25TH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF THE AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES

AN OVERVIEW OF AIRCRAFT MECHANICS AND

STRUCTURES
Chris Fielding
BAE Systems

Keywords: Aerodynamics, Airframe, Structures, Flight Systems, Testing

Abstract The aim of this paper is to provide an overview

of the work carried out on aircraft within the
This paper gives an introduction to the aircraft
Mechanics and Structures Discipline in order to
engineering disciplines that can be regarded as
introduce the subject and to generate greater
belonging to ‘Mechanics and Structures’. For
interest – to expand the knowledge of those
the purposes of this paper this covers Design
already involved in aircraft development and to
Engineering, Materials, Structures, Structural
attract new engineers into the profession.
and Dynamic Test, Aerodynamics, Wind
Tunnels, Flight Systems, Flight Simulation and
Flight Test.

For each of these disciplines, a description of

the main activities is provided, together with the
basic principles and methods that are used. This
includes the development, testing and validation
of the theoretical design models, and their use
for the qualification and certification of aircraft
and their systems. The paper includes a
comprehensive biography of some key
references that are used by practicing engineers
to carry out their work. Fig. 1. Multi-disciplinary design

1 Introduction Although the information is presented from a

military aircraft perspective, many of the
Mechanics and Structures is one of six corporate fundamental principles, processes and
disciplines within BAE Systems, the others technologies that are used for design are
being Systems Engineering, Software common to civil aircraft. The design of any
Engineering, Electrical and Electronics modern aircraft is a complex multi-disciplinary
Engineering, Manufacturing Engineering and activity where detailed planning, good technical
Support Engineering. At this level, the skills and a high level of systems integration are
disciplines are very broad, in order to cover necessary. The design is progressively refined
land, sea and air vehicles. The Mechanics and from initial concept through to detailed design,
Structures Discipline includes the traditional using all the engineering disciplines described
engineering disciplines, such as Aerodynamics, below. The specialist areas that are needed to
Hydrodynamics, Structures, Materials and establish a ‘flying platform’ are indicated in Fig.
Flight Systems – which can all be further sub- 1 and are supplemented by those for the
divided into their specialist areas. aircraft’s avionic systems – and, for a military
aircraft, its weapon systems.

© BAE SYSTEMS, 2006. Published by ICAS with permission. 1

 CHRIS FIELDING

2 Aerodynamics and Wind Tunnels precision model for testing in a high-speed wind
tunnel. Traditional methods of model
Aerodynamics and Wind Tunnels are closely
manufacture are now complemented by modern
related engineering disciplines that work
techniques such as stereo-lithography; (B)
together to establish the aircraft’s external
Water tunnel testing can be used to visualise the
shape. This includes the design and optimisation
flow around an airframe. In wind tunnels,
of the aircraft configuration and its flying
smoke can be used to visualise the airflow; (C)
qualities, in order to provide satisfactory aircraft
For aircraft spin testing, a vertical wind tunnel is
handling and performance.
used. This enables spin behaviour to be
understood, and recovery techniques to be
established; (D) A hot-gas laboratory is used to
assess the potentially destructive effects that hot
engine exhaust gases can have on the surface of
a runway or a ship’s deck; (E) A hot-gas
ingestion model is used to assess intake
ingestion effects, for a short take-off and
vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft; (F) An inlet
effects model is used for measuring the loads on
the airframe due to the inlet flow.

Fig. 2. Wind tunnel facilities

Wind tunnels are used to measure the forces and

moments acting on the vehicle, due to the
motion of the air passing over its surface. The
model is mounted on a sensitive and accurately
calibrated measurement balance. The measured
information, together with data from semi-
empirical estimation methods and
computational fluid dynamics, is used to
produce an aerodynamic dataset. This is part of
the mathematical modelling of the vehicle,
which enables prediction of its flight
characteristics.

