READING AND WRITING NOTES

LESSON 1
A. ORGANIZATION
Text organization is the way a text is organized that helps to guide the reader
logically through it. This property makes a text readable and its message clear.
Organization can be achieved through the following techniques:

1. Physical Format
The format is an aspect of the organization that is immediately apparent to the
reader. It is seen in how the text physically appears like headings and
subheadings, bullet points or font emphasis. However, use this technique with
discretion as improper or superfluous formatting can be confusing.

2. Signal Words
Signal words are textual cues that readers can use to follow a text. They can
“signal” the transition from one point to another, the ordering of events and
concepts, or the writer’s chosen text type (e.g., linear narration, question and
answer).

3. Structure
The structure provides the framework upon which the text is organized. It
consists of the following:

 Beginning: introduction, thesis statement, hook

 Middle: supporting details
 End: conclusion, summary, final message

B. COHERENCE
This means sticking or holding together. It pertains to the sentences that solely
support the man idea of the paragraph. In a coherent paragraph, the ideas are logically
arranged. The ideas and sentences are in an order that makes sense to the readers. If
the ideas are arranged, the readers can easily follow the progression of ideas. The
readers will be able to follow a paragraph easily if the paragraph has a smooth flow. This
characteristic of a paragraph is called cohesion.
Example:
My favorite painting is “The Weeping Woman” by Pablo Picasso, which is an
intriguing painting that symbolizes suffering. As a result, I love bright primary colors,
so I wear a lot of shocking yellows, blues, and reds. Also, as an outgoing person, I
enjoy performing for large crowds. In the end, people should not judge an artist’s talent
based on one standard.
 Explanation:
Connecting words in the text suggest a sequence of ideas that the writer wants to
convey. “As a result” implies an effect of the previous statement while “in the end”
indicates the conclusion. However, the writer jumps from one topic to another resulting
in a lack of cohesion. For instance, the writer talks about his or her favourite colors “as
a result” of Picasso’s painting even though they are not connected in any way. It can
be inferred that the choice of favourite colors was inspired by the colors of the painting,
but the writer does not make this clear.
C. COHESION
Cohesion means that the overall text has meaning. It expresses the continuity
that exists between one part of the text and another. It occurs where the interpretation
of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another. Although without
cohesion, no central concept links all these ideas together. The main point of the text
remains unclear for readers. To achieve Coherence Devices are applied in writing;
a. Repetition:
The use of repetition is to focus on the main idea by repeating a key word or
phrase. This is to keep you as a writer as well as your readers on track on the
idea being discussed.
b. Synonyms:
It is to use the words with the same meaning in the sentence. This can keep
you as a writer and also your readers mindful of the connections between
sentences. The use of synonym provides some variety in your word choices.

Example:
During the visit, what caught my eyes first was a widespread view of Cebu
City with a blanket of mist hovering the city. (2) Lying opposite to the city are
ranges of mountains covered by lush green foliage with the heavenly rain
showering the entire scene. (Mendoza 2011, E12 A9)

c. Pronouns:
The use of pronouns is to replace the nouns with words like he, she, it,
they, we, us, him or them. Each pronoun should clearly refer to back to a
specific noun mentioned earlier in the text.

d. Transitions:
It is to use a transition word or phrase that links the sentences of a
paragraph together. This guides the readers with the movement of an idea from
one sentence to the next sentence or the relationships among ideas.
Example:
Dominic Anderson, the financial officer at a small university, managers
all aspects of the financial aid program for needy students. First, Anderson
receives requests for aide from students and determines whether the
students meet the aid criteria. He also authorizes aid payments and notifies
the applicants that their request has been either approved or denied. In
addition, he writes the financial aid checks on the account he controls.
 Finally, he requires that the students come to his office to receive the check
in person.

Language Use and Mechanics

Language Use – refers to the appropriateness of word or vocabulary use.

The following elements of effective language should be used in writing:
 Concise Language- It is use of the fewest number of words possible. To achieve
this, you must use short, simple sentences and active verbs. Get to the point to
communicate effectively without sacrificing clarity and completeness. Include only
what the reader needs to know and omit excessive adjective and adverbs. Make
every word count. One way to achieve conciseness is to eliminate redundant or
lengthy words or phrases.

 Concrete Language- It is to use concrete words rather than abstract words which
are ambiguous. You must choose the right words that most express your meaning
or specific words to clarify ideas and images. Use concrete words which
descriptions can lead the readers visualize through details or bring to the readers
the specific visual images. To be concrete is to be clear, firm and unchanging
based on our senses: sight, touch, sound, smell and taste. Abstract words are
concepts, ideas, qualities, emotions, and process which can draw many and
different interpretations, while concrete or specific words are easily imagined and
are less open to multiple and various interpretations.

 Common Language- It is to use common words in writing which are easily under
stood and recognized by the readers. They are common because they are used
most of the time. They usually work well as they bring in the right meaning that you
wished to convey with your day-to-day vocabulary which is the same as your
reader’s vocabulary.

