II.

PRE-COLONIAL PHILIPPINES

Early Settlements and Indigenous Peoples

Early Settlement Patterns

The pre-colonial Philippines featured strategic coastal settlements organized into

barangays, autonomous communities led by datus or rajahs. Major civilizations emerged
between 900-1565 CE, including:

 Indianized kingdoms like the Rajahnate of Cebu

The Rajahnate of Cebu is an example of a state in the Philippines that exhibits

Indianized influences, particularly through trade and cultural exchange with Indian,
Chinese, and Islamic civilizations. Similar Indianized kingdoms or polities in
Southeast Asia can be observed, reflecting the broader patterns of cultural
exchange and adaptation that occurred in the region.

 Maritime trading centers in Butuan

Butuan known for its role as a prominent trading center during the pre-colonial
period, Butuan was involved in trade networks that connected the Philippines with
China, India, and other parts of Southeast Asia. Archaeological discoveries, such as
gold artifacts and trade goods, indicate that Butuan was a hub of commerce and
cultural exchange.

 Islamic sultanates across Mindanao

Sultanate of Sulu and Sultanate of Maguindanao: These Islamic sultanates in

Mindanao were established in the 15th century and played a significant role in the
spread of Islam in the Philippines. They were centers of trade, culture, and political
power, engaging in both local and international trade, particularly with other
Muslim regions in Southeast Asia.

 Coastal polities along significant trading routes

Coastal Polities: Various coastal polities emerged along significant trading routes
in the Philippines, including places like Manila, Tondo, and other parts of Luzon
and Visayas. These polities were often influenced by foreign trade, especially with
Chinese, Arab, and later European traders. They served as centers for commerce,
culture, and governance, often adapting foreign influences while maintaining local
traditions.

INDIGENOUS PEOPLES: Life and Conditions

Before the arrival of Spanish colonizers in the 16th century, the indigenous peoples of the
Philippines lived in a diverse range of ethnic groups and complex array of societies, each
with its own distinct cultures, languages, ways of life and social structures.
Tribal Organization: Indigenous communities were typically organized into tribes or
clans. Leadership roles often included a datu (chief), who was responsible for governance,
conflict resolution, and the welfare of the community.

TYPES OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES

Luzon Groups

 Igorot: Located in the Cordillera region, they were known for their rice terraces,
tribal governance, and rich cultural traditions.
 Ifugao: Famous for their intricate rice terraces and rich agricultural practices, they
had a complex social structure and belief systems.
 Tingguian: Resided in Abra and were known for their agricultural practices and
traditional weaving.

Visayan Groups

 Cebuano: Inhabited Cebu and surrounding islands, they engaged in trade and
agriculture.
 Hiligaynon: Resided in Panay and Negros, known for their farming and fishing
communities.
 Waray: Inhabitants of Eastern Visayas, known for their seafaring skills and
agriculture.

Mindanao Groups

 Lumad: A collective term for various Indigenous groups in Mindanao, including the
Manobo, Blaan, and T'boli, who maintained traditional practices and resisted
colonization.
 Moro: Comprising several Muslim ethnic groups, including the Maranao and
Tausug, they had rich cultural traditions and established sultanates.

Lifestyle and Culture

Social Structure

 Communities were often organized into small, kin-based groups or tribes led by
chieftains (datu). Leadership was typically hereditary but could also be based on
merit.
 Social hierarchies existed, with the datu and noble families at the top, followed by
commoners and slaves.

Economy

 Agriculture: Rice, root crops, and other agricultural products were staples. The
Ifugao, for example, developed sophisticated rice terraces.
 Fishing: Coastal communities relied heavily on fishing and gathering marine
resources.
  Trade: Indigenous Peoples engaged in inter-island trade, exchanging goods such
as textiles, pottery, and food items.

Beliefs and Practices

 The spiritual life of Indigenous Peoples was often animistic, with beliefs in spirits
associated with nature, ancestors, and deities.
 Rituals, ceremonies, and festivals played significant roles in community life, often
tied to agricultural cycles and life events (birth, marriage, death).