Scale models of aircraft are used in a range of

instrumented test facilities. A low-speed wind
tunnel is used for subsonic testing, with Mach
numbers typically being less than 0.5. Above
this Mach number, a high-speed tunnel is used
for transonic and supersonic testing. Fig. 2
shows (A) model design and manufacture, (B) Fig. 3. Wind tunnel testing
low speed testing, (C) high speed testing, and
(D) specialised jet-effects facilities for Aerodynamicists are traditionally responsible
vertical/short take-off and landing aircraft. for the definition of the aircraft configuration in
terms of its shape, performance, stability and
Some further wind tunnel examples are shown control. The design of the configuration
in Fig. 3: (A) Manufacture and assembly of a includes wing design, fin and tail design and the
2
 AN OVERVIEW OF AIRCRAFT MECHANICS AND STRUCTURES

shaping of all external parts of the vehicle, in the structural strength and stiffness of an
order to meet design targets. These now include airframe. Thus, for example, acoustics can be a
stealth requirements for combat aircraft and Fig. major source of fatigue damage and work is
4(A) shows ground-based testing to measure carried out to predict and measure the noise
radar cross-section. The aerodynamic design field, on and around an aircraft. Fig. 5(A)
includes propulsion integration, whereby the shows preparation for thermo-acoustic testing
aircraft fore-bodies, intakes and after-bodies are of a powered scale aircraft model in an
designed to produce optimum installed engine anechoic chamber. The results are used in the
performance. Performance prediction tools are structural design process.
used for the preparation of operating data
manuals for aircraft customers – an extract from The static loading of the airframe due to steady
which is shown in Fig. 4(B). aerodynamic loads, and the dynamic loading
due to effects such as buffeting, store release,
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is used for and landing, are predicted from mathematical
the modelling and theoretical prediction of the models. The safe carriage/release/firing/jettison
flow around specified geometry, to predict of stores has to be demonstrated through
external pressure distributions, as shown in Fig. experimental and theoretical methods. Twin-
4(C). Such data is used in support of wind sting rigs are used for testing stores separation
tunnels and flight testing, to provide in the wind tunnel. Fig. 5(B) shows a simulated
aerodynamic data for aircraft design and missile release.
qualification. With improvements in
information technology and methods, the Aircraft flutter arises due to the interaction of
growing trend is for increased use of CFD. This the elastic, inertial and unsteady aerodynamic
trend is also being driven by the high costs forces. Aircraft are designed to be free from
associated with flight testing and wind tunnels. flutter within the required flight envelope, since
CFD can also be used for inverse design, it is potentially catastrophically destructive.
whereby the designer specifies the pressure Structural coupling is closely related to flutter
distribution and the CFD method then and is due to the interaction of the aircraft’s
determines the shape that produces that pressure aero-elastic modes with the flight control
distribution. system. Fig. 5(C) shows ground testing, with the
aircraft mounted on air springs. Ground
vibration testing is used to determine the aircraft
structural mode characteristics, and structural
coupling testing provides the information
needed to enable filters to be designed for
suppressing the structural frequencies within the
flight control system.

Fig. 4. Configuration aerodynamics

Aerostructures is a sub-discipline which covers

the aerodynamic loading and aero-servo-elastic
aspects of the airframe, including static and
dynamic loading, flutter, airframe/flight control
system structural coupling, the carriage and
release of aircraft stores, and acoustics. As its
name implies, aerostructures primarily involves
those aspects of aerodynamics that impact on
Fig. 5. Aero-structures

