, the sand
particles settle and fall to the
ground.
• Over time, these fine particles can
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accumulate and form low hill-like
structures known as sand dunes.

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 Important Questions

Question 1:
What are lithospheric plates? How do they move?

Question 2:
What is the difference between weathering and erosion?

Question 3:
What are exogenic and endogenic forces?

Question 4:
Explain any three erosional landforms created by sea
waves.

Question 5:
Explain the formation of mushroom rock.

Question 6:
Explain how deltas are formed.

Question 7:
Define focus and epicentre.

Question 8 :
Explain types of rock and their formation

Question 9:
Define plateau and its types.

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