Art and Craftsmanship

 Indigenous Peoples were skilled artisans, creating intricate textiles, pottery, and
metalwork. Traditional crafts often reflected their cultural identity and beliefs.
 Storytelling, music, and dance were important forms of cultural expression, with
oral traditions passing down history and values.

Housing and Settlements

 Dwellings varied by region and resources, ranging from bamboo and nipa huts in
lowland areas to more permanent structures in mountainous regions.
 Settlements were typically organized around communal spaces for social
gatherings and rituals.

SOCIAL STRUCTURES AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

Social structures in pre-colonial Philippines were generally hierarchical but varied among
different groups. Society was typically divided into three main classes: the nobility (datu
or rajah), the freemen (timawa), and the dependent class (alipin).

The datu was the leader of the barangay and wielded significant power, including the
authority to make laws and lead in warfare. Political organization was characterized by
decentralized governance, with each barangay often functioning independently, while
alliances could form among groups for trade or defense.

Social Hierarchies: During Pre-Hispanic times, Filipinos can be divided according to these
classes: The noble class called the Maginoo; the freeman class called the Timawa; the
warrior class called the Maharlika; and the indentured class called the Alipin.

The Maginoo were the ruling class, the educated class, the royal class, the privileged class
and held the highest social status in pre-colonial Philippines.

They governed the people, led them in war, protected them from enemies, and settled
disputes. They played a crucial role in shaping the society of that time.

Governing was one of the primary duties of the Maginoo Class. They served as leaders
of the Barangay and held the title of Datu, or chief. They were responsible for making
decisions that affected the community, enforcing laws, and maintaining order.
The Maginoo Class had the authority to allocate land and distribute resources among
their followers, ensuring a fair distribution of wealth and maintaining social stability.

During times of war, the Maginoo Class took on the role of military leaders. They led their
community into battle, strategizing tactics, and ensuring the protection of their people
from enemy forces. The Maginoo Class played a vital role in defending their territory and
maintaining the security and integrity of their community.

Another significant responsibility of the Maginoo Class was settling disputes among the
people. They acted as mediators, using their authority and influence to resolve conflicts
and maintain peace within the community.

Their wisdom and fairness were highly respected, making them key figures in maintaining
harmonious relationships among different social classes.

The Maharlika Class and Military Involvement

The Maharlika Class had the freedom to attach themselves to a datu, the ruling noble of
the Maginoo Class, and render services and labor.

One of the key contributions of the Maharlika Class was their involvement in the military.
They served as skilled warriors, defending their communities against external threats. They
Maharlika Class paid for their own military equipment, reflecting their status as freemen
who had the means to support themselves.

In naval warfare, the Maharlika Class displayed their prowess and played a vital role in
protecting the archipelago. They were responsible for manning the boats and ships,
conducting naval battles, and safeguarding coastal areas from potential invaders.

Their contributions to the military forces helped establish a defense system that upheld
the security of pre-colonial Philippines.

Timawa Class

The term “Timawa” initially referred to the noble class but later came to mean “freemen”
during the Spanish conquest.

The freemen, probably made up of people of the barangay community, were called the
Timawa class. They have quite a lot of rights, like choosing wives and the jobs they like,
own property, and an Alipin, but they were the taxpayers so they played an important role
in the society.

The Timawa Class was a feudal warrior class in ancient Visayan societies.

The Timawa Class possessed certain rights and freedoms, including the ability to own land
and participate in business ventures, trading, and commerce, distinguishing them from
lower social classes granting them opportunities for financial growth. This entrepreneurial
spirit helped shape their social standing and enabled them to accumulate wealth and
influence.
In ancient Visayan societies, these privileges set the Timawa apart and contributed to their
elevated status within the feudal warrior class.

Alipin Class

 The alipin class existed within a complex social structure that also included the
maginoo, timawa, and maharlika classes as well.
 In pre-colonial Philippines, Alipin class was the lowest social stratum, consisting of
individuals who were not slaves but debtors or servants.
 There were different types of alipin, including the aliping namamahay with some
rights and the aliping sagigilid who had nothing.

The Alipin was not the ones doing most of the work in a community, these tasks wer often
done by the Timawa while the Alipin helped them around the house with chores, cooking,
or at work.