3
 CHRIS FIELDING

Flight dynamics is another sub-discipline which configurations – for cruise, combat and for
is mainly concerned with providing satisfactory weapon firing/release and stores jettison.
aircraft stability, control and handling, and
includes flight mechanics, flight control laws
design and, aircraft simulation and handling
assessment. Flight control laws design (Fig.
6(A)) involves the definition of feedback
filtering, command path filtering and gain
schedules, to provide satisfactory aircraft
stability augmentation and handling
characteristics. Simulation involves the
modelling of the aircraft and its systems to
evaluate its performance, stability and handling
(Fig. 6(B)). Flight mechanics covers the
evaluation of the stability and control of
Fig. 7. Stores carriage
vehicles and the definition of an aerodynamic
dataset for flight control laws design, flight
simulation and the prediction of aircraft 3 Design, Structures and Materials
handling qualities. Aircraft handling is
ultimately assessed in flight (Fig. 6(C)), where Design Engineering, Structures and Materials
the data gathered is used to validate the are closely related disciplines, in terms of
aerodynamic dataset, by using parameter establishing an aircraft structure with minimum
identification techniques. weight and adequate strength, stiffness and life,
which is consistent with the required aircraft
performance. Aircraft design engineers use the
aerodynamic ‘external lines’ and internal
structural geometry to design and control the
engineering definitions of the airframe structure,
and its electrical and fluid systems. The
designers use this information to provide the
visualisations and instructions that are necessary
for manufacturing. Traditional ‘drawing board’
design has been entirely replaced with
computer-aided engineering design tools, for all
Fig.6. Flight Dynamics aircraft components, sub-assemblies and the
complete aircraft.
For combat aircraft, it is important that they can
carry a range of stores. Carriage of stores can Structural engineers ensure the integrity of the
have a significant effect on the aerodynamic airframe. This requires analysis of the loads in
characteristics and this must be taken into all structural components, determination of
account during the design and testing. strength and stress distributions, and the
Furthermore, large variations in mass, inertia determination of aircraft fatigue characteristics,
and centre of gravity can occur with changes in to enable flight clearances to be given. The
stores and fuel state. Fig. 7 shows the carriage structural designers work in partnership with
of external stores by a military aircraft, where systems engineering to provide environmental
there can be many possible store combinations, data for aircraft equipment qualification, to
some of which will be asymmetrical. The design enable equipment vendors to design and qualify
aim is to provide safe operation and satisfactory their equipment for flight. Structures are also
aircraft handling for all possible store responsible for the definition and analysis of the
4
 AN OVERVIEW OF AIRCRAFT MECHANICS AND STRUCTURES

major airframe static and fatigue tests, analysis The advantages and disadvantages of the main
of results from flight testing and for ‘check materials used are listed in Fig. 9. The ideal
stress’ analysis (an audit of the structural material would have high strength or stiffness,
design). low weight, be durable, easily processed and
environmentally friendly, including the use of
harmless and environmentally friendly
substances during processing. In reality, the
choice of materials or combinations of materials
is a compromise. Materials are tested and
analysed, to determine their characteristics and
establish the best fit to the intended application.

Fig. 8. Evolution of materials usage

Materials engineers are responsible for the

testing and qualification of materials used in the
airframe and for ensuring that the manufactured Fig. 10. Computer-aided design
and assembled components meet the design
requirements. This involves a wide range of Computer-aided design of components has
activities from establishing design and become the norm, as shown by the example in
acceptance standards for new materials or Fig. 10. This provides risk reduction in
manufacturing processes, generating appropriate manufacturing, by enabling complex assemblies
control documentation such as material and to be designed and assembled in a virtual
process specifications, ensuring that procedures environment. The picture in Fig 10 (left) shows
and processes are properly utilised and offering a cockpit display structure; in Fig 10 (right), it
a technical service to engineering, has had its equipment and associated electrical
manufacturing and the end customer (e.g. defect system fitted. This technology has replaced the
investigations). Fig. 8 shows how the choice of need for a full-size physical mock-up, leading to
materials has varied since 1930. The use of cost reductions and allowing confidence in the
wood and steel has diminished, with an design to be gained at an earlier stage in the life
associated increase in the use of titanium and cycle.
composite materials, with the use of composites
continuing to increase.

