INTRODUCTORY BOTANY 1

BOT 101: LECTURE ONE

FIRST SEMESTER, 2022/2023 SESSION
Properties of living organisms
Living things include the visible world of animals, plants, and fungi and the invisible
world of bacteria and viruses.

All living organisms share several key properties: order, sensitivity or response to
stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy
processing. When viewed together, these eight characteristics serve to define life.
These characteristics form the basis of the study of biology.

Order
Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures with one or more cells. Even
very simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably complex: inside each cell, atoms
make up molecules; these, in turn, make up cell organelles and other cellular
inclusions.

In multicellular organisms, similar cells form tissues. Tissues, in turn, collaborate to

create organs (body structures with distinct functions). Organs work together to
form organ systems.

Multicellular Organisms: A toad represents a highly organized structure consisting of

cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.

Multicellular Organisms: A toad represents a highly organized structure consisting of cells,

tissues, organs, and organ systems.
Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli

Organisms can respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can grow toward a
light source, climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch. Even tiny bacteria can
move toward or away from chemicals (a process called chemotaxis) or light
(phototaxis). Movement toward a stimulus is considered a positive response, while
movement away from a stimulus is considered a negative response.

Response to Stimuli: The leaves of this sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) will instantly
droop and fold when touched. After a few minutes, the plant returns to normal.

Reproduction
Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA. They then divide it
equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells. Multicellular organisms
often produce specialized reproductive germline cells that will form new individuals.
When reproduction occurs, genes containing DNA are passed along to an organism’s
offspring. These genes ensure that the offspring will belong to the same species and
will have similar characteristics, such as size and shape.
Reproduction: Although no two look alike, these kittens have inherited genes from
both parents and share many of the same characteristics

Growth and Development

All organisms grow and develop following specific instructions coded for by their
genes. These genes provide instructions that will direct cellular growth and
development, ensuring that a species’ young will grow up to exhibit many of the
same characteristics as its parents.

Regulation

Ability to maintain a constant internal environment in response to environmental

changes. Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory
mechanisms to coordinate internal functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with
environmental stresses. Two examples of internal functions regulated in an
organism are nutrient transport and blood flow. Organs (groups of tissues working
together) perform specific functions, such as carrying oxygen throughout the body,
removing wastes, delivering nutrients to every cell, and cooling the body.

Energy Processing

Energy is constant and energy transformation is not completely efficient. All

organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some organisms
capture energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy in food; others use
chemical energy in molecules they take in as food.
Evolution

Evolution is any genetic change in a population that is inherited over several

generations. These changes may be small or large, noticeable or not so noticeable.
Finally, life can adapt and respond to the demands placed on it by the environment.
As a population of organisms interacts with the environment, individuals with traits
contributing to reproduction and survival in that particular environment will leave
more offspring. Over time, those advantageous traits (called adaptations) will
become more common in the population. This process changes over time, is called
evolution, and it is one of the processes that explain the diverse species seen in
biology. Adaptations help organisms survive in their ecological niches, and adaptive
traits may be structural, behavioral, or physiological; adaptations frequently involve
other properties of organisms, such as homeostasis, reproduction, and growth and
development.

Key Points
 Order can include highly organized structures such as cells, tissues, organs,
and organ systems.
 Interaction with the environment is shown by response to stimuli.
 The ability to reproduce, grow and develop are defining features of life.
 The concepts of biological regulation and maintenance of homeostasis are
key to survival and define major properties of life.
 Organisms use energy to maintain their metabolic processes.
 Populations of organisms evolve to produce individuals that are adapted to
their specific environment.

LECTURER: Professor S. Olajide OKE

Department of Botany
 BOT 101: LECTURE TWO

Levels of Organization of Living Things

The six general levels of the organization listed from smallest to largest
are chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism levels. Chemicals
are considered the smallest and lowest organization unit in a living system, ranging
from the smallest atoms to the largest macromolecules.

Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that can be
examined on a scale from small to large. The atom is the smallest and most
fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Atoms
form molecules.

A molecule is a chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by

one or more chemical bonds. Many molecules that are biologically important
are macromolecules. These large molecules are typically formed by polymerization
(a polymer is a large molecule that is made by combining smaller units called
monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules). An example of a
macromolecule is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Figure 1), which contains the
instructions for the structure and functioning of all living organisms.

1
Figure 1. DNA: All molecules, including this DNA molecule, are composed of atoms.

Some cells contain aggregates of macromolecules surrounded by membranes;

these are called organelles. Organelles are small structures that exist within cells.
Examples of organelles include mitochondria and chloroplasts, which carry out
indispensable functions: mitochondria produce energy to power the cell. In contrast,
chloroplasts enable green plants to utilize the energy in sunlight to make sugars.

All living things are made of cells; the cell itself is the smallest fundamental unit of
structure and function in living organisms. (This requirement is why viruses are not
considered living: they are not made of cells. To make new viruses, they have to
invade and hijack the reproductive mechanism of a living cell; only then can they
obtain the materials they need to reproduce.)

Some organisms consist of a single cell and others are multicellular. Cells are
classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are single-celled or colonial
organisms that do not have membrane-bound nuclei or organelles; in contrast, the
cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles and a membrane-bound
nucleus.

In larger organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which are groups of similar cells
carrying out similar or related functions. Organs are collections of tissues grouped
together performing a common function. Organs are present not only in animals but

2
also in plants.

An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related

organs. Mammals have many organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system
transports blood through the body and to and from the lungs; it includes organs such
as the heart and blood vessels.

Organisms are individual living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an
organism. Single-celled prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes are also
considered organisms and are typically referred to as microorganisms.

All the individuals of a species living within a specific area are collectively called
a population. For example, a forest may include many Albizia zygia trees. All of these
Albizia zygia trees represent the population of Albizia zygia trees in this forest.
Different populations may live in the same specific area. For example, the forest with
the Albizia zygia trees includes other flowering plants, insects, and microbial
populations.

A community is the sum of populations inhabiting a particular area. For instance, all
of the forest's trees, flowers, insects, and other populations form the forest’s
community. The forest itself is an ecosystem.

An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a particular area and the abiotic, non
-living parts of that environment, such as nitrogen in the soil, temperature, wind, or
rainwater.

At the highest level of organization (Figure 2), the biosphere is the collection of all
ecosystems, representing the life zones on Earth. It includes land, water, and even
the atmosphere to a certain extent. The biosphere is the part of Earth where all life
exists, including all the land, water, and air where living things can be found. The
biosphere consists of many different biomes.

Individual organisms can be organized into the following levels: cells, tissues,

organs, and organ systems.

An ecosystem comprises all the populations in a given area and the nonliving

3
environment.

The biosphere is the part of Earth where all life exists.

 The diversity of living things is called biodiversity..

4
Figure 2. Biological Levels of Organization: The biological levels of organization of
living things follow a hierarchy from a single organelle to the entire biosphere.

Which of the following statements is false?

a. Tissues exist within organs, which exist within organ systems.
b. Communities exist within populations, which exist within
ecosystems.
c. Communities exist within ecosystems, which exist in the biosphere.
d. Organelles exist within cells, which exist within tissues

Six general levels of the organization listed from smallest to largest are chemical,
cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism levels.
Chemicals are considered the smallest and lowest organization unit in a living
system, ranging from the smallest atoms (the most fundamental unit of matter) to
the largest macromolecules.
A cell is a living creature's tiniest, self-contained unit that conducts or begins nearly every
activity of human physiology.

A tissue is a collection of comparable cells working together to execute a certain function.

An organ is a bodily structure comprising two or more tissue types that are anatomically
separate.

An organ system is a collection of organs that operate together to carry out significant
functions or meet the body's physiological requirements.

5
The organism level is the highest level of organization.

Key Points

The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. The bonding of at least two
atoms or more forms molecules.

The simplest level of organization for living things is a single organelle composed of
macromolecule aggregates.

The highest level of organization for living things is the biosphere; it encompasses all other
levels.

From the simplest to most complex, the biological levels of living things' organization are
organelle, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities,
ecosystems, and biosphere.

Key Terms

molecule: The smallest particle of a specific compound that retains the chemical properties
of that compound; two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

macromolecule: a very large molecule, especially used about large biological polymers (e.g.,
nucleic acids and proteins)

polymerization: The chemical process, normally with the aid of a catalyst, to form a polymer
by bonding together multiple identical units (monomer

6
Figure 3: From an atom to the entire Earth

7
 BOT 101: INTRODUCTORY BOTANY
LECTURE FOUR
Energy flow in ecosystems
Food's chemical energy is the main energy required by all living organisms. This
energy is transmitted to different trophic levels along the food chain. This energy
flow is based on two different laws of thermodynamics:

 The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed; it can only change from one form to another.

 The second law of thermodynamics states that as energy is transferred, more

and more of it is wasted.

Energy Flow in Ecosystem

The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support the
survival of many organisms. The primary energy source for almost all organisms on
Earth is solar energy. It is amusing to find that we receive less than 50 percent of the
sun’s effective radiation on Earth. When we say effective radiation, we mean the
radiation that can be used by plants to carry out photosynthesis.
Most of the sun’s radiation that falls on the earth is usually reflected back into space
by the earth’s atmosphere. This effective radiation is termed as the
Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR).

Overall, we receive about 40 to 50 percent of the energy having Photosynthetically

Active Radiation and only around 2-10 percent of it is used by plants for the process
of photosynthesis. Thus, this percentage of PAR supports the entire world as plants
are the producers in the ecosystem and all the other organisms are either directly or
indirectly dependent on them for their survival.

The energy flow takes place via the food chain and food web. During the process
of energy flow in the ecosystem, plants, being the producers, absorb sunlight with
the help of the chloroplasts. A part of it is transformed into chemical energy in the
process of photosynthesis.

his energy is stored in various organic products in the plants and passed on to the
primary consumers in the food chain when the herbivores consume (primary
consumers) the plants as food. Then, the conversion of chemical energy stored in
plant products into kinetic energy occurs, and degradation of energy will occur
through its conversion into heat.

Then followed by the secondary consumers. When these herbivores are ingested by
carnivores of the first order (secondary consumers), further degradation will occur.
Finally, when tertiary consumers consume the carnivores, energy will again be
degraded. Thus, the energy flow is unidirectional in nature.

Moreover, in a food chain, the energy flow follows the 10 percent law. According to
this law, only 10 percent of energy is transferred from one trophic level to another;
the rest is lost in the atmosphere. This is clearly explained in the following figure and
is represented as an energy pyramid.

Trophic level

The producers and consumers in the ecosystem can be arranged into different
feeding groups and are known as the trophic level or the feeding level.

1. The producers (plants) represent the first trophic level.

2. Herbivores (primary consumers) present at the second trophic level.

3. Primary carnivores (secondary consumers) represent the third trophic level

 4. Top carnivores (tertiary consumers) represent the last level.

There are basically three different types of food chains in the ecosystem, namely –

 Grazing food chain (GFC) – This is the normal food chain that we observe in
which plants are the producers and the energy flows from the producers to
the herbivores (primary consumers), then to carnivores (secondary
consumers), and so on.

 Saprophytic or Detritus food chain (DFC) – In this type of food chain, the
dead organic matter occupies the lowermost level of the food chain, followed
by the decomposers and so on.

 Parasitic food chain (PFC) – In this type of food chain, large organisms, either
the producer or the consumer, are exploited; therefore, the food passes to the
smaller organisms.
We mostly observe the food web in nature as many organisms are omnivores. As a
result, they occupy multiple trophic levels.

Law of Thermodynamics in the Ecosystem

The law of thermodynamics in the ecosystem explains the energy flow at each
trophic level. The first law states that energy is neither created nor destroyed; it can
only be converted from one form to another. This is true in energy flow in the
ecosystem.

The second law states that energy is lost at each step of energy flow. This law also
stands true in ecology, as there is a progressive decrease in energy at each trophic
level.
 BOT 101: INTRODUCTORY BOTANY
LECTURE FIVE
Biological Techniques – Scientific Method. Presentation of data.
A. Biological techniques are methods or procedures that are used to study living
things. They include experimental and computational methods, approaches,
protocols and tools for biological research.
Various new methods and techniques have developed in the study of biology,
like microscopy, liquid chromatography, distillation techniques and paper
chromatography. Simple Microscopes are a common method used to study
microorganisms.
Why do we study biological techniques?
These techniques provide valuable tools for understanding biological processes and
advancing the biotechnology field,
Employers in academia, industry, and government highly seek them.
B. What is the Scientific Method?
The scientific method is a process of experimentation that is used to explore
observations and answer questions. At the end of your presentation, summarise your
data findings to ensure that your audience understands
Steps of the Scientific Method
1. Ask a Question

The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you
observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, why, or where?

For a science fair project, some teachers require that the question be something you
can measure, preferably with a number.

For detailed help with this step, use these resources:

2. Do Background Research

Rather than starting from scratch and putting together a plan to answer your question, you
want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the
best way to do things and ensure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.

3. Construct a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It attempts to answer

your question with an explanation that can be tested. A good hypothesis allows you
to then make a prediction:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."

1
State both your hypothesis and the resulting prediction you will be testing.
Predictions must be easy to measure.

4. Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment

Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and, thus, whether your
hypothesis is supported or not. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test.
You conduct a fair test by ensuring you change only one factor at a time while
keeping all other conditions the same.

You should also repeat your experiments several times to ensure the first results
weren't just an accident.

5. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion

Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them
to see if they support your hypothesis or not.

Scientists often find their predictions inaccurate and their hypotheses not supported.
In such cases, they will communicate the results of their experiment and then go
back and construct a new hypothesis and prediction based on the information they
learned during their experiment. This starts much of the process of the scientific
method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis is supported, they may
want to test it again in a new way

6. Communicate Your Results

To complete your science fair project, you will communicate your results to others in
a final report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the
same thing by publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their
results on a poster or during a talk at a scientific meeting. In a science fair, judges
are interested in your findings regardless of whether or not they support your original
hypothesis.

Summary
What are the six steps of the scientific method?
The six steps of the scientific method include 1) asking a question about something
you observe, 2) doing background research to learn what is already known about the
topic, 3) constructing a hypothesis, 4) experimenting to test the hypothesis, 5)
analysing the data from the experiment and drawing conclusions, and 6)
communicating the results to others.

C. What is data presentation in biology?

Data obtained by biologists from experiments, measurements, or observations are
eventually presented in the results section of a scientific report or manuscript.
Data presentation is a process of comparing two or more data sets with visual aids,

2
such as graphs. Using a graph, you can represent how the information relates to
other data. This process follows data analysis and helps organize information by
visualizing and putting it into a more readable format. This process is useful in nearly
every industry, as it helps professionals share their findings after performing data
analysis
However, summary data in which your work is compared (in either a table or graph)
with that of other published information may be placed in the discussion.
There are generally three forms of presentation of data: • Textual or Descriptive
presentation, • Tabular presentation, • Diagrammatic presentation

Textual

When presenting data in this way, you use words to describe the relationship
between information. Textual presentation enables researchers to share information
that cannot be displayed on a graph. An example of data you may present textually is
findings in a study. When a researcher wants to provide additional context or
explanation in their presentation, they may choose this format because information
may appear clearer in the text.