 Precise and Clear Language- It is to give your readers clear and precise word
imagery to make your writing easier to understand and to follow. Precise and clear
language like a vocabulary of precise nouns and understand and vivid verbs help
you create strong mental pictures for your readers, and this will eliminate confusion
and wordiness. Words can be interpreted in different ways and it is for this reason
that must have a precise and clear language and their potential interpretations.

Mechanics - refers to a set of conventions on how to spell, abbreviate, punctuate and

capitalize. Mechanics are conventions that have to be considered in writing. Some of
these conventions are spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. It is important to know
and observe these conventions in writing to avoid confusion.

 Spelling - When you write, always make sure that you are consistently using one
standard with regard to the spelling of your words. Remember that there are slight
differences in American English spelling and British English spelling.
  Punctuation - is the act of using a system of symbols such as the comma, period,
quotation marks, question marks, etc. that are used to give structure to and
organize a text. The use of punctuation guides the reader regarding how the text
should be read.
 Capitalization- is the act of writing the first letter of a word in uppercase while the
rest of the letters are in lowercase. There are rules in capitalization that one has to
remember. Below are a few examples of words that require capitalization:

 proper nouns Alex, Manila

 proper adjectives Canadian
 days of the week Sunday
 months of the year January
 specific course titles Theater 101
 kinship names used in place of Grandma, Dad, Aunt Paz,
personal names and are followed Uncle Alvin
by personal names
 adjectives, verbs, adverbs, nouns, Through the Looking-Glass,
and pronouns in a title and the and What Alice Found There
first and last word in a title (literature)
 historical periods, events, Great Depression, the
documents Renaissance, the Constitution

LESSON 2
Paragraph
 The word paragraph comes from two Greek words: para which means “beyond”
or “beside” and graphein which means “to write”.
 A paragraph is a collection of related sentences with one central idea. Each
sentence shows connection to other sentences in the paragraph.
 A paragraph is an independent unit or a related unit. As an independent unit, it is
complete in itself. As a related unit, it is a part of a composition that is combined
with other paragraphs to make a larger composition.
 Whether a paragraph is an independent unit or a related unit, it has its beginning,
middle and end.

An effective paragraph shows the unity of the sentences used in developing the main idea.
A paragraph is made up of the topic sentence which contains the main idea, the
supporting details and the conclusion or the clinching sentence at the end.

 Topic sentence – it reveals the main or central idea of the paragraph. It does not
necessarily have to be placed at the beginning of the paragraph. It may be found
in the middle of the first and the last sentence or at the end. If it is found at the end
of the paragraph, it may be used as a clinching or concluding sentence.
 Supporting details – they give the paragraph life as it elaborates on the scope
given by the topic sentence.
  Clinching sentence – it closes your paragraph. According to Dagdag (2010), this
“may be a restatement of the topic sentence, a summary, or a conclusion based
on the supporting details.”

Patterns of Development in Writing

A. Narration
 Narration, from the root word narrates, originated from the Latin word narrare—
which means related or told.
 It gives a written account of an event or story, or simply, storytelling. The sequence
of events is told in chronological order.
 It usually contains the following: the who, what and when.
 A narrative must have “vivid” description of details, a consistent point of view and
verb tense, and a well-defined point or significance.” (Tiongson, 2016).
 At the end of writing it, it must send a clear message to its readers through the
story.
A narrative paragraph simply tells what happened and establishes facts. It is sharing of
personal experiences that offer lessons and insights. It is more than just a
chronological sequence of events that happen to the different characters. It also
contains elements of drama and tension.

Narration is the most common type of paragraph development. It has the

following elements:
1. Setting. It is the time and location in which a story takes place.
2. Characters. The life-giving element of the story.
3. Plot. It is the logical series of events in the story.
The five essential parts of the plot are:
a. Exposition. It is the part of the story where the characters and the
setting are revealed.
b. Rising Action. It is where the events in the story become
complicated and the conflict in the story is exposed.
c. Climax. This is the highest point of interest and the turning point
of the story.
d. Falling Action. The events and complications begin to resolve
themselves.
e. Denouement. The final resolution of the plot in the story.
4. Point of View. It is the perspective of the writer in narrating the story.
a. First person point of view. The story is told by the protagonist or
one of the characters using pronouns I , me , we.
b. Second person point of view. The author tells the story in second
point of view using the pronouns you , yours, and your.
c. Third person point of view. The narrator is not part of the story but
describes the events that happen. The writer uses the pronouns he,
she, him, and her.
B. Description & Definition

 Description gives information of what a person, an object, a place or a situation

is like.
 It appeals to the reader’s senses.
 A descriptive paragraph has concrete and specific details, which are carefully
chosen by a writer to paint a picture in the mind of the reader.

Descriptive writing emphasizes a reader’s ability to paint vivid pictures using words
on a reader’s mind. This relies on the writer’s ability to appeal to his/her five senses: the
sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing.

According to Dagdag (2010), there are two types of description: objective and
subjective.
Objective description is a factual description of the topic at hand. This
relies its information on physical aspects and appeals to those who crave
for facts.
Subjective description allows the writer to explore ways to describe an
emotion, an event, a thing, a place or person, appealing to emotions. Often,
this is an artistic way of describing things, mostly from the eye and
perspective of the writer.