Fig. 11. Airframe loading

Fig. 9. Properties of materials
5
 CHRIS FIELDING

Fig. 11 shows the loading on a typical airframe. idealised representation of all major structural
The wing is designed primarily for aerodynamic components. More detailed calculations are
loads and the fuselage, for inertial loads. The performed by using a variety of tools and finite
loading introduces stressing of the airframe, element models at component level, using real
from which, shear forces and bending moments structural geometry to generate the internal load
can be obtained for all sections along the wing distribution. This enables the calculation and
and fuselage. This enables the structure to be visualisation of the stresses in the components,
sized – by the selection of the minimum as shown by the example of Fig. 14.
dimensions for structural components that will
meet integrity requirements.

Fig. 13. Internal loading

Fig. 12. Finite element modelling

Fig. 12 shows a finite element model that has

been created to enable the prediction of the
loading and stressing of the structure. In the
model, a set of elements connected by grid
points is used to represent the geometry of the Fig. 14. Component stressing visualisation
structure. Properties, such as thickness and
material data, are added and the external loads
are applied using pressures on elements or Detailed geometry is used in the component
inertia loads on grids, to enable an analysis to be models and the internal load distribution (e.g.
performed. Later in the development process, from Fig. 13) is applied to the interface points,
the finite element models are validated by to enable a detailed stress analysis of the
ground and flight testing of the aircraft. The component. The colours indicate the predicted
models for a complete aircraft are very complex variation of stress levels, with red indicating the
and the analysis becomes processor intensive, areas of highest stress. The stress levels are used
usually requiring a supercomputer. to predict the fatigue life of the component, as
part of the aircraft flight clearance process. If
The finite element models are used to calculate any essential component’s life is shown to be
the internal loading of the airframe, enabling unacceptable, then a re-design will be required.
stressing and fatigue predictions to be made.
The example on the right of Fig. 13 shows the The design process for the aircraft structure
external situation, with the figure on the left involves a significant amount of modelling and
showing the detailed sub-structure within the during the early stages of the design process,
model. The details shown include intakes, simulation is used to predict the response of the
frames, cockpit boundary, and flying control structure. Component and aircraft tests are
surface location points. Such models are an carried out, to gather the information needed to
6
 AN OVERVIEW OF AIRCRAFT MECHANICS AND STRUCTURES

validate the models used for the design. Fig. 15 structure. These are predicted by modelling and
shows some examples: are used to extrapolate the ground test results, to
give the best possible estimation of in-flight
(A) This is taken from an animation of a characteristics. As the ultimate test, the
dynamic situation, where the stresses in a structural modes are deliberately excited during
component are varying with time, following an flight, to validate the complete aero-servo-
impulsive disturbance (such as an aircraft elastic model.
missile firing). The stresses will reduce as the
response decays due to damping. Purpose-built rigs are used to perform airframe
static tests and fatigue tests, to demonstrate the
structural integrity of the complete aircraft, as
shown in Fig. 16. For the static tests, the
airframe is loaded up to its ‘proof loading’ to
show that no permanent deformation occurs. It
is then loaded up to its ‘ultimate load’ to show
that it does not break. The test information is
used to update and validate the models used for
the structural design.

Fig. 15. Structures modelling and testing

(B) During fatigue testing, servo-controlled

hydraulic actuators are used to excite the
structure. Accelerometers are mounted on the
structure to monitor the structural response – for
data recording to enable calculation of the
measured fatigue spectrum. The information is
used for update and validation of the theoretical
Fig. 16. Airframe structural tests
models.
During the fatigue testing, the airframe is
(C) During ground testing the aircraft is
subjected to a loading spectrum which is
supported by air-springs and is excited via the
representative of what the vehicle will
structure for ground resonance tests, or via its
experience during its service life. The structure
flying control surfaces for airframe/flight
is tested to destruction, so that a safe life can be
control system ‘structural coupling’ tests. The
specified. A safety factor is added, to ensure
ground resonance testing is used to identify the
that the safe life takes account of all material
structural modes in order to validate the
and manufacturing variations.
structural models used for the design. The
structural coupling testing is to enable the
Other airframe structural testing carried out
design of structural mode filters for the flight
includes the dynamic loading through impact,
control system’s feedback signals.
such as bird strike, and the acoustic loading by
(D) The ground tests do not include the effects
testing in an acoustic fatigue facility.
of aerodynamic forces and moments on the
7
 CHRIS FIELDING