Textual presentation is common for sharing research and presenting new ideas. It
only includes paragraphs and words rather than tables or graphs to show data.

Tabular

Tabular presentation using a table to share large amounts of information. When

using this method, you organize data in rows and columns according to the
characteristics of the data. Tabular presentation is useful in comparing data, and it
helps visualize information. Researchers use this type of presentation in analysis,
such as:

The benefits of using a table to share your data are that it simplifies the data, making
it easily consumable to viewers, helps provide a side-by-side comparison of the
variables you choose and it can save space in your presentation because a table
condenses the information.

Diagrammatic

This method of displaying data uses diagrams and images. It is the most visual type
for presenting data and provides a quick glance at statistical data.

Since they are more visual than the other methods of presenting data, diagrams can
share more information about the relationships between variables in the data set.
For example, a bar graph can show data by the rectangle's color and size, and a more
advanced bar graph can be used to share data from multiple variables over time. The
diagrammatic presentation also helps to read data quickly and provides an easy
comparison.
3
At the end of your presentation, summarise your data findings to ensure that your
audience understands

4
 BOT 101
INTRODUCTORY BOTANY I

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE,
NIGERIA.

PROF. SAHEED
ADEKILEKUN
The microscopes and its uses

Microscopes

 Microscope as a term was coined from two

Greek words; mikrós, "small" and skopeîn, "to look"
or "see" is a laboratory instrument used to examine
objects that are too small to be seen by the naked
eye.

 Microscopy is the science of investigating small

objects and structures using a microscope.

 Microscopic means being invisible to the eye

unless aided by a microscope.

en.wikipedia.org
The microscopes and its uses

Development of microscopes
 About 1590, two Dutch spectacle makers,
Zaccharias Janssen and his son Hans,
discovered that nearby objects appeared greatly www.emaze.co
m
enlarged.

That was the forerunner of the compound

microscope and of the Telescope
In 1609, Galileo, father of modern physics
and astronomy, heard of these early
experiments, worked out the principles of
lenses, and made a much better instrument
with a focusing device www.indiatoday.i
n
The microscopes and its uses
Development of microscopes

www.pinterest.co
m ucmp.berkeley.ed
u
In 1632-1723 Anton van Leeuwenhoek of Holland; The father of microscopy. He taught
himself new methods for grinding and polishing tiny lenses of great curvature which
gave magnifications up to 270 diameters, the finest known at that time. These led to the
building of his microscopes and discoveries for which he is famous.
The microscopes and its uses

Development of microscopes
Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to see and
describe bacteria, yeast cells, the teeming life in a
drop of water, and the circulation of blood
corpuscles in capillaries.

He used his lenses to make pioneer studies on an

extraordinary variety of things, both living and non
living, and reported his findings in over a hundred
letters to the Royal Society of England and the
French Academy
The microscopes and its uses
Development of microscopes
micro.magnet.fsu.e
du

famousbiologists.or
g

In 1660s Robert Hooke the English father of microscopy, re-confirmed Anton van Leeuwenhoek's
discoveries of the existence of tiny living organisms in a drop of water.

Hooke made a copy of Leeuwenhoek's light microscope and then improved upon his design.
 en.wikipedia.or
The microscopes and its uses g

Development of microscopes
antique-
microscopes.com

Charles A. Spencer in the

middle of 19th century built the
finest instrument and give
magnifications up to 1250
diameters with ordinary light
and up to 5000 with blue light
The microscopes and its uses

Microscopes - classification
microbiologynote.co orbitbiotech.com
m
A simple microscope
only has one type of
lens, usually
objective lens, but a
compound
microscope contain
both objective lens
and ocular lens.
The microscopes and its uses

Types of microscopes

There are four main types of microscopes that a biologist uses:

1. Optical Dissection Microscope
2. Optical Compound – Light, Fluorescence and Confocal
microscopes
3. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
4. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
 medium.co
The microscopes and its uses m

Types of microscopes

A Dissection or Stereo
microscope is light illuminated.
The image that appears is three
dimensional. It is used for
dissection to get a better look at
the larger specimen You cannot
see individual cells because it
has a low magnification
The microscopes and its uses medium.co
m

The types of microscopes

A compound microscope is
also light illuminated. The
image seen with this type of
microscope is two
dimensional. This microscope
is the most commonly used.
You can view individual cells,
even living ones. It has high
magnification (from 4x - 100x).
However, it has a low
resolution
The microscopes and its uses

The types of microscopes

Fluorescence Microscopy: is a light microscope
used to study properties of organic or inorganic
substances using the phenomena of fluorescence
and phosphorescence instead of, or in addition to,
reflection and absorption.
Fluorescence illumination and observation is the most
rapidly expanding microscopy technique employed
today, both in the medical and biological sciences, a
fact which has spurred the development of more
sophisticated microscopes and numerous
fluorescence accessories. Epi-fluorescence, or
incident light fluorescence, has now become the
method of choice in many applications
 The types of microscopes thorlabs.com

Confocal microscopy is an optical imaging technique for

increasing optical resolution and contrast of a micrograph by
means of using a spatial pinhole to block out-of-focus light in
image formation

It offers several advantages over conventional optical

microscopy:
1. Controllable depth of field,
2. Elimination of image degrading out-of-focus information,
3.The keytoto
Ability the Confocal
collect approach
serial optical sectionsisfrom
the thick
use of spatial
f iltering to eliminate out-of-focus light or f lare in specimens
specimens.
that are thicker than the plane of focus. There has been a
t re m e ndous e xplosion in t he popular it y of Confocal
microscopy in recent years, due in part to the relative ease
with which extremely high-quality images can be obtained
f r om spe ci m e n s pr e pa r e d f or con v e n t i on a l opt i ca l
microscopy, and in its great number of applications in many
areas of current research interest.
The microscopes and its uses

The types of microscopes

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a type of
electron microscope that produces images of a
sample by scanning the surface with a focused
beam of electrons.
The electrons interact with atoms in the sample,
producing various signals that contain
information about the surface topography and
composition of the sample.
They use electron illumination. The image is
seen in three dimension. It has high
magnification and high resolution. The
specimen is coated in gold and the electrons
bounce off to give an exterior view of the
specimen. The pictures are in black and white
The microscopes and its uses

The types of microscopes

Transmission Electron Microscope

(TEM) is a microscopy technique in
which a beam of electrons is
transmitted through a specimen to
form an image. The specimen is most
often an ultrathin section less than 100
nm thick or a suspension on a grid.
They can magnify objects up to 2
million times. It has high magnification
and high resolution. TEM gives a two
dimensional view of the image.
The microscopes and its uses
Concepts in microscopy
Some terminologies used in microscopy:

 Magnification is referring to the ratio of the size seen in the microscope to the
actual size of the specimen. On a compound microscope it is usually between 4x and
100x
 Resolution is the clarity and detail seen. It is the minimal distance between two
points in which they can be seen separately (i.e.: not blurred)
 Field of view refers to how much you actually see when looking in a microscope. As
field of view increases, magnification decreases
 Depth of field is the number of layers you see. Total magnification is the product of
the objective lens and the ocular (10x)
 Parfocal is a term used when describing compound microscopes. this means that
the focus is maintained when changing the magnification. This way you don't have to
re-focus when changing powers
The microscopes and its uses

Parts of microscopes
Ocular lens (eyepiece): the lens at the top that you look
through, this is point where the object is viewed, it contain
systems of lens and gives the final magnification to the
object. They are usually 10X or 15X power.
Body tube: this is a tube that connects the eyepiece to the
objective lenses
Revolving Nosepiece: houses the system of objective
lenses, and it is used to change the lens to the required one
Arm: This is used to carry the microscope its supports the
tube and connects it to the base
Objectives: This a system of lenses that first magnifies the
object on the stage, usually you will find 3 or 4 objective
lenses on a microscope. The shortest lens is the lowest
power, the longest one is the lens with the greatest power
The microscopes and its uses

Parts of microscopes
Stage: The flat platform where you place your
slides
Stage clips: This hold the slide containing the
specimen on the stage
Coarse adjustment knob: It is used to focus the
specimen
Fine adjustment knob: used to fine tune the
focus on specimen
Diaphragm: helps to adjust the circumference of
light from source, it is part of condenser
Light source: This is the source of light that
illuminate the object, it could be mirror
Base: this the base of the microscope, it swift-microscopeworld.com
support the instrument
The microscopes and its uses

Differences between light and Transmission electron microscope:

Features Transmission electron Light

microscope microscope
Radiation source Electrons Light
Wavelength About 0.005nm 400 – 700nm
Maximum 0.5nm 200nm
resolution
System of lenses Electromagnets Glass
Specimen Non-living, dehydrated, small and very thin Living or non-living
Specimen support A small copper grid Glass slide
Stains Contain heavy metals to reflect electrons Coloured dyes
Image Black and white Usually coloured
The microscopes and its uses

Microscopic techniques
Preparation of materials for microscopy: investigations into biological specimens can be with a
living tissue or dead (preserved) samples. There are two ways specimens can be prepared for light
microscopic study.
1. Temporary slide preparation
2. Permanent slide preparation
In both cases, there are series of treatment (processes) the materials need to undergo before the
slides can be prepared.
Procedures:
 Collection
 Fixation – FAA (Formalin Acetic Alcohol) mostly recommended for light microscopic study while
a combination of primary (formaldehyde / glutaraldehyde) and secondary (Osmium tetroxide)
fixatives are used in electron microscopy
 Dehydration in graded series of alcohol and finally in Xylene
The microscopes and its uses

Microscopic techniques

 Critical Point Drying – this is employed during SEM techniques

 Embedding – wax is used in light microscopy while resin is used for electron microscopy
Sectioning – metal knives and ordinary microtome are used in light microscope & glass knives for
preliminary observation and diamond knives and ultra-microtome are employed for real time electron
microscopy
Staining – series of coloured dyes that could reflect visible light are used for light microscopy while
compounds of some heavy metals that are capable of reflecting electrons are employed in the case of
electron microscopy
 Mounting – stained specimen are mounted on a glass slide and covered with a cover slip during light
microscopy, the mounting medium could be glycerin if temporary slide is desire and on Canada balsam
used for permanent slide. However, specimen for SEM are gold coated with while those for TEM are
placed on copper grids before viewing
 Viewing of specimen
The microscopes and its uses
Microscopic techniques
Some stains and their uses:
Stain Final colour on tissue Uses
Aniline blue Blue Fungal hyphae, spores,
Borax cermine Pink Nuclei
Eosin Pink or red Cytoplasm (pink) cellulose (red)
Light / fast green Green Cytoplasm or cellulose
Methylene blue blue Nuclei
Safranin Red Lignin, suberin, nuclei, cytoplasm
Iodine Blue-black Starch
Phoroglucinol + HCl Red Lignin
Aniline HCl or SO4 Yellow Lignin
Schultz’s solution Yellow Lignin, cutin, suberin, protein
SUGGESTED READINGS

• https://daily.jstor.org/the-evolution-of-the-microscope/
• https://www.microscope.com/education-center/microscopes-101/history-of-microscopes
• https://www.microscopemaster.com/history-of-the-microscope.html
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
 BOT 101
INTRODUCTORY BOTANY I

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY,
ILE-IFE,
NIGERIA.

PROF. SAHEED ADEKILEKUN

TOPICS OUTLINES!

➢The cell – Structure and Functions

➢ The Microscope and its uses

 TOPICS OUTLINES!
The cell – Structure and Functions

www.bioexplorer.net
The cell – Structure and Functions
HISTORY: The cell Theory

➢ Cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms
are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms,
and that all cells come from pre-existing cells.
➢ The initial development of the theory, during the mid-17th century, was made possible by
advances in microscopy; the study of cells is called cell biology.
➢ As the invention of the telescope made the Cosmos (bigger “worlds”) accessible to human,
the microscope opened up “smaller worlds” by showing composition of living forms,
previously not seen by naked eyes
The cell – Structure and Functions

HISTORY: The cell Theory

➢ The cell was first discovered and named by Robert

Hooke in 1665. He remarked that it looked strangely
similar to cellula or small rooms of monks
➢ However, what Hooke actually saw was the dead
cell walls of plant cells (cork), and he published
these description in Micrographia

Source: biologydictionary.net
The cell – Structure and Functions
HISTORY: The cell Theory
➢ The first scientist to observe a live cell with a
microscope was Anton van Leeuwenhoek, in 1674
while working on the algae Spirogyra.
➢ After the first observations of life under the
microscope, it took two centuries of research before the
'cell theory', the idea that all living things are composed
of cells or their products, was formulated

Spirogyra
Source: ucmp.berkeley.edu
The cell – Structure and Functions
HISTORY: The cell Theory

➢ Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction.
➢ Hints at the idea that the cell is the basic component of living organisms emerged well
before 1838–39, which was when the cell theory was officially formulated.
➢ In 1838, the botanist Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804–1881) suggested that every
structural element of plants is composed of cells or their products.
➢ The following year, 1839 a similar conclusion was elaborated for animals by the zoologist
Theodor Schwann (1810–1882).

Adapted from Mazzarello, 1999

The cell – Structure and Functions
HISTORY: The cell Theory
➢ He stated that “the elementary parts of all tissues are formed of cells” and that “there is one
universal principle of development for the elementary parts of organisms... and this principle
is in the formation of cells”.
➢ The conclusions of Schleiden and Schwann are considered to represent the official
formulation of ‘cell theory’ and their names are almost as closely linked to cell theory as are
those of Watson and Crick with the structure of DNA.
➢ Cell theory stimulated a reductionistic approach to biological problems and became the most
general structural paradigm in biology. It emphasized the concept of the unity of life and
brought about the concept of organisms as “republics of living elementary units”.
Adapted from Mazzarello, 1999
The cell – Structure and Functions
HISTORY: The cell Theory

The cell theory states that;

cell is the basic unit of
structure and function in
living organisms

http://fig.cox.miami.edu
The cell – Structure and Functions
HISTORY: The cell Theory
Schwann in 1839 summarized his observations into three conclusions about cells:
➢ The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization
in living things.

➢ The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a

building block in the construction of organisms.
➢
➢ Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of
crystals (spontaneous generation). Cell Theory | Biology | MCAT

Adapted from Meisler: bemidjistate.edu

The cell – Structure and Functions
HISTORY: The cell Theory

We know today that the first two tenets are correct, but the third is
clearly wrong. The correct interpretation of cell formation by
division was finally promoted by others and formally enunciated in
Rudolph Virchow's powerful dictum, "Omnis cellula e cellula"... “
which means “All cells only arise from pre-existing cells”.