 Definition explains a concept, term or subject. Its main purpose is to tell what
something is.
 It consists of three parts: (1) the term, concept or subject to be defined; (2) the
general class to which it belongs; and (3) the characteristics that differentiate it
from the other members of its class.
 A definition explains what a term means. When you want your readers to
know exactly how you are using a certain term or an unfamiliar concept,
you use definition.

Definition is the main constituent of any dictionary. In developing a paragraph by

definition, you should take account of these things:
a) the term to be defined
b) the class to which the term belongs
c) the characteristics that distinguish the term from the other members of its
class.
The following are the different types of definitions:
Formal Definition- The definitions provided in dictionaries.
Informal Definitions- The three common informal definitions are operational
definitions, synonyms, and connotations.
a. Operational Definitions gives the meaning of an abstract word for one
particular time and place.
b. Synonyms or words that mean the same as another word.
c. Denotation is the exact meaning of the word
 d. Connotation is an idea or meaning suggested by or associated with a
word or things.
Paragraph- It is a definition sentence which is extended into a paragraph by
adding meanings, descriptions, narrations , and other kinds of paragraph
development to make clear the term being defined.
C. Classification
 Classification paragraphs group items into categories, to establish a clear
distinction. If the topic encompasses a large body of information, one effective way
of elaborating it is through classifying things of distinct features into
groups/classes.
 Classification groups items into categories to establish a clear distinction between
related or similar ideas. Similar items are grouped into categories for the readers
to better understand and analyze the material at hand.

In a classification paragraph you tell readers how a collection of items can

be sorted into categories. It is an activity of sorting items (people, things , ideas )
into categories.

D. Comparison & Contrast

 A comparison tells how two things are similar. A contrast tells how they are
different. A paragraph developed by comparison and contrast has a unifying idea
or purpose of attempting to weigh decisions between two ideas or subjects.
 A comparison and contrast paragraph must be balanced in such a way that there
is an equal amount of information for each subject to avoid bias.

There are two ways in writing a comparison and contrast paragraph.

Subject – by - Subject Method- You present all of the facts and
supporting details about one topic , and then you give all the facts
and supporting details about the other topic.
Point – by - Point Arrangement- You discuss each point for both
subjects before giving on the next point.

E. Cause and Effect

 A cause is what makes a particular thing happen.

 An effect is what results from a particular situation, activity, or behavior.
 A paragraph developed by causal analysis must not only raise the question why,
but also give answers to the satisfaction of the reader.

F. Problem- Solution
a. In composition writing, problem-solution is a method for analyzing and writing
about a topic by identifying a problem and proposing one or more solutions.
b. Problem-solution paragraphs as the term implies, presents and identifies a
problem and proposes possible solution/s.
G. Persuasion
a. A persuasive paragraph tries to convince the reader that a particular point of
view is worthy of consideration. It wants you to consider both sides of an issue,
but it reveals a bias in favor of one side over another.
b. A persuasive paragraph intends to convince readers to do or believe in
something.
c. Knowing how to write a persuasive paragraph allows you to express your
personal conviction or opinion about an issue or topic and make the readers
agree with or adopt your conviction or opinion.

LESSON 3
THE TYPES OF CLAIMS

CLAIM OF FACT
 Claims of Fact are pieces of information which are grounded on reliable authority such
as science or history.
 Claims of Fact relate to statements that can be easily verified and not dependent on
a person's preference. It also asserts that a condition has existed, is existing, or will
exist and is based on facts or data.
 Facts that are universally accepted are not considered claim of fact but instead a
statement of fact.
CLAIM OF POLICY
 The Claim of Policy calls for some form of action.
 It states what the reader should or ought to do about a particular situation/topic.

CLAIM OF VALUE
 Claims of Value refers to statements that appeal to a person’s taste and morals or
the sense of what’s good and what’s bad.
 This type of claim weighs the values according to which is more desirable. Claim of
value deals with topics concerning moral, philosophical, or aesthetic aspects.

LESSON 4
HYPERTEXT
 Typically, a text is written in a linear fashion. This linear progression only enables
the reader to read the material the way the author designed it from the beginning
to end. HYPERTEXTUALITY allows readers to study a text in a different manner.
 In a hypertext, pieces of information are connected semantically. There is an
undefined beginning, middle and end.
 Hypertext creates a network of materials linked because of various connections
they share. This encourages and, at times, requires readers to go through the
material at their pace.
INTERTEXT/INTERTEXTUALITY
 When reading, the readers try to make meaning of the material that they are
absorbing through many different processes. Unintentionally, sometimes, the
patterns in the materials read are apparent in another text. Theorists term this as
intertextuality.
 Intertextuality, is also the modelling of a text’s meaning by another text.
 It is the interconnectedness of the texts which is applicable to novels, newspaper
articles, films, songs, paintings, works, philosophy and etc.
 As long as it will involve stories, that is intertext.

LESSON 5
Critical Reading – Requires higher level of comprehension. It is not to merely skim but
dwell on what the text does by making such remarks beyond what it says.

NOTES:
Understand what you are reading and not just simply
memorizing.