4 Flight Systems are sized to meet the aircraft’s mission

The Flight Systems Discipline involves the requirements, with long range usually requiring
large capacity. Military aircraft might be fitted
development and qualification of all the systems
that are needed to fly an aircraft. Flight systems with external wing tanks for extended range
and/or mission time, with some military aircraft
are essential for safe operation of aircraft and
being re-fuelled during flight by a tanker
are designed for high integrity. Most of the
aircraft.
systems are safety-critical and the aircraft might
be lost if any one of the systems completely
The aircraft fuel system is integrated with the
fails. The systems are usually integrated to form
design of the propulsion system, which is
a ‘vehicle management system’, to provide
designed to meet aircraft performance and
synergy and optimum performance. The
integrity requirements. As part of the ‘virtual
integration includes the other avionics systems
aircraft assembly’ described in Section 3, it is
that are needed to complete the aircraft’s
possible to check the installation of the engine
mission (e.g. navigation and cockpit displays).
in the airframe, as shown in Fig. 17(B). The
propulsion system is tested by its manufacturer
The propulsion system is used to provide thrust
using an engine test stand as shown in Fig.
and is the primary source of hydraulic, electrical
17(C), prior to installation and testing in the
and pneumatic power. The power generated is
airframe.
used by the avionic systems, cockpit displays,
radar, weapons systems, flight control system,
undercarriage, environmental control system,
fuel system and crew support systems. Civil
aircraft also require power for services, galley,
lighting and cabin pressurisation, to provide a
comfortable environment for their passengers.

Fig. 18. Environmental control systems

In flight, it is necessary to remove excessive

heat from electronic equipment to maintain
acceptable operating conditions. An aircraft’s
environmental control system is designed to
provide suitable operating conditions to support
people and equipment. The system is tested
(Fig. 18 (left)) to ensure that it provides
effective control of the environment for reliable
operation of the avionics equipment and for the
support of aircrew − and passengers, for a civil
aircraft.

Fig. 17. Fuel systems The climate in which the aircraft might operate
can vary significantly. It must, therefore, be
The fuel system usually has wing and fuselage tested to demonstrate operation in extreme
tanks, with the system status being displayed in conditions. Natural hot and cold testing can be
the cockpit, as indicated in Fig. 17(A). The fuel supplemented with an environmental hangar test
system must operate for the ‘g’ range of the facility (Fig. 18 (right)) to demonstrate
aircraft, including flight at negative g − and operation in high temperature, high humidity
inverted flight, for combat aircraft. The tanks conditions or in extreme cold conditions.

8
 AN OVERVIEW OF AIRCRAFT MECHANICS AND STRUCTURES

On landing, large loads need to be absorbed by Flight control systems are designed to provide
an aircraft’s undercarriage, to protect the satisfactory aircraft handling. In a mechanical
airframe structure from damage. Undercarriages flight control system, the pilot’s control stick is
are designed and tested (Fig. 19) to absorb the linked to the aerodynamic control surfaces by
loads and to ensure that aircraft can operate rods and levers (Fig. 20), or by cables and
satisfactorily on the ground, and take-off and pulleys. The system is inherently of high
land safely. integrity and with sound mechanical design and
proper maintenance, the system should not fail
under normal operating conditions.

Fig. 19. Undercarriage

Fig. 21. Fly-by-wire flight control system

Undercarriages are usually hydraulically driven

and are tested on ground rigs that include In a fly-by-wire system (Fig. 21), the
aircraft computers, actuators and a mechanical linkages from the cockpit to the
representative hydraulic system. Usually, an aerodynamic control surfaces are removed and
‘iron-bird’ rig is used, which has a electrical signalling is introduced to transmit the
representative hydraulic system and other pilot’s commands to the control surfaces, via a
actuation systems, such as those used for flight flight control computer. The only link between
control and aircraft wheel brakes. The testing is the pilot’s controls and the control surfaces is
used to demonstrate undercarriage operation and via the computer and multiple lanes of
reliability, in conjunction with the flight control equipment become necessary to deal with
and hydraulic systems. failures and to ensure sufficient integrity.
Significant performance improvements can be
gained compared with a mechanical system and
most modern aircraft are fitted with a fly-by-
wire system.

