Biochemical processes:

Cell reproduction
The continuity of life from one cell to another has its foundation in the reproduction of cells by way of
the cell cycle. The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events that describes the stages of a cell’s life
from the division of a single parent cell to the production of two new daughter cells. The mechanisms
involved in the cell cycle are highly regulated.

Genomic DNA
Before discussing the steps a cell must undertake to replicate, a deeper understanding of the structure
and function of a cell’s genetic information is necessary. A cell’s DNA, packaged as a double­stranded
DNA molecule, is called its genome. In prokaryotes, the genome is composed of a single, double­
stranded DNA molecule in the form of a loop or circle (Figure 1). The region in the cell containing this
genetic material is called a nucleoid. Some prokaryotes also have smaller loops of DNA called plasmids
that are not essential for normal growth. Bacteria can exchange these plasmids with other bacteria,
sometimes receiving beneficial new genes that the recipient can add to their chromosomal DNA.
Antibiotic resistance is one trait that often spreads through a bacterial colony through plasmid exchange.

Figure 1: Prokaryotes, including bacteria and archaea, have a Figure 2: artificially stained human chromosomes
single, circular chromosome located in a central region called as they are present in the nucleus (top), during cell
the nucleoid. division (to the right), and arranged according to
length (to the left).

In eukaryotes, the genome consists of several double­stranded linear DNA molecules (Figure 2). Each
species of eukaryotes has a characteristic number of chromosomes in the nuclei of its cells. Human
body cells have 46 chromosomes, while human gametes (sperm or eggs) have 23 chromosomes
each. A typical body cell, or somatic cell, contains two matched sets of chromosomes, a configu­
ration known as diploid. The letter n is used to represent a single set of chromosomes; therefore, a
diploid organism is designated 2n. Human cells that contain one set of chromosomes are called
gametes, or sex cells; these are eggs and sperm, and are designated 1n, or haploid.

Matched pairs of chromosomes in a diploid organism are called homologous (“same knowledge”)
chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes are the same length and have specific nucleotide segments
called genes in exactly the same location, or locus. Genes, the functional units of chromosomes,
determine specific characteristics by coding for specific proteins. Traits are the variations of those
characteristics. For example, hair color is a characteristic with traits that are blonde, brown, or black.
Each copy of a homologous pair of chromosomes originates from a different parent; therefore, the
genes themselves are not identical. The variation of individuals within a species is due to the specific
combination of the genes inherited from both parents. Even a slightly altered sequence of nucleotides
within a gene can result in an alternative trait. For example, there are three possible gene sequences on
the human chromosome that code for blood type: sequence A, sequence B, and sequence O. Because
all diploid human cells have two copies of the chromosome that determines blood type, the blood type
(the trait) is determined by which two versions of the marker gene are inherited. It is possible to have two
copies of the same gene sequence on both homologous chromosomes, with one on each (for example,
AA, BB, or OO), or two different sequences, such as AB.
Minor variations of traits, such as blood type, eye color, and handedness, contribute to the natural
variation found within a species. However, if the entire DNA sequence from any pair of human
homologous chromosomes is compared, the difference is less than one percent. The sex
chromosomes, X and Y, are the single exception to the rule of homologous chromosome uniformity:
Other than a small amount of homology that is necessary to accurately produce gametes, the genes
found on the X and Y chromosomes are different.

Eukaryotic Chromosomal Structure and Compaction

If the DNA from all 46 chromosomes in a human cell nucleus was laid out end to end, it would measure
approximately two meters; however, its diameter would be only 2 nm. Considering that the size of a
typical human cell is about 10 µm (100,000 cells lined up to equal one meter), DNA must be tightly
packaged to fit in the cell’s nucleus. At the same time, it must also be readily accessible for the genes
to be expressed. During some stages of the cell
cycle, the long strands of DNA are condensed into
compact chromosomes. There are a number of
ways that chromosomes are compacted.