Adapted from Meisler: bemidjistate.edu

The cell – Structure and Functions
3 Basic Components of the Cell Theory

➢ All organisms are composed of one or more

cells. (Schleiden & Schwann – 1838-39)

➢ The cell is the basic unit of life in all living

things. (Schleiden & Schwann – 1838-39)

➢ All cells are produced by the division of

preexisting cells. (Virchow -1858)

Adapted from: bisdtx.org BioExplorer.net

The cell – Structure and Functions
Modern Cell Theory
➢ All known living things are made up of cells.

➢ The cell is the structural & functional unit of all living things.

➢ All cells come from pre-existing cells by division. (spontaneous generation does not occur).

➢ Cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division.

➢ All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.

➢ All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.
Adapted from Meisler: bemidjistate.edu
The cell – Structure and Functions
Development of Cell Biology Research

➢ There is a rapid growth of Molecular Biology in the mid-20th century which lead to the explosion of
cell biology research in the 1950’s

➢ Now, it is possible to maintain, grow, and manipulate cells outside of living organisms

➢ The first of such cell to be cultured was derived from cervical cancer cells taken from one Henrietta
Lacks, who died of cancer in 1951 and this was done by George Otto Gey and co-workers

➢ The cell line, referred to as HeLa cells, have now become the watershed in the study of cell biology
as the knowledge on the structure of DNA was the significant breakthrough of molecular biology

Adapted from; bitesizebio.com

The cell – Structure and Functions
Development of Cell Biology Research

A lot of progress in the study of cells in the recent decade which includes:

➢ The characterization of the minimal media requirements for cells and development of sterile cell
culture techniques

➢ Advances in the study and use of Electron Microscopy

➢ Advances in the development of Transfection Methods

➢ Discovery of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) in jellyfish

➢ Discovery of small interfering RNA (siRNA), among others

Adapted from; bitesizebio.com
The cell – Structure and Functions
Ognenovska et al. 2018

Time Line in Cell Biology Research

➢ 1595 – Jansen credited with 1st compound microscope

➢ 1655 – Hooke described ‘cells’ in cork.
➢ 1674 – Leeuwenhoek discovered protozoa.
➢ 1838 – Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory.
➢ 1858 – Rudolf Virchow expounds his theory
➢1939 – Siemens produced the first commercial TEM
➢ 1965 – Cambridge Instruments produced the first SEM
➢ 1995 – Tsien identifies mutant of GFP
➢ 1999 – Hamilton and Baulcombe discover siRNA
➢ 1981 – Transgenic mice and fruit flies are produced. Mouse embryonic stem cell line established
➢ 1998 – Mice are cloned from somatic cells
➢ 1999 – Hamilton and Baulcombe discover siRNA as part of post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) in plants
➢ 2000 – Human genome DNA sequence draft.
Adapted from; bitesizebio.com / fig.cox.miami.edu
SUGGESTED READINGS

• https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless
)/4%3A_Cell_Structure/4.1%3A_Studying_Cells/4.1C%3A_Cell_Theory
• http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/unity/cell.text.htm
• https://www.nature.com/articles/ncb0599_E13
• https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/cell-the-unit-of-life/introduction-to-cell-and-cell-theory/
• https://www.bisdtx.org/cms/lib/TX02218757/Centricity/Domain/2450/A%20Cell%20Study%20Guide.pdf
• https://bitesizebio.com/166/history-of-cell-biology/
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF GENETICS AND HEREDITARY

OUTLINE:

REPRODUCTION

-SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

-ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

-ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

CEL DIVISION

MITOSIS

MEIOSIS

MENDELIAN GENETICS

SHORT HISTORY ON GREGOR MENDEL

DEFINITIONS OF SOME GENETIC TERMS

MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE

DIHYBRID INHERITANCE

MOLECULAR GENETICS

STRUCTURE OF THE DNA

DNA REPLICATION

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

TRANSFORMATION

1
REPRODUCTION

There are different school of thought or theories on the origin of life on earth.

This include: theory of eternity, theory of special creation, theory of

catastrophism and theory of spontaneous generation. Imagine how the life

organisms are maintained from one generation to another because the life of

each individual organisms is limited. Human beings can live up to (70-80), some

few live beyond that butt life is always present on the earth surface. Plants that

you see this season are replaced by some younger ones during the next season.

All living organisms have developed mechanisms to maintain continuity of their

life. They have achieved this through the process reproduction; which is the

ability to give birth to young ones. There are two main types of reproduction:

sexual and asexual reproduction.

 Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves the fusion of

male and female gametes. Sexual reproduction allow genetic variability

and makes organism adapt better to their environment

 Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the

fusion of gametes but allow an individual organism to reproduce a genetic

replica of itself. This type of reproduction does not allow genetic variability.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Vegetative reproduction is a type of asexual reproduction that involves the

generation of a new organism from a vegetative part which could be the stem,

leaf, mycelium or specialized propagules like adventitious buds, asexual

spores, akinete, homogonia, corms, bulbs and suckers. It may also involve

2
 certain human control artificial processes such as layering, grafting, budding

and rooting of cuttings of stems and leaves. In any of these methods a

portion gets detached from the body of the parent plant which starts a new

life in a suitable condition.

1. Budding:- this occurs in yeast, when one or more tiny outgrowths appear on

one or more sides of the vegetative cell immersed in a sugar solution, which later

get detached from the parent and start to live an independent life. Budding often

occur continuously so that finally one more chains, sometimes sub-chains, of

cells are formed. The individual cells of the chain separate from one another and

form new yeast plants.

2 Gemmae:- This form of asexual vegetative reproduction occur in some

mosses and liverworts (Marchantia) where special bodies known as gemmae

develop on the leaf branch or thallus for the purpose of vegetative propagation

3 Leaf:- This occur in certain plants such as ferns (Adiantum caudatum, A.

Lunulatum and Polypodium flagelliferum) which propagates using their leaf tips.

Also Bryophylum pinnatum also propagates using its leaf margins once they

touch the ground. As the leaf touches the ground the tip/margin strikes roots and

form a bud. The bud grows in to a new plant. Though ferns reproduce

vegetatively normally by their rhizomes.

4 Underground stems:- many flowering plants reproduce by means of their

Rhizome (ginger), the tuber (potato) bulb (egg onion), in which new buds are

produced on these stems which gradually grow into a new plant.

5 Sub-aerial stems- The runner, the stolon, the offset and the suckers are sued

3
by some plant such as Colocasia species, water lettuce (Pistia) Chrysanthemum

species, and Musa species for vegetative propagation.

6.Bulbils in garlic (Allium sativum) some of the lower flowers of the

inflorescence become modified into small multicellular bodies known as bulbils,

which fall into the ground and grow as a new plant. Sometimes they grow to

some extent on the parent plant before falling to the ground. Bulbils are also

produce in the leaf axil of wild yam. Dioscorea bulbifera and Lilium bulbiferum. In

pineapple (Ananas), the inflorescence generally ends in a reproductive bud, but in

some varieties of pineapple the inflorescence becomes surrounded at the base

by a whorl of such buds and also crowned by a few of them.

4
Bulbils in Dioscorea bubilfera

7. Fission:- This involves the parents cell splitting into two new cells. This new

cell contain all the genetic materials of the parent cell and later grow to become

independent like the parent. Most unicellular algae, fungi and bacteria reproduce

by fission.

8. Spore formation:- Spores are asexual reproductive units which grow

independently without fusing with another unit which are always unicellular and

microscopic in nature. The spores may be motile or non-motile. Ciliate motile

spores are called zoospores. They are produced by many algae and fungi, they

swim about in water for some time with the help of their cilia and then develop

into independent individuals. Zoospores are normally formed in large numbers as

in Ulothtrix. In vaucheria the whole mass of protoplasm escapes from the parent

cell as a single large multiciliate and multinucliatic zoospores which swim in

water for some time, comes to rest and germinate into a new vaucheria filament.

Non-ciliate, non-motile spores:-This types of spores occur mostly among

terrestrial fungi. This types of spores are normally light, dry, tough coated easily

disperse by wind.

True spores are always produce by a sporophyte. The sporangium of moss plant

reproduces asexually by spores also ferns such as Lycopodium and Equisetum

bears spores and reproduce asexually through them. These plants are

5
homosporous i.e they produce only one kind of spores. The more advanced types

of plants such as Selaginella and flowering plants (gymnosperms and

Angiosperms) are heterosporous i.e. they produce two kinds of spores,

microspores (male) and megaspores (female)

Artificial methods of vegetative propagation

These methods could be through cuttings, layering, grafting, Gootee etc. In most

of these methods, a portion of the parent plant is separated by special methods.

It is important to note that in flowering plants the methods of vegetative

propagation are diverse. The offspring look like the parent plant in all respects so

gardeners often use these methods for quick multiplication of flowers in their

gardens.

(1) Cuttings:- This involves growing new plants from stem-cuttings separated

from the parent plant. Many plants such as Cassava, Sugar cane, Moringa,

Coleus, D etc can be propagated from their stem cuttings. Stem cuttings of

these plants when in moist soil produce roots at the base and develop

adventitious buds which allow the plant to grow. Also the root-cuttings are used

to grow some plants such as lemon. The root-cutting when in must soil grow to

produce roots and shoots.

(2) Layering:- This involves bending down the branches of the plant into the

soil after making a ring of bark 2.5-5cm. This part is covered or pushed into soft

soil and making the upper part free. The portion is cut from the parents plant and

grown separately in the soil usually within 2-4months. Lemon, Grape-vine, Ixora

and Rose can easily be propagated through this method.

6
3 Grafting:- This involves inserting the small branch of a plant into the stem

of a rooted plant of the same or related species in a way to bring about an

organic union (fusion of tissues) between the two and make them to grow as one.

The branch that is inserted is known as the scion or graft and the plant on which

it is grown which is rooted to the soil is the stock. The scion grows retaining all

its qualities while the stock which may be inferior quality in terms of fruit

production but physically sturdy supports it by providing water and food

materials. Grafting allows the production of desired characteristics of the scion

as it is in the parent. It is important to note that grafts are normally use for the

purpose of propagation of certain fruit and ornamental shrubs and trees. Some

common grafting methods includes: Inarching, Bud grafting, Tongue grafting,

wedge grafting, Crown grafting.

Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction in angiosperms involves the fusion of a male gamete or

sperm with a female gametes or egg in the ovule of a flower. The fusion process

usually results in the formation of a fertilized egg or zygote which develops in to

the embryo of the seed. The seed on germination and development, produces a

new plant. The processes involved in sexual reproduction in angiosperms occur

in the form of cycle between the gametophyte ( haploid; n) phase and diploid

(sporophyte; 2n) phase in any particular sexually reproducing organism. The

cyclic alternation (changes) between the saprophytic and gametophyte

generation mediated by production of gamete (meiosis) which unite to produce

7
the zygote (fertilization) is known as alternation of generation. Among the seed

plants the gametophyte generation has become very greatly reduced to become

microscopic which is contained within the reproductive structure of the

saprophytic generation 2n. The conspicuous flowering plant body is the

saprophytic generation (2n). In most lower plants (Algae, fungi) the haploid

phase is the dominant generation while there is a gradual development of the

diploid generation in plant advancement but totally dominant in the flowering

plants.

8
DIAGRAM ON ALTERNATION OF GENERATION

9
CELL DIVISION
One unique characteristics of all living organisms is that they are all made up of cell.
Some are unicellular while others multicellular.
In order for living organisms to grow and reproduce their cells need to divide.
There are two main types of cell division; mitotic cell division which occurs during growth as
well as asexual reproduction and meiotic cell division which occur during gamete formation
prior to sexual reproduction.
Characteristics of a cell: a cell consist of two main parts, the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The
nucleus contain the genetic material the chromosome which carries the genes which expresses
genetic information
Chromosome description: the chromosome is a double thread like structure with a constriction
called the centromere which divides the chromosome into upper and the lower arms. Each arm
is made up of two chromatids. Chromatids of the same chromosome are called sister
chromatids while chromatids of different chromosome are called non sister chromatids. The
chromosome of all living organisms are made up of the same chemical constituent. There are
four main types of chromosomes based on the location of their centromere: metacentric,
submetacentric, acrocentric and telocentric chromosome

Diagram of typical chromosome

Metacentric chromosome: is a chromosome in which the upper arm is equal to the lower arm in
length or chromosome in which the centromere is located at the center of the chromosome

1
Submetacentric chromosome: is a chromosome in which the centromere is slightly off the
center or chromosome in which the upper arm is a little shorter than the lower arm.
Acrocentric chromosome: is a chromosome in which the upper arm is extremely shorter than
the lower arm or a chromosome in which the centromere is located completely off the center of
the chromosome
Telocentric chromosome: is a chromosome in which the centromere is located at one end of
the chromosome i.e. the chromosome has only one arm.

Mitotic cell division (mitosis): this is a type of cell division that occurs during growth in higher
organism immediately after fertilization (mitosis start). A single zygote divides in to 2, then 4,
then 8, then 16 and so on, the cell in the organism start to multiply and the organism start to
grow.
Characteristics of mitosis
Two daughter cells are formed at the end of the division
Each of the daughter cell is genetically similar to the parent cell.
Each daughter cell is a diploid
It is an equational division
It involves one karyokinesis and one cytokinesis
It occurs during growth and asexual reproduction
The process of mitosis include the following stages: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase and

2
telophase. Before a cell start to divide it goes through an interphase stage during which the cell
get ready for the division.

A cell undergo the cycle above

The G1 and G2 means gap 1 and 2 respectively while S means synthesis phase of the DNA
when the chromosome become double stranded. The G1. G2 and S make up the interphase. A
cell does not divide doing the interphase but get ready for the process division. A cell spend
much time at interphase than during division. At G1 the following occur: enzyme synthesis,
protein synthesis and energy activation. At S phase DNA synthesis occur. At G2 the cell get
ready for division.

Prophase: At prophase which is the first stage of mitosis. Chromosomes appear as a thin
thread like structure and each of the chromosomes cannot be easily distinguished by
observation. The nuclear membrane is intact but later get disorganized. The chromosome has
two chromatids at this stage and DNA content remain at 4C
Metaphase: after prophase the cell move to metaphase. At this stage the chromosome are
maximally contracted, nuclear membrane completely disappears, spindle fibers appear and
chromosomes line up at the equator. The DNA content remain at 4C
Anaphase: at this stage each individual chromosome breaks open at the centromere and move
to opposite poles through the pulling by the spindle fibers. Each chromosome become single
stranded and the DNA content become 2C. The breakage of the chromosome at the centromere
is called karyokinesis i.e. the division of the nucleus.
Telophase: after anaphase the cell move into telophase. At this stage movement of
chromosomes stops. Chromosomes resolve into thin threadlike structure again and the nuclear
membrane reappears. The division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) occur and two daughter cells
are produced each with the same chromosome number as in the parent cell.