Freedom could be achieved by the alipin through buying their liberty if they had the
means to do so.

Aliping Namamahay

 They were allowed to engage in various economic activities and had some
autonomy over their personal lives.
 Could accumulate wealth to eventually buy their freedom.
 Had some rights and could own a house, enjoyed relatively better living conditions.
 Protection from unjust killing.

Aliping Sagigilid

Had no possessions or rights.

They lived in the most basic conditions, often in the same dwelling as their masters.
Their livelihood was entirely dependent on their masters, who provided them with
food and shelter.
Had no control over their lives and were at the complete mercy of their masters.

BARANGAY SYSTEM

The barangay formed the foundational unit of pre-colonial Filipino society. Each barangay
consisted of 30 to 100 families in coastal regions and 150-200 people in interior
settlements, operating under the leadership of a datu who served dual roles as political
administrator and religious authority.

Pre-colonial Philippines operated through a sophisticated social structure centered on

autonomous communities. The system balanced hierarchical leadership with community-
based governance, creating a stable social order and political administration framework.

KEY FEATURES OF THE BARANGAY SYSTEM

1) Autonomous governance with independent decision-making powers.

 2) Local dispute resolution mechanisms managed by the datu.
3) Established tax collection systems.
4) Religious ceremonies and ritual performances.
5) Independent trade networks linking to other regions.

1. Autonomous governance with independent decision-making powers

 During the pre-colonial period in the Philippines, the barangay system was
characterized by autonomous governance, with each barangay functioning
as an independent political unit led by a datu or chieftain.
 These local leaders wielded significant decision-making powers, governing
their communities without external interference.
 The barangays operated under a system of customary laws and traditions,
which were collectively upheld by the community.
 Decisions regarding resource management, conflict resolution, and social
organization were made through consensus, reflecting the community's
needs and values.
 This decentralized governance model allowed for a high degree of local
autonomy, fostering a sense of identity and self-determination among the
barangay members, which laid the groundwork for the social and political
structures that would evolve in the archipelago.

2. Local dispute resolution mechanisms managed by the datu.

 The datu played a central role in maintaining order and resolving conflicts
among community members, often relying on customary laws and practices
passed down through generations.
 Disputes were typically settled through a combination of mediation,
negotiation, and communal involvement, with the datu serving as an arbiter
who sought to restore harmony and uphold social cohesion.
 This system emphasized consensus-building and collective responsibility,
reflecting the communal values of the society.

LOCAL DISPUTE RESOLUTION MECHANISMS

A. Datu's Role: The datu acted as the primary authority figure and mediator in disputes.
He was expected to be wise, fair, and knowledgeable about customs and traditions. His
decisions were respected and adhered to by the community.

B. Council of Elders: In many cases, the datu would consult with a council of elders or
other respected members of the community to help resolve disputes. These elders often
had extensive knowledge of local customs and traditions, which guided their
recommendations.

C. Customary Laws: Disputes were generally resolved based on customary laws and
practices that had been passed down through generations. These laws were unwritten but
well understood by the community, reflecting their values and cultural norms.
CUSTOMARY LAWS PRACTICES

 Marriage and Family Laws

Marriage was often arranged, and families played a significant role in the selection
of partners. Customs surrounding dowries (often in the form of goods or services)
were common, and the ceremonies varied widely among different groups.

Polygamy was practiced by some groups, particularly among the elite, and was
often governed by specific rules regarding the treatment of wives and children.

 Property Rights and Inheritance

Land ownership and the distribution of property were typically governed by

communal agreements. Land was often seen as a shared resource, with certain
families or clans having rights to specific areas.

Inheritance laws varied but generally favored male heirs, although some
communities allowed for women to inherit property.

 Conflict Resolution

Disputes were usually settled through the intervention of a local leader or elder,
known as a "datu" or "rajah." This involved mediation and negotiation rather than
formal legal proceedings

Blood feuds were a common practice, and customary laws often dictated the terms
of restitution and reconciliation between families or clans involved in a conflict.

 Social Hierarchy and Status

There were established social classes, including nobles (datu), freemen (timawa),
and serfs (alipin). Each class had specific rights and obligations, and these were
enforced through customary laws.