In the first level of compaction, short stretches of the

DNA double helix wrap around a core of eight
histone proteins at regular intervals along the
entire length of the chromosome (Figure 3). The
DNA­histone complex is part of the chromatin.
Each beadlike histone­DNA complex is called a
nucleosome, and DNA connecting the
nucleosomes is called linker DNA. A DNA molecule
in this form is about seven times shorter than the
double helix without the histones, and the beads are
about 10 nm in diameter, in contrast with the 2­nm
diameter of a DNA double helix. The next level of
compaction occurs as the nucleosomes and the
linker DNA between them are coiled into a 30­nm
chromatin fiber. This coiling further shortens the
chromosome so that it is now about 50 times
shorter than the extended form. In the third level of
packing, a variety of fibrous proteins is used to
pack the chromatin. These fibrous proteins also
ensure that each chromosome in a non­dividing cell
occupies a particular area of the nucleus that does
not overlap with that of any other chromosome (see
the top image in Figure 2).
Figure 3: organization of human chromosomes
DNA replicates in the S phase of interphase, together with the mitotic phase one of the two major
phases of the cell cycle (see Figure 4). After replication, the chromosomes are composed of two linked
sister chromatids. When fully compact, the pairs of identically packed chromosomes are bound to each
other by cohesin proteins. The connection between the sister chromatids is closest in a region called
the centromere. The conjoined sister chromatids, with a diameter of about 1 µm, are visible under a light
microscope.

Figure 4: The cell cycle consists of interphase and the mitotic phase. During interphase, the cell grows and the
nuclear DNA is duplicated. Interphase is followed by the mitotic phase. During the mitotic phase, the duplicated
chromosomes are segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. The cytoplasm is usually divided as well,
resulting in two daughter cells.

Interphase
During interphase, the cell undergoes normal growth processes while also preparing for cell division. In
order for a cell to move from interphase into the mitotic phase, many internal and external conditions
must be met. The three stages of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.

G1 Phase (First Gap)

The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase (first gap) because, from a microscopic aspect, little
change is visible. However, during the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical level. The cell
is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal DNA and the associated proteins as well as
accumulating sufficient energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each chromosome in the
nucleus.

S Phase (Synthesis of DNA)

Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi­condensed chromatin configuration. In the S
phase, DNA replication can proceed through the mechanisms that result in the formation of identical
pairs of DNA molecules—sister chromatids—that are firmly attached at the centromeric region. The
centrosome is duplicated during the S phase. The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle,
the apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during mitosis. At the center of each
animal cell, the centrosomes of animal cells are associated with a pair of rod­like objects, the centrioles,
which are at right angles to each other. Centrioles help organize cell division. Centrioles are not present
in the centrosomes of other eukaryotic species, such as plants and most fungi.

G2 Phase (Second Gap)

In the G2 phase, the cell replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes proteins necessary for
chromosome manipulation. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is dismantled to
provide resources for the mitotic phase. There may be additional cell growth during G2. The final
preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the cell is able to enter the first stage of
mitosis.

The Mitotic Phase

The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the duplicated chromosomes are aligned,
separated, and move into two new, identical daughter cells. The first portion of the mitotic phase is called
karyokinesis, or nuclear division. The second portion of the mitotic phase, called cytokinesis, is the
physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into the two daughter cells.

Karyokinesis (Mitosis)
Karyokinesis, also known as mitosis, is divided into a series of phases—prophase, prometaphase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase—that result in the division of the cell nucleus (Figure 5).

Figure 5: the five stages of karyogenesis (or mitosis)

During prophase, the “first phase,” the nuclear envelope starts to dissociate into small vesicles, and the
membranous organelles (such as the Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic reticulum),
fragment and disperse toward the periphery of the cell. The nucleolus disappears (disperses). The
centrosomes begin to move to opposite poles of the cell. Microtubules that will form the mitotic spindle
extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as the microtubule fibers lengthen. The
sister chromatids begin to coil more tightly with the aid of condensin proteins and become visible under a
light microscope.