3
The diagram bellow show the stages of mitotic cell division in an organism with chromosome
number of 2n=2

Meiotic cell division (meiosis): meiosis unlike mitosis occur during gamete formation
prior to sexual reproduction. It is a reductional and equational division.it involves two
divisions, the first meiotic division which is a reductional division and the second
meiotic division which is an equational division and similar to mitosis. The importance
of meiosis is to ensure constant and stable chromosome number within a breeding
population from one generation to another and allow room for variability which enable
organisms to adapt better to their changing environment.
Characteristics of meiosis

4
It is an equational and reductional division
Four daughter cells are produced at the end of the divisions
Each daughter cell contain haploid number of chromosomes and different from the
parent cell
It involves two divisions
It involves one karyokinesis and two cytokinesis
It occur during gamete formation
The first meiotic division consist of prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I and Telophase
I. Prophase I is subdivided into five sub stages: Leptonema, Zygonema, Pachynema,
Diplonema and Diakinesis. Just as in mitosis a diploid cell go into interphase. When all
processes of G1, S and G2 are completed the cell move directly into prophase I.
Prophase I
Leptonema: which means fine threads, chromosomes are still very thin and randomly
distributed in the nucleus
Zygonema: which means yolked threads. Pairing of homologous chromosomes
(identical pairs of chromosomes) start. The essence of pairing is to exchange genetic
information between non sister chromatids of homologous chromosome (crossing over)
which is the basis of genetic variability in all sexually reproducing organisms. Pairing of
homologous chromosomes is called synapsis while paired homologous chromosomes
are called bivalent.
Pachynema: which mean thick thread. At this stage the chromosome appear shorter
and thicker. Pairing of homologous chromosome stops and chromosome not paired at
this stage remain so through the process of the division. The evidence of crossing over
(chiasma) can be seen.
Diplonema: which means double thread. Chromosome appear much thicker, paired
homologous chromosomes start to separate. The chiasma can also be visibly seen but
gradually start to disappear.
Diakinesis; the disappearance of crossing over is much evident and process of
terminalization occur. Homologous chromosome seen joined at the tip ends.
Note: all the stages of prophase I can be called the names in the diagram below
Diagram showing different stages of prophase I

5
Metapase I: chromosomes line up at the equator. Nuclear membrane disappear and
spindle fibers appear. .The DNA content of the cell is 4C at this stage.
Anaphase I: Homologous chromosome move to opposite poles. This is when the
chromosome number is reduced to half (haploid). The DNA content of the cell is 2C.
Telophase I: movement of chromosomes stops. Nuclear membrane reappear,
chromosome become thin threadlike again. The division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
occur and two daughter cells are produced each containing haploid number of
chromosomes. The DNA content of the cell is still 2C. Each of the cell produced go into
the second meiotic division. In some organisms the cell move directly from anaphase I
to prophase II
The second meiotic division is like a mitotic division. It consist of prophase II,
Metaphase II, Anaphase II and telophase II.
Prophase II: chromosome appear as thin thread like structure and the nuclear
membrane is still intact.
Metaphase II: the nuclear membrane disappear, while the spindle fibers appear. The
chromosome line up at the equator and are maximally contracted.
Anaphase II: Each individual chromosome breaks open at the centromere. This is when
karyokinesis occur in meiosis. At this stage the DNA content of the cell become 1C and
the haploid number of chromosome maintained.
Telophase II: movement of chromosome stops, the chromosomes resolve into thin
threadlike structure, nuclear membrane reappear. Cytokinesis occur in each of the cell;
each producing two daughter cells. Four haploid daughter cell are eventually produced.

6
Diagram showing different stages of meiosis in organism with chromosome number
of 2n=4

7
Mendelian Genetics

SHORT HISTORY ON MENDEL

Gregory Mendel was not primarily a biologist but a monk in the Augustinian

monastery. He came as a poor boy to the monastery in 1843 and was ordained a

priest in 1847. In 1851 he was sent by his order to study natural science at the

University of Vienna. He did not make a brilliant record in physics and

mathematics but when he returned as a substitute teacher of science in 1854 he

gave evidence of those qualities of mind which mark great scientist. In 1857 he

began to collect the varieties of the garden pea (Pisum sativum) seeds which

men offered for sale in order to study the differences among them. After seven

years of experimental work in the monastery garden he presented the result of

his experimental work for publication in 1866. But it was not until 1900 when the

law of segregation was rediscovered simultaneously by three different scientist

that his work came into lime light. He became an Abbot in 1868 and died in 1884

long before his scientific work came to lime light and recognized which formed

the basis modern day genetics.

Mendel’s work on garden pea (Pisum sativum)

Mendel’s work on garden pea was successful because he investigated simple

characters in his hybridization experiment, unlike his predecessors who worked

on complex characters. The characters Mendel investigated are listed below

Characters Character states

1 Plant height Tall and dwarf
2 Flower position Axillary and terminal
3 Flower colour Red and white
4 Seed coat colour Grey and white
5 Seed coat texture Smooth and wrinkled

1
 6 Endosperm colour Green and yellow
7 Colour of pod Green and yellow
8 Texture of pod Full and wrinkled

SOME IMPORTANT GENETIC TERMS

ALLELE: is the alternate state of a gene e.g. T is an allele of t
DOMINANT ALLELE: is an allele that expresses itself phenotypically both in the
homozygous and heterozygous state
RECESSIVE ALLELE: is an allele that expresses itself phenotypically only in the
homozygous state
LOCUS: point of location of a gene on a chromosome
HOMOZYGOUS: when an individual have the same type of gene or allele on its
locus
HETEROZYGOUS: when an individual have alternate genes or alleles on its locus.
Also such individual also breeds true for that character state.
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES: identical pairs of chromosomes in which one
is inherited from the mother and the other from the father.
GENOTYPE: is the genetic constitution of an individual in terms of its alleles
PHENOTYPE: is the physical expression of the genotype.
BACKCROSS: is when an F1 hybrid is crossed with either homozygous dominant
parent or homozygous recessive parent.
TEST CROSS: when an F1hybrid is crossed with the homozygous recessive
parent (Tt x tt 1Tt: 1tt).

Simple monohybrid experiment

This is an experiment that investigated the inheritance of a simple character.
Mendel carried out a cross between a homozygous tall plant with genotype TT
and a homozygous dwarf plant tt. He observed that all the F1 plants were tall
which indicates that the tall character state is dominant over the dwarf character
state. He advanced the F1 plant to F2 generation through selfing. He observed
segregation of phenotypic ratio of 3 tall plants to 1dwarf plant (3T-: 1tt) and a
genotypic ratio of 1TT: 2Tt:1tt.

cross TT x tt

Tt (F1 tall plant)

Tt x Tt (selfing of F1 plant)

Punnett’s table showing selfing of F1 plant

T t

2
T TT( homozygous Tt (heterozygous
tall) tall)
t Tt (heterozygous tt (homozygous
tall) dwarf)

DIHYBRID INHERITANCE
This is a situation in which two different characters are inherited
independently together. Mendel crossed a true breeding tall smooth
seeded plant with a true breeding dwarf wrinkled seeded plant

Tall, smooth seeded (TTSS) x dwarf, wrinkled seeded (ttss)

TTSS X ttss

TtSs F1 (tall smooth seeded)

All the F1 were tall and smooth seeded

The F1 plants were advanced to F2 generation by selfing the FI plant

(TtSs X TtSs)

Gametes formed by each sex. Male (TS, Ts, tS, ts). Female (TS, Ts, tS,
ts)
4 different types of gametes will be formed due to independent
assortment of genes on chromosomes

Punnett’s table showing the gametes and genotypes formed in

dihybrid inheritance by selfing an F1 individual
Male Female TS Ts tS ts
gametes gametes
TS TTSS TTSs TtSS TtSs
Ts TTSs TTss TtSs Ttss

3
tS TtSS TtSs ttSS ttSs
ts TtSs Ttss ttSs ttss

Summary of phenotypes and genotypes produced by selfing an F1 in

the dihybrid cross above.
PHENOTYPIC GENOTYPIC RATIO PHENOTYPES
RATIO
9T-s- (1TTSS, 2TtSS, 2TTSs, 4TsSs) Tall smooth seeded
plant
3T-ss (2Ttss, 1TTss) Tall wrinkled seeded
plant
3ttS- (2ttSs 1ttSS) Dwarf smooth seeded
plant
1ttss (ttss) Dwarf wrinkled
seeded

This indicates that if 1000 plants were produced in the F2

9/16=563 will be tall smooth seed
3/16 =188 will be tall wrinkled seeded
3/16= 188 will be dwarf smooth seeded
1/16= 63 will be dwarf wrinkled seeded
The segregation pattern observed in F2 generation of dihybrid
inheritance was due to the independent assortment of genes/alleles
on chromosomes which means each type of gamete have equal
chance of being formed Based on the monohybrid inheritance and
dihybrid inheritance two laws were produced called Mendel’s law

The first law (law of segregation): States that genes are responsible
for the development of an individual and are independently
4
transmitted from one generation to the other without any alteration

The second law (law of independent assortment): States that the

segregation of one pair of allele is independent of the segregation of
the other pair of allele

5
MOLECULAR GENETICS

The molecule called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was discovered by Friedrich miescher

in 1869. In 1868 Miescher demonstrated that the nuclear material could be isolated

from the cytoplasm. This nuclear material was later shown to be composed of protein

and nucleic acids. Because of the repetitive nature of nucleic acids and the apparent

similarity in chemical structure irrespective of source, it was thought not to play an

important role in heredity. Amino acids were thought to specify genetic information.

Transformation

Transformation is the evidence to identify the DNA as the genetic material or uptake of

foreign piece of DNA by an organism occasioning the alteration of genotype. In

Diplococcus pneumoniae bacteria the thin capsule enclosing the cell wall consists of

substances called polysaccharides, which are of specific types. Type II capsules for

example elicit the formation of antibodies in the bloodstream of rabbits that are

different from antibodies formed with type III capsules. These capsules types are

distinct properties of bacterial strains and bacteria of one kind do not appear in pure

cultures of another kind.

On the other hand the capsules themselves are subject to variability in respect to

their presence or absence. That is, any particular type of D. pneumoniae may

occasionally give rise to bacteria that do not have capsule at all (mutation) such non-

capsulated bacteria have rough (R) appearance when grown on culture plates and

relatively harmless in contrast to the smooth (S) appearance and virulence of

encapsulated bacteria. When cultured separately, R and S colonies will transmit their

respective characters to future generations except for rare mutations. These bacteria
are sensitive to heat and if temperature is raised sufficiently high the bacteria are heat-

killed and can no longer divide.

Griffith, in 1928, showed that heat-killed bacteria of one type could have a hereditary

influence on bacteria of another type. In one experiment he injected heat killed bacteria

of type IIIS into a mouse that carry type IIR non heat killed and obtained virulent live

cultures which were of the type IIIS variety. Because the injection of heat killed type IIIS

bacteria by itself does not result in any live bacteria culture, nor does type II mutate in to

type III. A change or transformation of type IIR into type IIIS must have occurred through

the transfer of some active substance.

Grifffith’s results could be duplicated by mixing different types of heat killed and

live-bacterial strain in mouse (in vivo) as well by mixing item in test tubes (in vitro).

The search for the specific agent responsible for transformation, the

transforming principle continued until 1944. In this year Avery, Macleod and Mccarty

showed that the transforming principles consist entirely of DNA.

In their experiment they extracted the DNA from the heat-killed cells of type IIIS,

and mix this DNA extract directly with in vitro cultures of type IIR. A serum was added

whose antibodies react with the R cell and cause them to precipitate to the bottom.

When transformation occurs, type IIIS cells, not being precipitated, now grow diffusely

throughout the medium.

 ’
Diagram showing Griffith s experiment
’
Summary of Griffith s experiment

Rough Bacteria in Mouse Mouse does not die

Smooth Bacteria injected in mouse Mouse die

Heat killed smooth bacteria injected in mouse Mouse does not die

Heat killed smooth bacteria +non heat killed Rough bacteria injected in mouse

Mouse die.

Semiconservative DNA Replication

The particular mode of DNA replication suggested by Watson and Crick is called

semiconservative replication in which each partner strand of the duplex act as a

template directing the synthesis of a new complementary strand. The new duplexes are

composed of one parental and one new synthesized strand i.e the original duplex is

partly conserved or semi conserved in the new molecule.

This idea was compelling but it initially lacked experimental supports. In fact two

other possible modes of replication were suggested soon afterwards, the conservative

replication and dispersive replication. In the conservative replication, the original duplex

remains intact i.e. it is entirely conserved and the whole duplex guides the synthesis of

a completely new duplex replica of itself. In dispersive replication bits and pieces of

newly synthesized DNA become assembled with bits and pieces of the original duplex

to reconstitute two duplexes from one original templates.

Diagram showing the three possible modes of duplex DNA replication. The predicted

distribution of original parental in purple color and newly synthesized strand in blue

color for two rounds of replication.

The nature of DNA

After the isolation and purification of the DNA molecule it was soon found that it

molecular weight varied widely. However it was established that DNA from all

organisms are chemically similar.

The DNA from any species consists of three chemical groups.

1. Phosphate

2 Deoxyribose sugar

3 Bases

There are two types of bases the pyrimidines (one ring compounds) and the purines

(two ring compounds). The pyrimidines are thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) while the

purines are Adenine (A) are guanine (G)

The DNA is a three dimensional structure that is accepted today and for which a nobel

prize was later awarded, was first proposed and demonstrated by J. D. Watson and

Francis crick in 1953 (1953-1955). The DNA is a long molecule consisting of two

strands. Each strand is a chain of nucleotides. A nucleotide is a base plus a sugar.

Successive nucleotides are linked together through a phosphate group and a hydroxyl

group on the sugar component. The two strands are weekly associated by hydrogen

bonds. The width of the two strands is always the same. This is so because a purine

(two ting structure) always pairs with a pyrimidine (one ring structure). Specifically

adenine always pair with thymine and Cytosine always pair with guanine.

A+T
In any organism DNA molecule A=T and C=G. However the ratio varies widely for
G+C

different species of DNA molecules

Since the above pairing is specific, if you know the nucleotide sequence of one strand

you can tell the sequence of the other strand. This phenomenon is referred to as

complementarity.
Diagram showing Structure of the DNA

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA): RNA is also found as a component of the chromatin fibre

(Chromosome). Although both the DNA and RNA are nucleic acids. RNA differs from

DNA in a number of ways. The DNA is double stranded and has deoxyribose sugar.
The RNA is always single stranded with a ribose sugar. Both DNA and RNA contain the

same bases except that uracil is present in RNA in place of thymine which is found only

in DNA. RNA is synthesized in the nucleus on the DNA template transported into the

cytoplasm where it is more prevalent and associated with ribosomes. DNA on the other

hand is self-duplicating and exclusively located in the nucleus.