Nobility had the right to lead and make decisions for the community, while lower
classes were expected to serve and provide labor to their leaders.

 Trade and Economic Practices

Trade was governed by customary laws that ensured fairness and regulated
transactions. Barter systems were common, and there were often established
practices regarding pricing and the exchange of goods.

Certain groups had specific roles in trade networks, with customary laws dictating
who could engage in trade and the terms of such exchanges.
  Religious and Spiritual Laws

Customary practices included rituals and beliefs tied to agriculture, healing, and
ancestor worship. These laws governed interactions with the spiritual world and
dictated the conduct of individuals during religious ceremonies.

Certain taboos and prohibitions were observed, often linked to the community’s
beliefs about the natural and supernatural worlds.

 Community Responsibilities

Individuals had obligations to their community, including participation in

communal labor and defense against external threats. Failure to fulfill these
responsibilities could result in social sanctions.

Customs often emphasized cooperation and collective well-being, with laws in

place to promote communal harmony.

D. Mediation and Negotiation: The datu would often facilitate mediation between the
conflicting parties, encouraging dialogue and negotiation. This approach aimed to restore
harmony within the community rather than impose punitive measures.

E. Restorative Justice: The focus of dispute resolution was often on restoring

relationships and social harmony rather than punishment. This could involve
compensations, apologies, or community service, depending on the nature of the dispute.

F. Community Involvement: Dispute resolution was usually a community affair, and the
involvement of the community helped ensure that the process was transparent and that
the outcomes were accepted by all parties.

G. Rituals and Symbolism: Some disputes might also involve rituals or symbolic acts to
signify resolution or to invoke the help of ancestral spirits, reflecting the spiritual and
cultural dimensions of conflict resolution.

3. Established tax collection systems.

During the time before the Spaniards came, the country had various kingdoms, called
barangays, which was ruled by the datus (or rajahs in some areas) who offered protection
to all its subordinates. Since barter was the leading form of trade back then, tax (called
buwis or handug, with the variant handog) came in forms of crops or goods, which the
people living under the datu share a portion of their harvest or property, in exchange for
security and protection. These systems were primarily based on the socio-economic and
cultural practices of the various indigenous groups across the archipelago.

KEY ASPECTS OF TAX COLLECTION

1. Tribute System
Tribute (Buwis): Local leaders (datus) collected tribute from their subjects, which could
be in the form of agricultural produce, livestock, or crafts. This tribute was often given to
the datu in exchange for protection and governance.
Ritual Offerings: Tributes were sometimes offered during rituals and ceremonies,
reflecting the spiritual and social obligations of the community.

2. Barangay Structure

Barangay: The basic political unit was the barangay, consisting of 30 to 100 families. Each
barangay had its own leader and governance system. The datu would impose local taxes
or tributes on the members of the barangay.

Collective Responsibility: Members of the barangay collectively contributed to the

community’s needs, including defense, irrigation, and social services.

3. Resource Sharing

Agricultural Contributions: Farmers would share a portion of their harvest with the
community or local leader. This was not a formal tax but a communal practice to ensure
the welfare of the barangay.

Labor Contributions: In some cases, members of the barangay would provide labor for
community projects, such as building roads or irrigation systems, which can be considered
a form of tax in kind.

4. Trade and Exchange

Trade Goods: In trading communities, taxes could be levied on goods exchanged. This
included the imposition of fees or a percentage of goods traded, especially in coastal
areas with active trade networks.

Customs Duties: There may have been informal customs dues levied on traders from
other barangays or islands.

5. Social Hierarchy

Influence of Social Status: The amount of tribute or tax could vary based on the social
status of individuals within the barangay. Wealthier individuals or families might pay more
in tribute than poorer ones.

6. Cultural and Religious Obligations

Spiritual Taxes: Some communities had obligations to support religious leaders or

priests, which could include offerings or a share of agricultural produce.

4. Religious ceremonies and ritual performances.

The pre-colonial Filipinos practiced animism, a belief system that attributed spiritual
significance to natural elements, objects, and ancestors. The religious ceremonies and
ritual performances were deeply intertwined with the daily lives, beliefs, and practices of
indigenous peoples. They reflect a profound respect for nature, ancestors, and the
spiritual world, showcasing the rich cultural heritage that existed before colonial
influences.