During prometaphase, the “first change phase,” many processes that were begun in prophase continue
to advance. The remnants of the nuclear envelope fragment. The mitotic spindle continues to develop as
more microtubules assemble and stretch across the length of the former nuclear area. Chromosomes
become more condensed and discrete. Each sister chromatid develops a protein structure called a
kinetochore in the centromeric region (Figure 6). The proteins of the kinetochore attract and bind mitotic
spindle microtubules. As the spindle microtubules extend from the centrosomes, some of these
microtubules come into contact with and firmly bind to the kinetochores. Once a mitotic fiber attaches to
a chromosome, the chromosome will be oriented until the kinetochores of sister chromatids face the
opposite poles. Eventually, all the sister chromatids will be attached via their kinetochores to
microtubules from opposing poles.
During metaphase, the “change phase,” all the chromo­
somes are aligned in a plane called the metaphase
plate, or the equatorial plane, midway between the two
poles of the cell. The sister chromatids are still tightly
attached to each other by cohesin proteins. At this time,
the chromosomes are maximally condensed.

During anaphase, the “upward phase,” the cohesin

proteins degrade, and the sister chromatids separate at
the centromere. Each chromatid, now called a chromo­
some, is pulled rapidly toward the centrosome to which
its microtubule is attached. The cell becomes visibly
elongated (oval shaped) as the polar microtubules slide
Figure 6: attachment of mitotic spindle microtubules
against each other at the metaphase plate where they
to the sister chromatids in the prometaphase
overlap.

During telophase, the “distance phase,” the chromosomes reach the opposite poles and begin to
decondense (unravel), relaxing into a chromatin configuration. The mitotic spindles are depolymerized
into tubulin monomers that will be used to assemble cytoskeletal components for each daughter cell.
Nuclear envelopes form around the chromosomes, and nucleosomes appear within the nuclear area.

Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis, or “cell motion,” is the second main stage of the mitotic phase, during which cell division is
completed via the physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells. Division
is not complete until the cell components have been apportioned and completely separated into the two
daughter cells. Although the stages of mitosis are similar for most eukaryotes, the process of cytokinesis
is quite different for eukaryotes that have cell walls, such as plant cells.

In cells such as animal cells that lack cell walls, cytokinesis starts during late anaphase. A contractile
ring composed of actin filaments forms just inside the plasma membrane at the former metaphase plate.
The actin filaments pull the equator of the cell inward, forming a fissure. This fissure, or “crack,” is called
the cleavage furrow. The furrow deepens as the actin ring contracts, and eventually the membrane is
cleaved in two (Figure 6).
In plant cells, a new cell wall must form between the daughter cells. During interphase, the Golgi
apparatus accumulates enzymes, structural proteins, and glucose molecules prior to breaking into
vesicles and dispersing throughout the dividing cell. During telophase, these Golgi vesicles are
transported on microtubules to form a phragmoplast (a vesicular structure) at the metaphase plate.
There, the vesicles fuse and coalesce from the center toward the cell walls; this structure is called a cell
plate. As more vesicles fuse, the cell plate enlarges until it merges with the cell walls at the periphery of
the cell. Enzymes use the glucose that has accumulated between the membrane layers to build a new
cell wall. The Golgi membranes become parts of the plasma membrane on either side of the new cell
wall (Figure 7).
Figure 7: During cytokinesis in animal
cells, a ring of actin filaments forms at the
metaphase plate. The ring contracts,
forming a cleavage furrow, which divides
the cell in two. In plant cells, Golgi
vesicles coalesce at the former
metaphase plate, forming a phragmoplast.
A cell plate formed by the fusion of the
vesicles of the phragmoplast grows from
the center toward the cell walls, and the
membranes of the vesicles fuse to form a
plasma membrane that divides the cell in
two.

G0 Phase
Not all cells adhere to the classic cell cycle pattern in which a newly formed daughter cell immediately
enters the preparatory phases of interphase, closely followed by the mitotic phase. Cells in G0 phase are
not actively preparing to divide. The cell is in a quiescent (inactive) stage that occurs when cells exit
the cell cycle. Some cells enter G0 temporarily until an external signal triggers the onset of G1. Other
cells that never or rarely divide, such as mature cardiac muscle and nerve cells, remain in G0
permanently.

(Source: OpenStax ­ Biology for AP courses)