Several classes of RNA exist based on size and function. Heterogeneous nuclear RNA

are very large RNA molecules found in the nucleus. They undergo further processing

before being transported through the nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm as

messenger RNA (mRNA) The mRNA molecules carry the information from the gene in

the nucleus to the ribosomes where such information is translated into protein

synthesis. Other classes of RNA include the smaller transfer RNA (tRNA) and the

ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which is found as integral parts of the ribosomes. Both tRNA

and rRNA play important roles in protein synthesis.

The genetic Code

One definition of the gene is that it specifies a peptide chain, through a complex

procedure which involves the transfer of information in a gene from the nucleus through

a messenger (mRNA) to the cytoplasm where the message is read during protein

synthesis to make peptide chain. It is possible to determine the base sequence code for

an amino-acid sequence since there are four bases in the mRNA. Since three base make

a codon and a codon specifies an amino acid.

Crick and associates suggested a three letter word for the codon, so that there are 64

(43) possible codons to the twenty amino acids. All these possible codons have

ingeniously been assigned to the amino acids for which they code.
Diagram for the base combinations (triplet codes) that specify different amino acids

Characteristics of the genetic codes

1. The genetic code is Universal (the same in all living organisms).

2. The code is degenerate since we have sixty four codes for only twenty amino-

acids. This means that one amino acids is coded for by more than one codon.

The significance of this is thought be a kind of stabilizer of species so that

degenerate code reduces the effect of base change mutations as the third of the

codons are less important than the first two.

3 Codons are linear with no overlaps and only one base is part of only one codon.

4 The codon is directional and its is always read from a fixed point

5 In E. coli there is an initiation codon usually AUG at the beginning of all genes.

There is some evidence in support of AUG as initiation codon in higher

organisms.

6 Termination codons in all systems are UAA, UAG and UGA.

MECHANISM OF MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS IN AND OUT OF CELL
In order to understand movement of materials in and out of cells, we need to take a look at the plasma membrane.
The plasma membrane of a cell is a network of lipids and proteins that forms the boundary between a cell’s
contents and the outside of the cell. It is also simply called the cell membrane. The main function of the plasma
membrane is to protect the cell from its surrounding environment. It is semi-permeable and regulates the materials
that enter and exit the cell. The cells of all living things have plasma membranes.
Plasma membranes are selectively permeable (or semi-permeable), meaning that only certain molecules can pass
through them. Water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide can easily travel through the membrane. Generally, ions (e.g.
sodium, potassium) and polar molecules cannot pass through the membrane; they must go through specific
channels or pores in the membrane instead of freely diffusing through. This way, the membrane can control the
rate at which certain molecules can enter and exit the cell.

The Fluid Mosaic Model of the plasma membrane

The principal components of the plasma membrane in plants are phospholipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. The
phospholipids, spontaneously arrange themselves into a double layer with hydrophilic (“water loving”) heads on
the outside and hydrophobic (“water hating”) tails on the inside. These interactions with water are what allow
plasma membranes to form.

Proteins are the second major component of plasma membranes. There are two main categories of membrane
proteins: integral and peripheral. Integral proteins are wedged between the lipids that make up the membrane,
some of these transmembrane proteins can function as transport proteins which allow molecules that couldn’t
enter the cell otherwise to pass through. In this way, the cell controls the flow of these molecules as they enter
and exit. Carrier proteins and channel proteins are the two major classes of membrane transport proteins.
Channels specifically for transporting water across the plasma membrane and are called aquaporins. Channel
proteins are embedded in the cell membrane and have a pore for materials to cross while Carrier proteins can
change shape to move material from one side of the membrane to the other.

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 1

Apart from transport, proteins in the cell membrane play a role in many other functions, such as cell signaling,
cell recognition, communication, structural support and enzyme activity.

Carbohydrates are also found in the plasma membrane; specifically, most carbohydrates in the membrane are part
of glycoproteins, which are formed when a carbohydrate attaches to a protein. Glycoproteins play a role in the
interactions between cells, including cell adhesion, the process by which cells attach to each other.

Technically, the cell membrane is a liquid. At room temperature, it has about the same consistency as vegetable
oil. Lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates in the plasma membrane can diffuse freely throughout the cell membrane;
they are essentially floating across its surface. This is known as the fluid mosaic model, which was coined by S.J.
Singer and G.L. Nicolson in 1972. The fluid mosaic model describes the plasma membrane structure as a mosaic
of phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.

The movement of a substance across the selectively permeable plasma membrane can be either “passive”—i.e.,
occurring without the input of cellular energy —or “active”—i.e., its transport requires the cell to expend energy.

Active transport - requires the cell to spend energy, usually in the form of ATP.

Water is absorbed due to activities going on in roots. Absorption of water occurs with the help of energy in the
form of ATP, which is released due to metabolic activities of root cells such as respiration. Absorption takes place
against concentration gradient - even when the concentration of cell sap is lower than that of soil water. Root
hair cells in plant roots use active transport to absorb mineral ions (such as nitrates) from the soil - even though
there are lower concentrations of minerals in the soil than there are within the root hair cell. It takes place against
a concentration gradient. Another example is the transport of large molecules (non-lipid soluble).

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 2

Passive transport

Passive transport requires no energy from the cell. Examples include the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Passive transport is by osmosis. Passive transport takes place along the concentration gradient.

There are three main types of passive transport:

• Simple diffusion – movement of small or lipophilic (tending to combine with or dissolve in lipids or fats.)
molecules (e.g. O2, CO2, etc.)
• Osmosis –the movement of water molecules from a dilute solution (with a high proportion of water
molecules) to a more concentrated solution (with a low proportion of water molecules) across a partially
permeable membrane. (dependent on solute concentrations)
• Facilitated diffusion – movement of large or charged molecules via membrane proteins (e.g. ions,
sucrose, etc.)

Differences between Passive transport and active transport

The table below shows the major differences between active transport and Passive transport (diffusion).

Passive transport Active transport

Transports dissolved substances from high to lowTransports dissolved substances from low to high
concentration i.e. along concentration gradient concentration i.e. against concentration gradient
Requires no additional energy input Requires energy from respiration
Does not necessarily require protein carriers in the cell
Requires protein carriers in the cell membrane
membrane

Two main methods by which organisms move materials around inside their bodies are important for an
understanding of cellular transport: They include Diffusion, osmosis, active transport and Mass flow.
Diffusion, osmosis and active transport are three similar methods by which single molecules or very small
structures are moved across membranes or relatively short distances, often within or between cells.

Short Distance Transport

This deals with the transport of substances along the radial axis of plant organs (not up and down).
Long Distance Transport
Movement of water up the xylem and sap up or down the phloem are examples.

Diffusion –is defined as the net movement of molecules from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser
concentration. It is a PASSIVE process which means no energy is used to make the molecules move, they have a
natural KINETIC ENERGY. Molecules move from area of high concentration to area of low concentration. The
difference between the regions of high concentration and low concentration is called the concentration gradient
and the steeper the concentration gradient, the faster diffusion takes place.

Facilitated Diffusion- Also does not require energy. It uses transport proteins to move molecules from high to
low concentration. Examples: Glucose or amino acids moving from blood into a cell.
BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 3
Osmosis- Osmosis is a type of diffusion. We use the term osmosis when talking specifically about water, whilst
diffusion is used when talking about particles. It is the movement of water molecules from a solution with a high
concentration of water molecules to a solution with a lower concentration of water molecules, through a semi-
permeable membrane.

Semi-permeable membranes are very thin layers of material which allow some things to pass through them, but
prevent other things from passing through. Cell membranes are an example of semi-permeable membranes. Cell
membranes allow small molecules such as oxygen, water carbon dioxide and glucose to pass through, but do not
allow larger molecules like sucrose, proteins and starch to enter the cell directly.
If there was a semi-permeable membrane with more water molecules on one side as there were on the other, water
molecules would flow from the side with a high concentration of water to the side with the lower concentration
of water. This would continue until the concentration of water on both sides of the membrane were equal (dynamic
equilibrium is established).

Mass flow is the transportation of substances in bulk from the source to the sink. It is also known as bulk flow.
It is the simple mechanism by which particles are physically carried along in the stream of a fluid, such as water,
air or blood. It is a quick and efficient means of transporting substances over relatively long distances. Mass
flow only works at the organ, tissue and whole organism level. Common examples of bulk flow are blood flowing

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 4

through the circulatory system, air moving through the respiratory tree, and sap flowing through the xylem and
phloem of plants.
Active and passive transport are generally used for the transport of small molecules. However, bulk transport is
required for the transport of large molecules or small molecules in large quantities across the membrane.
Substances that can move via bulk transport are like hormones, polysaccharides, etc. An example of this is the
engulfing of pathogens by phagocytes (endocytosis), then the release of the hydrolysed pieces of the pathogen
outside the cell by exocytosis. Endocytosis and exocytosis are the bulk transport mechanisms used in eukaryotes.
As these transport processes require energy, they are known as active transport processes.

Endocytosis and exocytosis are the names given to the active, bulk transport of products across the cell
membrane. They are the processes by which cells move materials into or out of the cell that are too large to
directly pass through the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. Large molecules, microorganisms and waste products
are some of the substances moved through the cell membrane via exocytosis and endocytosis.

Endocytosis, the process by which large molecules are internalised into the cell, occurs when foreign material is
engulfed within the cell membrane, which then forms a vesicle containing the ingested material. There are three
main subtypes of endocytosis, as seen in the Figure below.

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 5

Phagocytosis, or cellular eating, occurs when the ingested materials enter the cell. The plasma membrane engulfs
the solid material, forming a phagocytic vesicle. A particle or substance binds to receptors on the cell’s surface,
stimulating the release of pseudopodia, the extensions of the cytoplasm, termed pseudopodia (‘false feet’), sense,
surround and enclose the target, creating a vacuole or phagosome on the inside of the cell membrane. This allows
the process of phagocytosis to be highly specific. Within the human body, and in other mammals, phagocytosis
is how immune cells engulf and destroy dangerous microorganisms or toxic compounds.

Pinocytosis, or cellular drinking, this describes the non-specific uptake of fluid surrounding the cell, allowing it
to take in nutrients such as ions, enzymes and hormones. Pinocytosis is common in plant and animal cells. During
pinocytosis, the cell takes in substances from the extracellular fluid that it needs to function. These include things
like water and nutrients. In this process, molecules bind to receptors located along the surface of the cellular
membrane. the cell membrane invaginates, before budding off to create a pinocytic vesicle known as a pinosome.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis – uptake of specific target substances, such as iron, via their receptor. Receptors
cluster in regions termed coated pits, as they are coated with proteins such as clathrin. Clathrin causes the coated
pit to invaginate and become a vesicle, bringing the desired ligand into the cell. This process can be hijacked to
allow for toxins to enter the cell, such as cholera which has sites that cross-react with normal receptor-binding
sites and gain entry into cells. If uptake of a compound is dependent on receptor-mediated endocytosis and the
process is ineffective, the material will not be removed from the tissue fluids or blood. Instead, it will stay in those
fluids and increase in concentration.

Some human diseases are caused by the failure of receptor-mediated endocytosis. For example, the form of
cholesterol termed low-density lipoprotein or LDL (also referred to as “bad” cholesterol) is removed from the
blood by receptor-mediated endocytosis. In the human genetic disease familial hypercholesterolemia, the LDL
receptors are defective or missing entirely. People with this condition have life-threatening levels of cholesterol
in their blood, because their cells cannot clear LDL particles from their blood.

Endocytosis serves many purposes, including:

1.Taking in nutrients for cellular growth, function and repair: Cells need materials like proteins and lipids to
function.
2. Capturing pathogens or other unknown substances that may endanger the organism: When pathogens like
bacteria are identified by the immune system, they are engulfed by immune cells to be destroyed.
3. Disposing of old or damaged cells: Cells must be safely disposed of when they stop functioning properly to
prevent damage to other cells. These cells are eliminated through endocytosis.

Exocytosis is the process by which cells move materials from within the cell into the extracellular fluid.
Exocytosis occurs when a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, allowing its contents to be released outside
the cell. After exocytosis, some exocytotic vesicles are incorporated into the plasma membrane (full vesicle
fusion), while others return to the interior of the cell after their contents have been released (this is termed the
“kiss-and-run” pathway). Others remain docked to the membrane, where they can be used multiple times (the
“kiss-and-stay” pathway).

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 6

Example of exocytosis: Once the white blood cell has engulfed a foreign pathogen and eliminated it, certain parts
of the pathogen are no longer needed. The macrophage gets rid of this waste material through exocytosis, during
which vesicles carry out the unwanted pathogen material.

Exocytosis serves the following purposes:

1.Removing toxins or waste products from the cell’s interior: Cells create waste or toxins that must be removed
from the cell to maintain homeostasis. For instance, in aerobic respiration, cells produce the waste products carbon
dioxide and water during ATP formation. Carbon dioxide and water are removed from these cells via exocytosis.

2. Facilitating cellular communication: Cells create signaling molecules like hormones and neurotransmitters.
They are delivered to other cells following their release from the cell through exocytosis.

3. Facilitating cellular membrane growth, repair, signaling and migration: When cells absorb materials from
outside the cell during endocytosis, they use lipids and proteins from the plasma membrane to create vesicles.
When certain exocytotic vesicles fuse with the cellular membrane, they replenish the cell membrane with these
materials.

OSMOTIC PRESSURE
Adding sugars to water will result in a decrease in the water concentration because the sugar molecules displace
the water molecules.

(CC BY-NC-SA; LadyOfHats)

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 7

If the two containers are connected, but separated by a semi-permeable membrane, water molecules would flow
from the area of high water concentration (the solution that does not contain any sugar) to the area of lower water
concentration (the solution that contains sugar).
This movement of water would continue until the water concentration on both sides of the membrane is equal,
and will result in a change in volume of the two sides. The side that contains sugar will end up with a larger
volume.

(CC BY-NC-SA; LadyOfHats)

Water solutions are very important in biology. When water is mixed with other molecules this mixture is called a
solution. Water is the solvent and the dissolved substance is the solute. A solution is characterized by the solute.
For example, water and sugar would be characterized as a sugar solution.
Osmosis and osmotic pressure can be demonstrated by immersing red blood cells or plant cells into sugar solutions
of various concentrations. There are three possible relationships that cells can encounter when placed into a sugar
solution.
1. The concentration of solute in the solution can be equal to the concentration of solute in cells. In this situation
the cell is in an isotonic solution (iso = equal or the same as normal). A red blood cell will retain its normal shape
in this environment as the amount of water entering the cell is the same as the amount leaving the cell. So also a
plant cell.