Primary control surfaces are essential for the

safe operation of the vehicle in flight. For a
military aircraft, if these fail during flight, then
it is very likely that the aircraft will be lost.
Civil aircraft tend to have control surface
redundancy to minimise this risk. Secondary
control surfaces are used to improve the
performance of the aircraft in some way. Loss
Fig. 20. Mechanical flight control system of these surfaces leads to some reduction in
performance and/or a reduced flight envelope.

9
 CHRIS FIELDING

Crew escape systems (Fig. 22) are designed and fitted with a flight re-fuelling probe and the
tested to provide the safest trajectory, after pilot pilot manoeuvres the aircraft to ‘capture’ the
ejection. The ejection system is designed to be basket on the fuel hose from the tanker vehicle.
largely independent of the other aircraft systems
and must be able to operate, even if other (D) Icing tests are carried out to assess the
systems have failed. Other pilot support systems build-up of ice on the air intakes and flying
provide oxygen, biological and chemical control surfaces, and to prove the safe operation
filtration, and crew comfort − providing of the systems in such conditions. Of particular
tolerance to high g. For military combat aircraft, interest might be the performance of the ice
‘high g’ means pulling 8 or 9 g and a ‘g suit’ is detection system, which warns the pilot of any
used to help to prevent pilot blackout. potential icing problem.

(E) The mechanical systems are tested on rigs

but ultimately, they must all operate in unison to
control the aircraft. This example shows the
integration of the propulsion controls with the
flight controls.

Fig. 22. Ejection system

Simulation is used extensively, to predict the

operation and performance of all the flight
systems. Ground rig tests are carried out, to
demonstrate that the systems are functioning
correctly and to assess the effects of failures.
Flight testing is later carried out to demonstrate
the performance of the systems and to validate
the models used in the design and flight
clearance process. Some examples are shown in
Fig. 23:

(A) Modelling and simulation of mechanical

systems is used for risk reduction. Here, an
image from an animation of an undercarriage
operation is shown. Fig. 23. Flight systems modelling and testing

(B) Ejection seats are tested on a jet-powered

rail-mounted vehicle. A successful high-speed 5 Simulation and Flight Testing
test of pilot ejection from a twin-seat aircraft is Flight simulation is being increasingly used as
shown. an aircraft development tool for evaluating
design options and for the assessment of
(C) Some military aircraft are re-fuelled during handling and design characteristics, prior to
flight, to extend their mission. The aircraft is
10
 AN OVERVIEW OF AIRCRAFT MECHANICS AND STRUCTURES

flight. It provides an opportunity for the pilots to recover. Piloting recovery technique can be
familiarise themselves with the aircraft and assessed and developed.
allows operational effectiveness to be evaluated
in a safe environment. The results from piloted (D) In this example of spin testing, the aircraft
simulation play an important part in decision is tumbling through space. A significant loss in
making and provide supporting evidence for the altitude can occur during a spin and this can
flight clearance process. result in aircraft loss, especially at low altitudes.

Flight testing is the ultimate proof of the aircraft

and its integrated systems, and all reasonable
precautions are taken to ensure flight safety.
The testing is used to gather information and to
demonstrate the aircraft’s overall performance
and effectiveness in a realistic operating
environment. The testing exposes the aircraft to
the range of external influences that cannot
always be effectively modelled or simulated on
the ground. Effects such as those due to the
aircraft’s aerodynamics need to be proven, and
flight testing has to be carried out to completely
validate the aircraft.

