SUBMITTED BY: SAGHAR SULEMAN

SHER SHAH

ADNAN HAIDER

ATTUALLAH KHAN

ABDUL BASIT NOOR

SUBMITTED TO: MAM MALKA SABA

DEPARTMENT: PLANT SCIENCES

SEMESTER: BS 7TH
Transcription and Post-Transcriptional Modifications in Prokaryotes and
Eukaryotes

Introduction

Transcription, the initial step in gene expression, involves synthesizing RNA from a DNA template. This
essential process enables the conversion of genetic information into functional molecules, such as
proteins, critical for cellular activities. While both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms carry out
transcription, the underlying mechanisms and complexity differ significantly. Prokaryotes, with their
simpler cellular structure, perform transcription in the cytoplasm. In contrast, eukaryotes conduct this
process within the nucleus, allowing for extensive regulation and RNA processing. This essay explores
transcription and post-transcriptional modifications in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, highlighting the key
differences and their biological significance.

Transcription in Prokaryotes

Initiation

In prokaryotic cells, transcription starts when RNA polymerase recognizes specific promoter sequences
on the DNA. The core enzyme, made up of several subunits (α₂ββ’ω), requires a sigma (σ) factor for
promoter specificity. Prokaryotic promoters generally contain conserved sequences, including the -10
(TATAAT) and -35 (TTGACA) regions upstream of the transcription start site. Initially, RNA
polymerase binds to the promoter, forming a closed complex. The DNA is then unwound near the -10
region to create an open complex, initiating RNA synthesis at the +1 position.

Elongation

During elongation, RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template, synthesizing RNA in the 5’ to 3’
direction. The transcription bubble remains stable as the enzyme unwinds DNA ahead and re-anneals it
behind. Complementary base pairing allows nucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) to be added to the growing
RNA strand. Prokaryotic RNA polymerase exhibits proofreading abilities to minimize errors, ensuring
accurate RNA synthesis.

Termination

Transcription in prokaryotes ends through Rho-dependent or Rho-independent mechanisms. Rho-

Transcription in Eukaryotes

Initiation

Eukaryotic transcription is more complex, involving three distinct RNA polymerases (I, II, and III), each
transcribing different types of RNA. RNA polymerase II, which synthesizes mRNA, requires several
general transcription factors (GTFs) to bind to promoter regions. Eukaryotic promoters often contain a
TATA box approximately 25-30 base pairs upstream of the start site. The formation of the transcription
pre-initiation complex (PIC) facilitates the recruitment of RNA polymerase II and unwinding of the DNA,
initiating transcription.

Elongation

As RNA polymerase II progresses along the DNA, elongation factors enhance its processivity and help
overcome obstacles like nucleosomes. Chromatin remodeling plays a crucial role in making the DNA
accessible for transcription. Additionally, the C-terminal domain (CTD) of RNA polymerase II
coordinates RNA processing events, such as capping and splicing, during transcription.

Termination

Termination in eukaryotes depends on the RNA polymerase involved. RNA polymerase II termination is
linked to polyadenylation signals in the pre-mRNA. After cleavage near these signals, RNA polymerase
disengages from the DNA template. Termination for RNA polymerases I and III involves specific
sequences and protein factors that facilitate the release of the transcript.

Post-Transcriptional Modifications

Capping

In eukaryotes, the 5’ end of the nascent RNA undergoes capping shortly after transcription begins. A 7-
methylguanosine cap is added, protecting the RNA from degradation, aiding in nuclear export, and
facilitating translation initiation. This modification occurs while RNA polymerase II is elongating the
transcript. Prokaryotes lack such capping mechanisms, though the triphosphate group at the RNA’s 5’ end
offers limited protection.

Splicing

Eukaryotic pre-mRNA contains introns that are removed through splicing. This process is performed by
the spliceosome, a complex of proteins and RNA molecules. Splicing joins exons together to form mature
mRNA. Alternative splicing enables a single gene to produce multiple protein variants, enhancing
functional diversity. In prokaryotes, introns are rare, and splicing is limited to certain tRNA and rRNA
genes with self-splicing introns.

Polyadenylation

Eukaryotic RNA processing also involves adding a poly(A) tail to the 3’ end of the transcript. This
modification enhances mRNA stability, promotes nuclear export, and facilitates translation. The poly(A)
tail is added following cleavage at specific signals in the pre-mRNA. In prokaryotes, polyadenylation is
rare and primarily serves as a marker for RNA degradation, aiding in transcript turnover.

RNA Editing

In some eukaryotic systems, RNA editing alters the nucleotide sequence of RNA after transcription. This
includes processes like adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) deamination or cytosine-to-uracil (C-to-U)
conversion, which can diversify the proteome by modifying codons. Prokaryotic RNA editing is an
uncommon phenomenon.
Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Systems

Prokaryotic transcription is tightly coupled with translation, enabling rapid responses to environmental
changes. In contrast, eukaryotic transcription is spatially and temporally separated from translation,
allowing extensive RNA processing and regulation. Eukaryotes benefit from these additional layers of
regulation, which support complex cellular functions and organismal development. Prokaryotes, with
their streamlined transcriptional machinery, prioritize efficiency and adaptability.

Evolutionary Perspectives

The distinctions between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription reflect their evolutionary adaptations.
Prokaryotes’ streamlined systems suit their unicellular, fast-replicating nature, while eukaryotes have
evolved intricate mechanisms to manage multicellularity and tissue-specific gene expression. These
differences underscore the evolutionary pressures that shaped the transcriptional machinery in each
domain of life. Studying these processes enhances our understanding of molecular biology and provides
insights into the evolution of cellular complexity.
Conclusion

Transcription and its subsequent RNA processing steps reveal the remarkable diversity of gene expression
mechanisms in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. While prokaryotes rely on simple yet efficient transcription
systems, eukaryotes utilize complex processes to regulate gene expression and generate proteomic
diversity. Understanding these mechanisms not only sheds light on fundamental biological processes but
also informs advancements in biotechnology and medicine. By exploring transcriptional differences
across domains, researchers continue to uncover novel regulatory elements and applications, illustrating
the dynamic nature of gene expression across life forms.