2. The concentration of solute in the solution can be greater than the concentration of solute in the cells. This cell
is described as being in a hypertonic solution (hyper = greater than normal). In this situation, a red blood will
appear to shrink as the water flows out of the cell and into the surrounding environment. This is called crenation.
For a plant cell, the cell membrane will shrink away from the cell wall. A situation referred to as plasmolysis.
The cell becomes plasmolysed.

3. The concentration of solute in the solution can be less than the concentration of solute in the cells. This cell is
in a hypotonic solution (hypo = less than normal). A red blood cell in this environment will become visibly
swollen and potentially rupture as water rushes into the cell. A plant cell will also take in water and become fully
turgid. It will not burst because it has a restraining cell wall.

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 8

 Red blood cells Plant cells

When talking about osmosis, rather than discussing areas of high and low concentration, we can also speak of
water potential.
Water potential is a measure of the potential energy in water. Plant physiologists are not interested in the energy
in any one particular aqueous system, but they are very interested in water movement between two systems. In
practical terms, therefore, water potential is the difference in potential energy between a given water sample and
pure water (at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature). Water potential is denoted by the Greek letter ψ
(psi) and is expressed in units of pressure (pressure is a form of energy) called megapascals (MPa). The potential
of pure water (Ψwpure H2O) is, by convenience of definition, designated a value of zero (although pure water
contains plenty of potential energy, that energy is ignored). Pure water has a water potential of 0, and every other
solution has a negative water potential. The more negative the solution's water potential, the less water it has.

Water potential in plant solutions is influenced by solute concentration, pressure, gravity, and factors called matrix
effects. However, we will limit this discussion to solute concentration and pressure. Water potential can be broken
down into its individual components using the following equation: ψ=ψs+ψp

where Ψs and Ψp refer to the solute and pressure potentials. Water potential is a measurement that combines the
effects of solute concentration and pressure. As the individual components change, they raise or lower the total
water potential of a system. When this happens, water moves to equilibrate, moving from the system or
compartment with a higher water potential to the system or compartment with a lower water potential. This brings
the difference in water potential between the two systems (ΔΨ) back to zero (ΔΨ = 0). Hence, depending on the
relative magnitudes of osmotic potential and pressure potential; the value of water potential can be negative or
positive. Water potential determines the direction of water movement.

Solute Potential
Solute potential (Ψs), also called osmotic potential, is negative in a plant cell and zero in distilled water. Typical
values for cell cytoplasm are –0.5 to –1.0 MPa. Solutes reduce water potential (resulting in a negative Ψw) by
consuming some of the potential energy available in the water. Solute molecules can dissolve in water because
water molecules can bind to them via hydrogen bonds; The energy in the hydrogen bonds between solute
molecules and water is no longer available to do work in the system because it is tied up in the bond. In other
words, the amount of available potential energy is reduced when solutes are added to an aqueous system. Thus,
Ψs decreases with increasing solute concentration.

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 9

Because Ψs is one of the components of Ψ, a decrease in Ψs will cause a decrease in Ψ. Water moves towards
areas of lower Ψs (and thus lower Ψ).

In the figure above, the semipermeable membrane that separates the two sides of the tube allows water but not
solutes to pass. In the first tube, solute has been added to the right side. Adding solute to the right side lowers Ψs,
causing water to move to the right side of the tube. As a result, the water level is higher on the right side.

Pressure Potential
Pressure potential (Ψp), also called turgor potential, may be positive or negative (See Figure above). Because
pressure is an expression of energy, the higher the pressure, the more potential energy in a system, and vice versa.
Therefore, a positive Ψp (compression) increases Ψ, and a negative Ψp (tension) decreases Ψ. The second tube
in the Figure above has pure water on both sides of the membrane. Positive pressure is applied to the left side.
Applying positive pressure to the left side causes Ψp to increase. As a results, water moves to the right so that the
water level is higher on the right than on the left. The third tube also has pure water, but this time negative pressure
is applied to the left side. Applying negative pressure lowers Ψp, causing water to move to the left side of the
tube. As a result, the water level is higher on the left.
BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 10
Practice Question
Suppose that a student calculates the water potential of a solution inside a bag to be -0.63 Mpa (Ψs = -0.63, Ψp =
0) and the water potential of a solution surrounding the bag is -0.33 Mpa (Ψs = -0.33, Ψp = 0).
In which direction will the water flow?

TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the process by which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small pores on the underside
of leaves, where it changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere. Transpiration is essentially evaporation of
water from plant leaves. It occurs chiefly at the leaves while their stomata are open for the passage of CO2 and
O2 during photosynthesis.
Air that is not fully saturated with water vapor (100% relative humidity) will dry the surfaces of cells with which
it comes in contact. So, the photosynthesizing leaf loses substantial amount of water by evaporation. This
transpired water must be replaced by the transport of more water from the soil to the leaves through the xylem of
the roots and stem.

Importance
Transpiration is not simply a hazard of plant life. It is the "engine" that pulls water up from the roots to:
• supply photosynthesis
• bring minerals from the roots for biosynthesis within the leaf
• cool the leaf

The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the leaf (as well as the loss of water vapor in transpiration) occurs
through pores called stomata (singular = stoma).

Environmental factors that affect the rate of transpiration include

1.Light =
Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This is largely because light stimulates the opening of
the stomata. Light also speeds up transpiration by warming the leaf.
2.Temperature
Plants transpire more rapidly at higher temperatures because water evaporates more rapidly as the temperature
rises.
3.Humidity
When the surrounding air is dry, diffusion of water out of the leaf goes on more rapidly.
4.Wind
When there is no breeze, the air surrounding a leaf becomes increasingly humid thus reducing the rate of
transpiration. When a breeze is present, the humid air is carried away and replaced by drier air.
5.Soil-water
A plant cannot continue to transpire rapidly if its water loss is not made up by replacement from the soil. When
absorption of water by the roots fails to keep up with the rate of transpiration, loss of turgor occurs, and the
stomata close. This immediately reduces the rate of transpiration.

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 11

MINERAL NUTRITION
Unlike animals (which obtain their food from what they eat) plants obtain their nutrition from the soil and
atmosphere. Using sunlight as an energy source, plants are capable of making all the organic macromolecules
they need by modifications of the sugars they form by photosynthesis. However, plants must take up various
minerals through their root systems for use.

Mineral nutrients are essential chemical elements absorbed from soil in the form of inorganic ions. Only 17
elements are truly essential for plant growth. Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen are needed by the plants while
Nitrogen, Potassium, and Phosphorus are obtained from the soil and are the primary macronutrients. Calcium,
Magnesium, and Sulfur are the secondary macronutrients needed in lesser quantity. The micronutrients,
needed in very small quantities and toxic in large quantities, include Iron, Manganese, Copper, Zinc,
Molybdenum, Nickel, Boron, and Chlorine. A complete fertilizer provides all three primary macronutrients and
some of the secondary and micronutrients. The label of the fertilizer will list numbers, for example 5-10-5, which
refer to the percent by weight of the primary macronutrients.

Carbon (C), is required to form carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and many other compounds; it is therefore
present in all macromolecules.

The next most abundant element in plant cells is Nitrogen (N); it is part of proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen is
also used in the synthesis of some vitamins.

Hydrogen and oxygen are part of many organic compounds, and also form water. Oxygen is necessary for cellular
respiration; plants use oxygen to store energy in the form of ATP.

Phosphorus (P), another macromolecule, is necessary to synthesize nucleic acids and phospholipids. As part of
ATP, phosphorus enables food energy to be converted into chemical energy through oxidative phosphorylation.
Likewise, light energy is converted into chemical energy during photophosphorylation in photosynthesis, and into
chemical energy to be extracted during respiration.

Sulfur is part of certain amino acids, such as cysteine and methionine, and is present in several coenzymes. Sulfur
also plays a role in photosynthesis as part of the electron transport chain, where hydrogen gradients play a key
role in the conversion of light energy into ATP.

Potassium (K) is important because of its role in regulating stomatal opening and closing. As the openings for gas
exchange, stomata help maintain a healthy water balance; a potassium ion pump supports this process.

Magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) are also important macronutrients. The role of calcium is twofold: to regulate
nutrient transport, and to support many enzyme functions. Magnesium is important to the photosynthetic process.
These minerals, along with the micronutrients, contribute to the plant’s ionic balance.

Iron is involved in photosynthesis, respiration, chlorophyll formation, and many enzymatic reactions.

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 12

Boron - plays an important role in the movement and metabolism of sugars in the plant and synthesis of plant
hormones and nucleic acids. It also functions in lignin formation of cell walls.

Manganese - is a component of enzymes and is also involved in photosynthesis and root growth. Additionally, it
is involved in nitrogen fixation.

Zinc - is a component of many organic complexes and DNA protein. It is also an important enzyme for protein
synthesis. Also, zinc is involved in growth hormone production and seed development.

Molybdenum - It is involved in nitrogen fixation (conversion of N2 to NH4+) and nitrification (conversion of

NH4+ to NO3-).

Copper - is also a component of enzymes, some of which are important to lignin formation in cell walls. It is also
involved in photosynthesis, respiration, and processes within the plant involving nitrogen.

Mineral elements can also be classified based on their mobility within the plant. Nutrient Mobility is a term used
to describe the ability of nutrients to move within a given setting. Knowledge of nutrient mobility can help to
determine what deficiency is occurring and also the root cause of the deficiency. Nutrients that are mobile in the
plant will move to new growth areas, so the deficiency symptoms will first show up in older leaves. Nutrients that
are not mobile in the plant will not move to new growth areas, so deficiency symptoms will first show up in the
new growth.
Mobile nutrients are nitrogen in the form of nitrate, phosphorus (P) in the form of phosphate, potassium (K),
magnesium (Mg), chlorine (Cl), zinc (Zn) and molybdenum (Mo). Calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), iron (Fe), boron (B)
and copper (Cu) are immobile.

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 13

Mineral Deficiency - The symptoms of a mineral deficiency depend on the function and mobility of the element.
The most common deficiencies are those of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus. For example, a deficiency in
magnesium, an ingredient of chlorophyll, causes yellowing of the leaves, or chlorosis.

The relationship between a mineral deficiency and its symptoms can be less direct. For example, chlorosis can
also be caused by iron deficiency because iron is a required cofactor in chlorophyll synthesis.

Mineral deficiency symptoms also depend on the mobility of the nutrient within the plant. If a nutrient can move
freely from one part of a plant to another, then symptoms of the deficiency will appear first in older organs.
Young, growing tissues have more “drawing power” than old tissues for nutrients in short supply. For example,
a shortage of magnesium will initially lead to chlorosis in older leaves.

If a nutrient is relatively immobile, then a deficiency will affect young parts of the plant first. Older tissue may
have adequate supplies, which they can retain during periods of shortage. For example, iron does not move freely
within a plant. Chlorosis due to iron deficiency appears first in young leaves.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, some bacteria and some protistans use the energy from sunlight
to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water while oxygen is formed as a byproduct.
Photosynthesis is a multi-step process that requires sunlight, carbon dioxide (which is low in energy), and water
as substrates. After the process is complete, it releases oxygen and produces glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
(GA3P), simple carbohydrate molecules (which are high in energy) that can subsequently be converted into
glucose, sucrose, or any of dozens of other sugar molecules. These sugar molecules contain energy and the
energized carbon that all living things need to survive.

Photosynthesis as an energy transfer process; energy transferred as ATP and reduced NADP from the light
dependent stage is used during the light independent stage (Calvin cycle) of photosynthesis to produce complex
organic molecules.

Photosynthesis exclusively takes place in the chloroplasts through photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll
a, chlorophyll b, carotene and xanthophyll. All green plants and a few other autotrophic organisms utilize
photosynthesis to synthesize nutrients by using carbon dioxide, water and sunlight. The by-product of the
photosynthesis process is oxygen. In many ways, the chloroplast resembles the mitochondrion.

• Both are surrounded by a double membrane with an intermembrane space.

• Both have their own DNA .
• Both are involved in energy metabolism.
• Both have membrane reticulations filling their inner space to increase the surface area on which reactions
with membrane-bound proteins can take place.

There are three membranes available for use in the chloroplast: its own double membrane (inner & outer), and
the thylakoid membrane. It has three compartments: stroma, thylakoid space, and inter-membrane space. These
BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 14
compartments and the membranes that separate them serve to isolate different aspects of photosynthesis. Dark
reactions take place in the stroma. Light reactions take place on the thylakoid membranes.

Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments

A pigment is any substance that absorbs light. Chlorophyll is the green pigment common to all photosynthetic
cells. Several modifications of chlorophyll occur among plants and other photosynthetic organisms. This green
colour pigment plays a vital role in the process of photosynthesis by permitting plants to absorb energy from
sunlight. All photosynthetic organisms (plants, certain protistans, prochlorobacteria, and cyanobacteria) have
chlorophyll a which is the primary pigment. There are other pigments that help with photosynthesis, they are
called accessory pigments.
These accessory pigments act as antennae to channel the energy they absorb into the reaction center of
chlorophyll a. Accessory pigments absorb energy that chlorophyll a does not absorb. Accessory pigments include
chlorophyll b (also c, d, and e in algae and protistans), xanthophylls, and carotenoids (such as beta-carotene). In
photosynthesis, carotenoids function as photosynthetic pigments that are very efficient molecules for the disposal
of excess energy. When a leaf is exposed to full sun, the light-dependent reactions are required to process an
enormous amount of energy; if that energy is not handled properly, it can do significant damage. Therefore, many
carotenoids reside in the thylakoid membrane, absorb excess energy, and safely dissipate that energy as heat.

Each type of pigment can be identified by the specific pattern of wavelengths it absorbs from visible light, which
is the absorption spectrum. Chlorophyll a absorbs wavelengths from either end of the visible spectrum (blue and
red), but not green. Because green is reflected or transmitted, chlorophyll appears green. Carotenoids absorb in
the short-wavelength blue region, and reflect the longer yellow, red, and orange wavelengths.

Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: light dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle (light independent
reactions or Dark reactions). Light-dependent reactions, which take place in the thylakoid membrane, use light
energy to make ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, uses energy derived from
these compounds to make GA3P from CO2.

Photosynthesis consists of 2 separate processes

1. Light dependent reactions - light energy is trapped by chlorophyll in excited (high energy) electrons. Excited
electrons are used to produce ATP by chemiosmosis and high energy electrons are used to reduce NADP to
NADPH. The overall function of light-dependent reactions is to convert solar energy into chemical energy in the
form of NADPH and ATP.
BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 15
2. Light independent reactions – also called dark reactions - ATP is used to combine CO2 with an organic
molecule and high energy electrons from NADPH are used to reduce the CO2 to form carbohydrate.

After the energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy and temporarily stored in ATP and NADPH
molecules, the cell has the fuel needed to build carbohydrate molecules for long-term energy storage. The products
of the light-dependent reactions, ATP and NADPH, have lifespans in the range of millionths of seconds, whereas
the products of the light-independent reactions (carbohydrates and other forms of reduced carbon) can survive for
hundreds of millions of years. The carbohydrate molecules made will have a backbone of carbon atoms.