1. Anito Worship

Anito: Pre-colonial Filipinos believed in spirits known as anitos, which were often
associated with ancestors, nature, and various elements of life. They believed that these
spirits could influence daily life and thus required appeasement through offerings and
rituals.

Rituals: Offerings could include food, rice, and animals. These were often performed
during special occasions or when seeking guidance or blessings.

2. Shamanism and Ritual Specialists

Babaylan and Baylan: Women and men who acted as spiritual leaders, healers, and
mediators between the physical and spiritual worlds. They played a crucial role in
performing rituals, healing the sick, and conducting ceremonies.

Rituals: These often included chants, dances, and the use of herbs and other natural
materials. The babaylan would enter a trance to communicate with the spirits.

3. Lifecycle Rituals

Birth, Marriage, and Death: Significant life events were marked by ceremonies. For
instance, childbirth often involved rituals to ensure the mother's and child's safety.
Marriage ceremonies could include the exchange of gifts and the performance of
traditional dances.

Funeral Rites: Death was honored with elaborate rituals to ensure the deceased's safe
passage to the afterlife. The community would gather to mourn, often involving music,
dancing, and offerings.

4. Agricultural and Harvest Festivals

Rituals for Fertility and Abundance: Agricultural societies performed rituals to ensure
good harvests. These ceremonies often involved offerings to deities or spirits responsible
for fertility and bountiful crops.

5. Ritual Performances

Dance and Music: Ritual dances were an integral part of ceremonies, often telling stories
of creation, history, and the relationship between people and the divine. Music played a
significant role in setting the mood and invoking spirits.

Costumes and Props: Participants often wore traditional attire and used props that had
spiritual significance, enhancing the visual and cultural elements of rituals.
6. Nature Worship

Spirits of Nature: Many indigenous groups revered natural elements such as mountains,
rivers, and trees, believing they housed spirits. Rituals were performed to honor these
spirits and seek their protection.

Sacred Sites: Certain locations, like caves or specific trees, were considered sacred and
were sites for rituals and offerings.

7. Community Involvement

Collective Participation: Many ceremonies involved the entire community, reinforcing

social bonds and shared beliefs. This collective participation was essential for maintaining
cultural identity and community cohesion.

Five key independent trade networks that linked the Philippines to other regions:

The Maritime Trade Network: The Philippines was strategically located along major
maritime trade routes that connected China, Japan, India, and the Malay Archipelago.
Filipino traders engaged in the exchange of goods such as spices, textiles, gold, pearls,
and other valuable commodities. The trade often involved various local polities and
independent communities that operated their own trade routes and networks.

The Srivijaya Trade Network: This powerful maritime empire based on the island of
Sumatra in present-day Indonesia controlled much of the trade in the region from the 7th
to the 13th centuries. Its influence extended to the Philippines, where local traders
engaged in commerce with Srivijaya, exchanging goods such as gold, exotic woods, and
agricultural products.

The Majapahit Empire Trade Network: Following the decline of Srivijaya, the Majapahit
Empire (14th to 16th centuries) rose to prominence. It established trade relations with
various Southeast Asian islands, including the Philippines. Filipino traders participated in
the exchange of goods like rice, fish, and other local products for Majapahit’s luxury items,
including textiles and ceramics.

Chinese Trade Networks: Chinese merchants were significant players in the trade
networks of Southeast Asia. They established trading posts in the Philippines, particularly
in places like Manila and Cebu, where they exchanged porcelain, silk, and other goods for
local products such as gold, spices, and agricultural goods. The Sulu Archipelago and the
Visayas were vital points of contact between Chinese traders and local communities.

Islamic Trade Networks: The spread of Islam in the Philippines, particularly in the Sulu
Archipelago and Mindanao, facilitated trade with Muslim merchants from the Malay
Peninsula, Borneo, and beyond. These networks not only included the exchange of goods
but also cultural and religious exchanges, contributing to the socio-political landscape of
the region.