The information gathered from the testing is

used for the validation of all the models that
were used to design the aircraft and its systems.
Finally, the information is used to demonstrate
compliance with customer requirements,
completing the design process by providing
validation of the aircraft in its operating
environment.
Fig. 24. Flight simulation and flight testing
Fig. 24 shows some examples of piloted
simulation and flight testing:
(E) Flight testing involves testing automatic
(A) Piloted simulation of a short take-off and
systems that prevent spinning as well as all the
vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft in the hover.
other systems on the aircraft - including all of
Outside-world displays are used to provide good
those described in this paper. Other systems that
visual cues. A moving-base is used to provide
are to be tested and proven include radar,
realistic motion cues.
navigation, communications, cockpit displays,
maintenance and support systems, and weapons
(B) Combat simulation is used to assess the
systems (for military aircraft).
effectiveness of aircraft and their weapon
systems in realistic combat situations. High
resolution and low latency of the outside-word 6 Closing Remarks
display are needed for good fidelity.
This paper has only managed to give a basic
(C) Spin testing is carried out to determine an introduction to the mechanical and structural
aircraft’s spin characteristics and its ability to aspects of aircraft design. Each of the technical
areas described is a specialist topic with its own

11
 CHRIS FIELDING

technologies, processes and standards, all of [7] Raymond L., Bisplinghoff, A. and Ashley,
which are underpinned by a wealth of project H. Principles of Aeroelasticity. Dover
experience. Much of this information is Publications, 2002, ISBN 0 48661 349 6.
available and some of it can be found in the
references listed in biography, which will lead [8] Anderson, J. Aircraft Performance and
to the next level of detail. Design. McGraw-Hill, 1999, ISBN 0 07116 010
8.

Acknowledgements [9] Abzug, M.J. and Larrabee, E.E. Airplane

The author would like to thank the following Stability and Control. Cambridge University
people in BAE Systems for reviewing this Press, 2002, ISBN 0 52180 992 4.
paper: Jim Banks, Richard Blockley, Brian
Cleator, Dave Common, Mike Crompton, Tony Design, Structures and Materials
Cross, Peter Gates, Neil Graham, Brian
[10] Roark, R.J. Formulas for Stress and Strain.
Oldfield, Dennis Morley, Allan Seabridge,
McGraw-Hill, 2002, ISBN 0 07121 059 8.
Terry Smith, Mike Southworth, John Thompson
and Brian Weller.
[11] Bruhn E.F. Analysis and Design of Flight
Vehicle Structures. Jacobs Publishing, 1973,
Thanks are also due to EADS, Martin Baker,
ISBN 0 96152 3409.
Lockheed Martin, Messier-Dowty and, Pratt &
Whitney for giving permission for the use of
[12] Niu, M.C. Airframe Structures Analysis.
their photographic material in this paper.
Hong Kong Commlit. Press, 1998, ISBN 0
96152 340 9.
Bibliography
[13] Timoshenko, S.P. and Goodier, J.N. Theory
of Elasticity. McGraw-Hill, 1970, ISBN 0
Aerodynamics and Wind Tunnels 07085 805 5.
[1] Cook, M.V. Flight Dynamics Principles.
Arnold Publishing, 1997, ISBN 0 470 23590 X. [14] Timoshenko, S.P., Gere, J.M. and Young,
D. Theory of Elastic Stability. Schaum
[2] Raymer D.P. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Publishing, 1964. ISBN 0 07085 821 7.
Approach. AIAA Education Series, 1999, ISBN
1 56347 281 3. [15] Timoshenko, S.P. and Woinowsky-Kreiger,
S. Theory of Plates and Shells. McGraw-Hill,
[3] Eshelby, M.E. Aircraft Performance: 1964, ISBN 0 07085 820 9.
Theory and Practice. Butterworth-Heinmann,
2000, ISBN 1 56347 398 4. [16] Callister, W.D. Materials Science and
Engineering – An Introduction. John Wiley,
[4] Etlin, B. Dynamics of Atmospheric Flight. 2000, ISBN 0 471 32013 7.
John Wiley & Sons, 1972, ISBN 0 47124 620 4.
[17] Polmear, I.J. Light Alloys – Metallurgy of
[5] Pamadi, B.N. Performance, Stability, the Light Metals. Butterworth-Heinemann,
Dynamics and Control. AIAA Education Series, ISBN 0 34056 830 5.
2004, ISBN 1 56347 222 8.
[18] Smith, W.F. Foundations of Materials
[6] Hoerner, S.F. Fluid-Dynamic Drag. Hoerner Science and Engineering. McGraw-Hill, 1993,
Fluid Dynamics, 1964, ISBN 9 99119 444 4. ISBN 0 07112 843 3.