The complete equation for photosynthesis is depicted as follows

6 CO2 + 12 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6 O2

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 16

RESPIRATION
All organisms produce ATP by releasing energy stored in glucose and other sugars.

• Plants can make ATP during photosynthesis.

• All other organisms, including plants, must produce ATP by breaking down molecules such as glucose

Types of Respiration
There are two types of respiration:

Anaerobic respiration
It is a type of cellular respiration that takes place in the absence of oxygen to produce energy. The chemical
equation for anaerobic respiration is

Glucose (C6H12O6) → Alcohol 2(C2H5O H) + Carbon dioxide 2(CO2) + Energy (ATP)

Aerobic respiration
It is a type of cellular respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen to produce energy. It is a continuous
process that takes place within the cells of animals and plants. This process can be explained with the help of the
chemical equation:

Glucose (C6H12O6) + Oxygen (6O2) → Carbon dioxide (6CO2) + Water (6H2O) + Energy (ATP)

It is the process by which a cell uses O2 to "burn" molecules and release energy

Note: this reaction is the opposite of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O >> C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 >> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

These reactions are opposites - this is important since the earth is a closed system

All life has a set amount of natural materials to work with, so it is important that they all be cycled through
effectively and evenly.

This reaction takes place over the course of three major reaction pathways

• Glycolysis
• The Krebs Cycle
• Electron Transport Phosphorylation (chemiosmosis)

Glycolysis (glyco = sugar; lysis = breaking)

• Goal: break glucose down to form two pyruvates
• Who: all life on earth performs glyclolysis
• Where: the cytoplasm

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 17

Oxidation of Pyruvate and the Krebs Cycle (citric acid cycle, TCA cycle)
• Goal: take pyruvate and put it into the Krebs cycle, producing NADH and FADH2
• Where: the mitochondria
• There are two steps
o The Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
o The Krebs Cycle proper

Electron Transport Phosphorylation (Chemiosmosis)

• Goal: to break down NADH and FADH2, pumping H+ into the outer compartment of the mitochondria
• Where: the mitochondria
• In this reaction, the ETS creates a gradient which is used to produce ATP, quite like in the chloroplast

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 18

Net Energy Production from Aerobic Respiration

• Glycolysis: 2 ATP
• Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP
• Electron Transport Phosphorylation: 32 ATP
• Net Energy Production: 36 ATP!

Hormones

A hormone is any chemical produced in one part of the body that has a target elsewhere in the body. Plant
hormones are organic compounds which are capable of promotion, inhibition or modification of growth. Because
hormones stimulate or inhibit plant growth, many botanists refer to them as plant growth regulators. The plant
hormones are also known as growth factors, growth hormones, growth substances, or phytohormones.

There are a few significant differences in the nature of hormones found in plants and animals. These are
summarized in the following table:

Plants Animals

number of hormones fewer many

specificity of action non-specific specific

work together yes no

site action/production no yes

separation

Thus, there are comparatively few plant hormones, each elicits a variety of responses and often works together
with other hormones. In contrast, animals have numerous different kinds of hormones, each with a specific
function, and it works alone to induce a response.

Plants have five major classes of hormones: Auxins, Cytokinins, Gibberellins, Abscisic acid and Ethylene.

Auxins promote stem elongation, inhibit growth of lateral buds (maintains apical dominance). They are produced
in the stem, buds, and root tips. Auxin is a plant hormone produced in the stem tip that promotes cell elongation.
Auxin moves to the darker side of the plant, causing the cells there to grow larger than corresponding cells on the
lighter side of the plant. This produces a curving of the plant stem tip toward the light, a plant movement known
as phototropism.

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 19

Auxin also plays a role in maintaining apical dominance. Most plants have lateral (sometimes called axillary)
buds located at nodes (where leaves attach to the stem). Buds are embryonic meristems maintained in a dormant
state. Auxin maintains this dormancy. As long as sufficient auxin is produced by the apical meristem, the lateral
buds remain dormant. If the apex of the shoot is removed (by a browsing animal or a scientist), the auxin is no
longer produced. This will cause the lateral buds to break their dormancy and begin to grow. In effect, the plant
becomes bushier. When a gardener trims a hedge, they are applying apical dominance. The most common auxin
found in plants is indoleacetic acid or IAA. Other examples include 1-Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and Indole-
3-butyric acid (IBA).

Cytokinins promote cell division. They are produced in growing areas, such as meristems at tip of the shoot. They
have a highly-synergistic effect in concert with auxins and the ratios of these two groups of plant hormones affect
most major growth periods during a plant's lifetime. Cytokinins counter the apical dominance induced by auxins;
they in conjunction with ethylene promote abscission of leaves, flower parts and fruits.[13] Examples of
cytokinins: adenine-type cytokinins represented by kinetin, zeatin, and 6-benzylaminopurine, and phenylurea-
type cytokinins like diphenylurea and thidiazuron (TDZ). Most adenine-type cytokinins are synthesized in roots.

Abscisic Acid promotes seed dormancy by inhibiting cell growth. It is also involved in opening and closing of
stomata as leaves wilt. It is produced in the leaves of plants, originating from chloroplasts, especially when plants
are under stress.

Gibberellins promote stem elongation. They are not produced in stem tip. Gibberellins (GAs) include a large
range of chemicals that are produced naturally within plants and by fungi. They play a major role in seed
germination, affecting enzyme production that mobilizes food production that new cells need for growth. GAs
produce bolting of rosette-forming plants, increasing internodal length. They promote flowering, cellular division,
and in seeds growth after germination. Gibberellins also reverse the inhibition of shoot growth and dormancy
induced by ABA.

Ethylene is a gas produced by ripe fruits. Why does one bad apple spoil the whole bunch? Ethylene is used to
ripen crops at the same time. Sprayed on a field it will cause all fruits to ripen at the same time so they can be
harvested. Unlike the other four classes of plant hormones, ethylene is a gas at room temperature. Ethylene is a
gas that forms from the breakdown of methionine, which is in all cells. It is produced at a faster rate in rapidly-
growing and -dividing cells, especially in darkness.

Other identified plant growth regulators include: brassinolides, salicylic acid, jasmonates, Systemin among others

BOT 101 NOTE – Prof A. M. A. Sakpere 20

BOT 101: INTRODUCTORY BOTANY 1 (3 UNITS)
FIRST SEMESTER, 2022/2023 SESSION.

TOPIC: ELEMENTS OF ECOLOGY, TYPES OF

HABITAT, AND ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION
LECTURER: DR. D. S. AKINYEMI
Department of Botany

LECTURE 1
 1.0. DEFINITION OF ECOLOGY

• Ecology is the scientific consideration of organisms

and their physical/chemical environment and the
interactions between them.

• This would imply the study of the spatial distribution

of organisms, and the interactions between the
numbers and kinds of plants and animals on the one
hand and the environmental factors on the other.

• These relations have to be considered in relation to

time as well as to space.
 DEFINITION OF ECOLOGY CONTINUED.
• In simple term, ecology could be taken to mean the
study of the relationship of organism to organism
and organism to other factors such as soil, weather
and climate or the dynamics of organisms and their
total environment.

• If we think in terms of the environment we have

abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) environment.

• The following are considered abiotic environment:

soil, water, light and temperature.
• The biotic components include the living organisms
themselves.
UNITS FOR THE STUDY OF ECOLOGY.
• The basic unit for ecological observation is usually
the individual organism- naming and describing it in
relation to its environment.

• Ecology of single organism is called Autecology.

• But often it is impracticable to consider individuals

so we can make generalizations about individuals
that are somehow related. A group of related
organisms is called a population.
• A population is individuals of the same species
living in the same area at a given time.

• In biology, a population is a group of potentially

interbreeding organisms capable of producing
fertile offspring.

• Just as an individual grows by gaining weight,

a population grows by gaining individuals.

• No population exists in isolation. Usually

populations are aggregated in a fairly uniform
and definable habitat to make a community.

• Communities are organisms found in one area

which interact among themselves.
• For instance, a forest community consists of all plants,
animals and microorganisms in the forest interacting among
themselves.

• A community is usually defined by some general habitat

features.

• Communities are aggregated (grouped) into larger unit called

ecosystem.

• Ecosystem is a group of organisms and their environment

interacting together as a system to ensure continuous flow
of energy and matter.

• All ecosystems have two types of organisms based on

carbon source. These are:
 Ecosystem components.
• (i) Producers (autotrophs) or green plants capable of
fixing light energy; and

• (ii) Consumers and decomposers (heterotrophs). are

typical, animals that feed on plant material or on
other animals; and decomposers consist of
microorganisms which breakdown organic matter
and release soluble nutrients.

• The arrangement of these biological components is

basically the same in different types of ecosystems
whether they are terrestrial or aquatic.
• Ecosystems are composed of numerous self-
sustaining communities of organisms.

• The study of natural communities is called

Synecology.

• The inter-meshing network of systems which makes

up life, together with the habitat of living things of
the earth is called biosphere.

• Thus, the biosphere is the portion of the earth and

its environment in which life exists and sustains
itself.

• It includes parts of atmosphere, hydrosphere and

lithosphere.
Thus, the five levels of ecological organization
are:
• Organism- an individual plant or animal.

• Population- group of individuals of one species.

• Community- a sum of the different populations of

species within a given area.

• Ecosystem- the sum of the communities and the

abiotic environment in an area.

• Biosphere- the sum of all ecosystems.

ENERGY FLOW AND MATERIAL OR NUTRIENT CYCLING (THE
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES)
FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB AND TROPHIC LEVELS.
Two cardinal processes proceed concurrently in
ecosystem, the movement of energy and nutrient
elements.

The former is unidirectional and non-cyclic.

The implication of decomposer mineralization activity

is that movement of nutrients is cyclic.
 FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS AND TROPHIC
LEVELS
• The transfer of food energy from the source in
plants through a series of organisms with repeated
stages of eating and being eaten is known as food
chain.

• A plant (primary producer) may be eaten by an

animal (primary consumer), which in turn may be
eaten by another animal (secondary consumer). The
latter may itself be eaten by yet a third animal
(tertiary consumer) and so on.
 Example:
• Aquatic ecosystem:
• Diatoms mosquito larvae Tilapia fish
Kingfisher bird.

• Terrestrial ecosystem:
• Plant leaf Grasshoppers Toads Snakes
Ducks Man.

• In complex natural communities organisms whose

food is obtained from plants by the same number of
steps are said to belong to the same trophic level.
The shorter the chain or the nearer the organism to the beginning
of the food chain, the greater the available energy.
Trophic level
Consumer 3 Tertiary consumer (large carnivore) 4

Consumer 2 Secondary consumer (Small carnivore) 3

Consumer 1 Primary consumer (Herbivore) 2

Producer (Green plants) 1

Sun
The trophic level of an organism describes how far it is
removed from plants in the food chain.
• Thus, green plants occupy the first trophic level (the
producer level), plant eaters (herbivores) the second
trophic level (the primary consumers), carnivores
that eat the herbivores, the third level (secondary
consumers) and perhaps even a fourth level (tertiary
consumers).

• Some consumers occupy a single trophic level but

many others occupy more than one trophic level.
• For example, many mammals, such as pigs and
humans are omnivores and also belong to several
trophic levels because they eat both plants and
animals.
 The ultimate source of the energy is the sun.
FOOD WEB.
• In nature every trophic level has more than one food
relationship.
• The same primary producer or plant material can
serve as food for different kinds of herbivores or
the same herbivore can feed on many plant species.
• These herbivores can in turn be eaten by various
kinds of carnivores.
• Thus, food chains are not isolated sequences but
are interconnected with one another.
• The interlocking pattern or complete network of
relationships found in nature is known as the food
web.
 Man

Snake Birds
Ducks
s

Lizard Beatle
Toads Squirrels
s s

Grass
Grasshoppers Greenflies
cutters

Green
Plants

A simple Terrestrial Food Web

Here the green plant may provide the leaves also as food
for squirrels, grass cutter and green flies apart from
grasshoppers.
• The squirrels and grass cutter may be eaten by
man, green flies by beetles and grasshoppers by
lizards instead of toads.
• Next the beetles and lizards may be eaten by birds,
then the birds by man.
• Implicit in the autotroph-heterotroph or producer-
consumer relationship is the direction of energy
movement through the ecosystem.
• It is unidirectional and non-cyclic.
• The explanation for the non-cyclic, unidirectional
flow of energy , however, is found in the energy
losses that occur at each transfer along the chain
and ``
• in the efficiency of energy utilization which occurs within each
link of the chain.
• One-way flow of energy constitutes a most important
if not cardinal principle of the ecosystem.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
• The chemical elements, including all the essential
elements of the protoplasm, tend to circulate in the
biosphere in characteristic paths from environment
to organisms and back to the environment.
 These more or less circular paths are known
as biogeochemical cycles.
• The movement of those elements and inorganic
compounds that are essential to life can be
designated as nutrient cycling.

• Nutrient cycling conserves the nutrient supply and

results in repeated use of nutrients in an ecosystem.

• For each cycle, it is also convenient to designate two

compartments or pools:
– (i) the reservoir pool, the large slow-moving, generally non-
biological component; and
– (ii) the exchange or cycling pool, a smaller but more active
portion that is exchanging (i.e. moving back and forth)
rapidly between organisms and their immediate
environment.
In nutrient cycling two simultaneous processes, mineralization
and immobilization are involved.

• Immobilization is the uptake of inorganic elements (nutrients)

from the soil, air or water by organisms and the conversion of
the elements into microbial or plant tissues.
• These nutrients are used for growth and are incorporated into
organic matter.
• Mineralization is the conversion of elements in organic matter
into mineral or ionic forms such as NH3+ , Ca2+ , H2PO4- , SO42-
and K+ .
• These ions then exist in the soil solution and available for
another cycle of immobilization and mineralization.
Mineralization is a relatively inefficient process in that much
of carbon is lost as CO and much of the energy escapes as
2

heat.
• This typically produces a supply of nutrients that
exceeds the needs of decomposers, the excess of
nutrients released can be absorbed by plant roots.

TYPES OF BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

• From the standpoint of the biosphere as a whole
biogeochemical cycles fall into two basic groups:
Gaseous and sedimentary cycles.
 GASEOUS CYCLES
• These cycles have a gaseous phase.
• The atmosphere constitutes a major reservoir of the
element that exists there in a gaseous phase.
• Such cycles show little or no permanent change in
the distribution and abundance of the element.
• They have self-regulating feedback mechanism that
make them relatively perfect.
• An increase in movement along one part is quickly
compensated for by adjustments along other parts.
 • Carbon and nitrogen are prime representatives
of biogeochemical cycles with a prominent
gaseous phase.
• Others are hydrogen and oxygen.
• Gaseous cycles are global in nature.

