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Chap 43N

The document outlines the history and development of atomic theory, starting with Democritus' concept of indivisible atoms and progressing through key figures like Lavoisier, Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr. It describes the structure of the atom, including the nucleus, electron orbits, and quantum mechanics, detailing how electrons occupy discrete energy levels and the significance of absorption and emission spectra. Additionally, it explains the arrangement of electrons in orbitals and the principles governing their behavior, such as the Pauli Exclusion Principle and electron configurations.

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2 views

Chap 43N

The document outlines the history and development of atomic theory, starting with Democritus' concept of indivisible atoms and progressing through key figures like Lavoisier, Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr. It describes the structure of the atom, including the nucleus, electron orbits, and quantum mechanics, detailing how electrons occupy discrete energy levels and the significance of absorption and emission spectra. Additionally, it explains the arrangement of electrons in orbitals and the principles governing their behavior, such as the Pauli Exclusion Principle and electron configurations.

Uploaded by

irtizaali063
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Physics

Inside the Atom


Democritus
• Universe is made of
empty space and tiny
bits of stuff
• He called these tiny
bits of stuff “atomos”
• Atoms are indivisible
Lavoisier
• Demonstrated that
burning wood caused
no change in mass
• Law of Conservation
of Matter
Dalton (1803)

⚫Atoms are building blocks of elements


⚫Similar atoms in each element.
⚫All atoms have the same mass.
⚫Different from atoms of other elements
⚫Two or more different atoms bond in
simple ratios to form compounds
Avogadro’s Hypothesis :- Equal volumes of all gases, under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure, contain
equal numbers of molecules.

N0 = 6.023 x 1026 kg.mole -1 is called Avogadro’s


Number)
1m

1m
In a cube of 1m side we then have (1/ 2r )3 atoms.
In 1kg.atom we have 6 x 1026 atoms and each atom
occupies a volume ( A /  ) m3 .
( where A = atomic weight and  = density ).
 N 0 = (1/ 2r )3  A / 
1/ 3
1 A 
r=   rAg  rBe  10−10 m
2   N0 
ATOMS ARE THERFORE MOSTLY THE SAME SIZE !!
J.J.Thomson (1895)

• Plum pudding model


• Atom made of a positively
charged material with the
negatively charged
electrons scattered
through it.
Rutherford’s a Scattering Experiment (1911)

Animate this
Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus

To explain the backscattering, the positive charge


must be concentrated in a small region
Rutherford’s Solar System Model of the Atom
• Mostly empty space
• Small, positive nucleus
• Contained protons
• Negative electrons
scattered around the
outside
But is the hydrogen atom stable?
• It is known that accelerating charges emit
radiation.

• Thus, electron should emit radiation, lose


energy and eventually fall into the nucleus!

• Why doesn’t this happen? Shows that


something was wrong with this model of
the hydrogen atom.
Absorption Spectrum of a Gas

Dark lines will appear in the light spectrum


Absorption Spectrum
Here is how a standing
wave can be bent into a
circle. The radius of the
circle is just one of the
Bohr orbits.
If the wavelength is not
exactly correct, wave
interference makes the
wave disappear. So only
integral numbers of
wavelengths can interfere
constructively.
BOHR’S HYPOTHESIS

• Electrons can only take discrete energies


(energy is related to radius of the orbit)

• Electrons can jump between different orbits


due to the absorption or emission of photons

• Dark lines in the absorption spectra are


due to photons being absorbed

• Bright lines in the emission spectra are


due to photons being emitted
• The electron has a wavelength and
forms standing waves in its orbit around
the nucleus.
• An integral number of electron
wavelengths must fit into the
circumference of the circular orbit.

n = 2 r
h
p = mv =

h n
= = n = 1, 2,3,...
(2 r / n) r
L = rmv = n
Bohr Orbits
mv n 2 e2
=k 2
r r
Ln = n
n
vn =
mrn
 2  2
rn =  2 n n = 1, 2, 3, ...
 mke 
The Bohr Radius
• For n = 1 the electron orbit is closest to the
nucleus, rn = a0  0.53 10−8 cm (the Bohr radius).
• For higher n, rn = a0 n 2 .
• Note that the speed of the electron is
smaller in orbits farther from the nucleus,
ke2
vn =
n
Energy of a Bohr Orbit

E = K + U = 12 mv 2 + U

1 ke
2
 ke 2
ke 2
= 2 − =−
 r  r 2r
 ke 2  mke 2  1
 En = −   2  2 =
 2  n
 mk 2 e 4  1 1
− 2  2
= −(13.6 eV) 2
 2 n n
Rydberg unit of energy
The Spectrum of
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is a fussy absorber and
emitter of light

It only absorbs or emits photons with precisely the


right energies dictated by energy conservation !
• The principal quantum number n = 1, 2,3 
• The orbital angular momentum quantum
number l , where L = l (l + 1)
and l = 0,1, 2,3 , n − 1.
• The magnetic quantum number ml where
ml = −l ,  − 2, −1, 0,1, 2, , l ( Lz = ml )
• The electron spin quantum number ms where
ms = − 12 , 12
• Solution to the Schrodinger
equation for hydrogen in the
ground state
– The curve peaks at the Bohr
radius
– The electron is not confined to
a particular orbital distance
from the nucleus
• The probability of finding the
electron at the Bohr radius is
a maximum.
• The wave function for
hydrogen in the ground
state is symmetric
– The electron can be found in
a spherical region
surrounding the nucleus
• The result is interpreted by
viewing the electron as a
cloud surrounding the
nucleus
– The densest regions of the
cloud represent the highest
probability for finding the
electron
1s Orbital
Density of the cloud gives probability of
where the electron is located
The s-Orbitals
• All s-orbitals are spherical.
• As n increases, the s-orbitals get larger.
• As n increases, the number of nodes increase.
• A node is a region in space where the probability of
finding an electron is zero.
• At a node, ||2 = 0.
The p-Orbitals
• There are three p-orbitals px, py, and pz.
• The three p-orbitals lie along the x-, y- and z- axes of a
Cartesian system.
• The letters correspond to allowed values of ml of -1, 0,
and +1.
• The orbitals are dumbbell shaped.
• As n increases, the p-orbitals get larger.
• All p-orbitals have a node at the nucleus.
p orbitals

Note that there are three different configurations


corresponding to m = -1, 0, 1
d Orbitals
Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle
Only one electron at a time may have a
particular set of quantum numbers:
{n, l , ml, ms }.

Shell – electrons with the same value of n


Subshell – electrons with the same values of n
and l
Orbital – electrons with the same values of n, l,
and ml

Once a particular state is occupied, other


electrons are excluded from that state.
Electronic Configurations
Electron configuration is how the electrons are distributed
among the various atomic orbitals in an atom.

Number of electrons
in subshell = 6
3p6
Principal quantum Angular momentum
number n = 3 quantum number l = 1 (p)
Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
Subatomic particles in some atoms

16 31 65
O P Zn
8 15 30
8 p+ 15 p+ 30 p+
8n 16 n 35 n
8 e- 15 e- 30 e-

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