12
 AN OVERVIEW OF AIRCRAFT MECHANICS AND STRUCTURES

[19] Baker, A.A., Dutton, S. and Kelly, D. [29] Moir, I., Seabridge, A.G. and Jukes, M.
Composite Materials for Aircraft Structures. Military Avionics Systems. John Wiley & Sons,
AIAA Education Series, 2004, ISBN 1 56347 2006, ISBN 0 47001 632 9.
540 5.

[20] Cantor, B., Grant, P. and Assender, A. Flight Simulation and Flight Test
Aerospace Materials. The Institute of Physics,
2001, ISBN 0 75030 742 0. [30] Stevens, B.L. and Lewis, F.L. Aircraft
Control and Simulation, Stevens. John Wiley &
[21] Matthews, F.L. and Rawlings R.D., Sons, 1992, ISBN 0 47161 397 5.
Composite Materials: Engineering and Science.
Woodhead Publishing, 1999, ISBN 1 85573 473 [31] Zipfel, P.H. Building Aerospace
7. Simulations in C++ and Modeling and
Simulation of Aerospace Vehicle Dynamics.
AIAA Education Series, 2003, ISBN 1 56347
Flight Systems 593 6.
[22] Moir, I. and Seabridge, A.G. Design and
Development of Aircraft Systems: An [32] Stiniton, D. Flying Qualities and Flight
Introduction. Professional Engineering Testing of the Aeroplane. Blackwell Science,
Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1 86058 437 3. 1998, ISBN 0 63205 056 X.

[23] Pratt, R.W. Flight Control Systems: [33] Stoliker, F. Introduction to Flight Test
practical issues in design and implementation. Engineering. AGARD AG-300-14, 1995, ISBN
IEE Control Engineering Series 57, 2000, ISBN 92-836-020-2.
0 85296 766 7.
[34] Various authors. Advances in Flight
[24] Collinson, R.P.G. Introduction to Avionic Testing. AGARD-CP-593, 1997, ISBN 92 836
Systems. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002, 0050 9.
ISBN 1 40207 278 3.
[35] Various authors. System Identification for
[25] Howard, R.W. Automatic Flight Control in Integrated Aircraft Development and Flight
Fixed Wing Aircraft, The First 100 Years. Test. RTO-MR-011, 1999, ISBN 92 837 006 6.
Aeronautical Journal, November 1973.
[36] SCI-055 Task Group. Flying Qualities
[26] Haeussermann, W. Developments in the Flight Testing of Digital Flight Control Systems.
Field of Automatic Guidance and Control of RTO-AG-300-21, 2001, ISBN 92 837 1075 4.
Rockets. Journal of Guidance and Control,
AIAA 81-4120, May-June 1981. [37] Pool, A. and Bosman, D. Introduction to
Flight Test Instrumentation Engineering.
[27] Raymond, E.T. and Chenoweth, C.C. AGARD AG-160-01, 1974, ISBN 681-2-087.
Aircraft Flight Control Actuation System
Design. SAE, ISBN 1 56091 376 2.

[28] Lloyd, E. and Tye, W. Systematic Safety:

Safety Assessment of Aircraft Systems. CAA,
ISBN 0 86039 141 8.

13