SEDIMENTARY CYCLES.
• The major reservoir is the lithosphere from which
the elements are released by weathering.
• With these cycles, there is a continual loss from
biological system in response to erosion with
ultimate deposition in the sea.
• Replacement or return of an element with a
sedimentary cycle to terrestrial ecosystem is
dependent upon such process as weathering of
rocks , addition from volcanic gases or the
biological movement from the sea to the land.
• Sedimentary cycles are less perfect and more easily
disrupted by man than gaseous cycles.

• The sedimentary types are exemplified by

phosphorus and sulphur.

• Actually sulphur has a gaseous phase but this is

insignificant in that there is no large gaseous
reservoir.
 INPUTS AND LOSS OF ELEMENTS.
• Elements are added to ecosystem through
precipitation, dust, biological fixation, weathering of
parent material and fertilizer application.

• They are lost due to drainage waters, plant and

animal harvests, soil erosion and fires.

HUMAN IMPACT ON BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES.

• Natural biogeochemical cycles are being disrupted
by a range of human activities, including land-use
changes and burning of fossil fuels.
• Humans have injected materials into the
biosphere in large quantities that have affected
the functioning of the ecosystem and have an
adverse effect on plants, animals and humans.
• These substances have affected the process by
which earth dissipates absorbed solar radiation,
leading to global warming,

• They have led to depletion of ozone layer, resulting in

greater penetration of ultraviolet radiation in the
atmosphere, and have polluted water bodies and soil,
thereby reducing the suitability of the environment for
the survival of humans and other organisms.
BOT 101: INTRODUCTORY BOTANY 1 (3 UNITS)
FIRST SEMESTER, 2022/2023 SESSION.

TOPIC: ELEMENTS OF ECOLOGY, TYPES OF

HABITAT, AND ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION
LECTURER: DR. D. S. AKINYEMI
Department of Botany

LECTURE 2
HABITAT, MICROHABITAT, ECOLOGICAL NICHE.

• Populations occupy specific places within the community.

• The place where a population lives and its surrounding, both
living and non-living, are its habitat.
• Even within a given community the distribution of certain
organisms may be quite localized because of micro differences
in moisture, light and other conditions.
• These localized areas are microhabitat.
ECOLOGICAL NICHE

• More than just occupying space, the population of each species

in the community performs some function.
• What the organism does or to say it somewhat
anthropomorphologically, its occupation in the community is
called its niche.
• Thus, ecological niche is the functional role and position of the
organism in its community.
Some species occupy a very broad ecological niche.

• They may feed on many kinds of food, plant and animal, or if

strictly herbivorous they may feed on a wide variety of plants.
• Other organisms occupy highly specialized niches.
• Organisms have arrived at their respective niches through long
periods of evolution.
• Because no two species in the community occupy the same
niche, each more or less compliments the other.
HABITATS OR ECOSYSTEMS OF THE WORLD
• The concentration of water divides the environment
into aquatic and terrestrial habitats.

• NATURAL HABITATS
Terrestrial Aquatic
(forest, grassland, desert)

Freshwater Marine
Lotic(running water) Lentic(standing water) (ocean, sea)
(River, spring, stream) (Lake, pond,swamp)
TERRESTIAL/LAND HABITATS

• Large easily recognized terrestrial community units are known as biomes.

• In a given biome the life form of the climax vegetation is uniform and is
the key to recognition.
• Thus, the dominant climax vegetation in a grassland biome is grass,
although the species of dominant grasses will vary in different
geographical regions where the grassland biome occurs.
• Other types of vegetation will be included in the biome, as for example,
“weedy” seral stages in succession, forest subclimaxes related to local
soil and water conditions, crops and other vegetation introduced by man.
Terrestrial biomes include: (1) deserts, (2) tundra, (3)
grasslands, and (4) forests.

DESERTS.
• Deserts may be caused by extreme and nearly continual cold
(arctic, antarctic, and alpine area) or by dryness as in the Sahara.

• Annual rainfall/precipitation is often less than 255 mm (10 in) or

sometimes there is more rainfall which is unevenly distributed in
the annual cycle.
 The one characteristic common to all deserts is
their aridity (dryness) throughout most or all of
the year.
• There are also extremes of temperature and low
humidity which have adverse effect upon plant and
animal life.

• Strong winds and sand storms are characteristic of

desert climates.

• What life occurs in the deserts must be adapted to

conditions that are marginal to life.

• Four very distinctive plant life forms are adapted to

the desert ecosystem.
(i) The annuals which avoid drought by growing when
there is adequate moisture.
• (ii) the desert shrub with numerous branches
arising from a short basal trunk and small thick
leaves that may be shed during dry periods.

• (iii) the succulents such as cacti which store

water in their tissues; and

• (iv) Microflora such as mosses, lichens and blue-

green algae that remain dormant in the soil but
are able to respond quickly to cool or wet periods.
 • The ultimate stress suffered by desert plants
is the dehydration of their protoplasm.
• Spacing of desert vegetation reduces competition
for scarce resources of water.

• The problems confronting desert animals are

concerned with the necessity to breathe air, to
conserve water and at the same time, to avoid,
tolerate or control extremes of temperature.

• Like plants, many desert animals evade the adverse

conditions of the desert by aestivation in a state of
suspended animation.
• The dormant state or diapause is characterized
by temporal failure of growth and reproduction,
the reduced metabolism and enhanced resistance
to heat drought and other climatic conditions.

• Animals such as reptiles and insects are “pre-adapted”

to deserts for their impervious integuments and dry
excretions enable them to get along on the small
amount of water.
• Mammals as a group are poorly adapted to deserts
but some few species have become secondarily
adapted.
• For example, camels must drink periodically but are
physiologically adapted to withstand tissue
dehydration for periods of time.
• Because water is the dominant limiting factor,
productivity of a given desert region is almost a
linear function of rainfall.
• Productivity in all desert ecosystems is low
owing to limiting factor of drought.

• Where soils are suitable, irrigation can convert

deserts into some of the most productive
agricultural land.

• Compared to other ecosystems, desert

ecosystems have been relatively unchanged by
man because man is physiologically poorly
adapted to it.
 TUNDRA
• Typical tundra is treeless.

• Long bitterly cold winters and short cool summers

above freezing point is the rule.

• During summer the ground is free of snow for a

sufficient period to permit growth of tundra
vegetation.

• A major physical factor rules tundra as in the deserts,

but it is heat rather than water that is in short supply
in terms of biological function.
• Precipitation is low but water as such is not limiting
because of the low evaporation rate.
• Tundra could be described as a wet arctic grassland or a cold
marsh that is frozen for a portion of the year.

• Tundra ecosystem forms a ring of varying width around the land

masses of the northern hemisphere.

• The vegetation is composed of lichens, grasses and sedges

which have evolved remarkable adaptations to survive the cold.
• Animals that live in the region are able to
survive the change from the cold and darkness
of winter to the warmth and light summer and
vice-versa.
• Some of them pass the winter sheltering
underground, others remain in the open taking cover
only during the worst storms.

• Nearly all the birds migrate to warmer clines before

the winter starts.

• Examples of large animals of tundra are musk ox,

caribou, reindeer, polar bears, wolves, and marine
animals to lemmings that tunnel about in the
vegetation mantle.
 FORESTS.
• Forests are vegetations dominated by woody plants
at least 5 m high with open or closed canopy from
which grass is virtually absent.

• Most of the trees are not fire-tolerant.

• They are found in areas with high rainfall and occurs

both in temperate (temperate forest) and tropical
regions (tropical forest).

• In the tropics, they range from broad-leaved

evergreen rainforest where rainfall is abundant and
distributed throughout the year to tropical deciduous
forests that shed their leaves during the dry season.
• The main plant components of tropical forests are:
– (a) Forest trees

– (b) Herbs

– (c) Climbers (vines and lianas)

– (d) Stranglers

– (e) Epiphytes

– (f) Saprophytes

– (g) Parasites.
• The animals can be divided into a number of
ecological groups according to their ways of
life.

• For instance, some mammals have acquired

arboreal habits and are adapted for climbing
trees.
• Others are terrestrial and have to be able to push
through dense undergrowth.
• Subterranean forms are relatively scarce.
• Cusorial birds are naturally less common than in
open country, but arboreal species are well
represented.
• Many of the reptiles and amphibians have become
adapted for climbing.
• Shifting cultivation has already destroyed much
of the world’s primary rain forest and in many
cases has changed the entire ecosystem.

GRASSLANDS.
• A grassland is a type of vegetation consisting
predominantly of grasses.

• Forbs (non-grassy herbaceous plants) are

important components and woody plants (trees
 • and shrubs) also occur interspersed or
widely scattered in grassland (savanna) or
often in beltsor groups along steams and
rivers in temperate regions.

• The trees are fire-tolerant.

• The principal grassland types are:
– (i). Savanna which is tropical grassland made up of a
grass stratum that is continuous and interspersed with
trees and shrubs.
– The trees are fire-tolerant
– The savanna is burnt annually.
– They occur in areas where rainfall is concentrated in a
wet season that alternate with a prolonged dry season.
(ii) Temperate grasslands consist of two types:

– (a) the steppes made up of short grasses e.g., steppes of

Eurasia.
– (b) the prairies made up of tall grasses; e.g., the prairies of
North America.
Temperate grasslands are found in temperate regions with
hot summers, cold winters and low annual rainfall.
They also occur in Africa, e.g., the veldt of South Africa and
in south America, e.g. pampas of Argentina.
• Large herbivores are a characteristic feature of
grasslands. These animals are mostly large mammals.
• The large grazers come into two life-forms: running types such
as ground antelopes and kangaroos and burrowing types such
as ground squirrels and gophers.
• When man uses grasslands as natural pastures he usually
replaces the native grazers with his domestic kind –that is cattle,
sheep and goats.
• Both savanna and temperate grasslands are subject to fires
which affect the structure of the community.
• Human activities have mostly affected grasslands
all over the world, as a result, much of the area
has been converted into agricultural land.
• Forest and savanna are the dominant terrestrial ecosystems
in Nigeria.

AQUATIC HABITATS
Aquatic habitats are divided into freshwater and marine
ecosystems defined by salinity.
FRESHWATERS
Freshwater ecosystems, the study of which is known as
Limnology , are divided into two groups: lentic or standing
water habitats (lake, pond, swamp) and lotic or running
water habitats(river, spring, stream).
• Freshwater rivers and lakes comprise innumerable bodies of
water varying in size and depth and spread across the
continents of the world.
• Most of them are comparatively isolated.

• They contain no significant amount of salt.

• The body of water is relatively small compared with oceans.

STREAMS AND RIVERS

• Rivers and streams are the mostly used by man of natural
ecosystems.
• In all parts of the world man has so extensively dammed, diked
and channelized rivers that it is getting hard to find a truly wild
river of any size.
 LAKES AND PONDS
• In the geological sense, most basins that now contain freshwater
are relatively young.

• The life span of ponds ranges from a few weeks or months in the
case of small seasonal ponds to several years for larger ponds.

• Generally speaking, the species diversity is low in freshwater

communities and many taxa (species, genera, families) are widely
distributed within continental mass.

• These ecosystems have well-defined boundaries- the shoreline, the

sides of the basin, the surface of water, and the bottom sediment.

• Within these boundaries gradations of light, oxygen, and

temperature profoundly influence life in the lake, its distribution and
its adaptation.
• Distinct zonation and stratification are
characteristic features of lakes and large
ponds.

• (i) Littoral zone or shallow water zone, is the one

in which light penetrates to the bottom-containing
rooted vegetation along shore.
• (ii) Limnetic zone of open water dominated by
plankton (phytoplankton and zooplankton). There
are also free-swimming organisms, or nekton
such as fish.
• (iii) Profundal zone-deep water zone containing
only heterotrophs.
FRESHWATER MARSHES.
• A marsh is a lowland habitat which is flooded at
all times, and in which grasses and shrubs grow.

• It represents a transition habitat between aquatic

and terrestrial habitats.

• Marshes are usually formed near rivers or other

bodies of water such as lagoons.

• The decay of organic matter takes place on a

large scale in a marsh and this causes a decrease
in oxygen content of water.
• Marshes are valuable in maintaining water tables in
adjacent ecosystems.
• Plants found in freshwater marshes include algae, water lettuce,
lemna and salvinia.
• Animals in marshes include frogs, toads as well as fishes and
birds that wade into water to feed on fish.
MARINE HABITATS
• The marine habitats contain saltwater and mainly
are the oceans. They also include inland brackish
and estuarine habitats.

• The total salt concentration of water is known as

its salinity.
• Salinity is a measure of the concentration of
dissolved salts within a body of water, usually
expressed in parts per million (ppm) by volume.

• Seawater usually has a salinity of around 35,000

ppm, about 30,000 ppm is sodium chloride (NaCl,
common salt).
• The major oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian,
and Antarctic) and their connectors and
extensions cover approximately 70% of the
earth’s surface.
• Physical factors dominate life in oceans.

• Waves, tides, currents, salinities, temperatures,

pressures and light intensities largely determine
the make up of biological communities that in
turn, have considerable influence on the
composition of bottom sediments and gases in
solution.
• The food chains of the sea begin with smallest autotrophs
(phytoplankton) and end with the largest animals (giant
fish, squid and whales).

ESTUARIES AND SEASHORES.

• The word “estuary” (from latin aestus –tide) refers to a semi-
enclosed body of water, such as a river mouth or coastal bay
where salinity is intermediate between the sea and freshwater,
and where tidal action is an important physical regulator and
energy subsidy.
• In estuary sea water mixes with freshwater to produce
brackish water.
• Estuary is a part of a band of diverse ecosystems that are
transition zones between the seas and the continents.
• The four kinds of marine inshore ecosystems are a rocky shore,
a sandy beach, an intertidal mudflat and tidal estuary.
• Thousands of adapted species that are not to be found in the
open sea, on land or in freshwater live in these ecosystems.
• Estuaries and inshore marine waters are among the
most naturally fertile in the world.
• Three major life forms of autotrophs are often intermixed in an
estuary and play varying roles in maintaining a high gross
production rate.
• These are:
– (i)Phytoplankton;
– (ii) Benthic microflora –algae living in and on mud, sand, rocks or other
hard surfaces and bodies or shells of animals; and
– (iii) Macroflora- large attached plants- the seaweeds, submerged eel
grasses, emergent marsh grasses, and in the tropics mangrove plants.
• An estuary is often an efficient nutrient trap
which enhances the capacity to absorb
nutrients in wastes provided organic matter
has been reduced by secondary treatment.

• Estuaries provide the nursery grounds (that is

place for young stages to grow rapidly) for most
coastal shellfish and fish that are harvested not
only in the estuary but offshore as well.
• Organisms have evolved many adaptations to
cope with tidal cycles, thereby enabling them to
exploit the many advantages of living in an
estuary.
• Some animals, such as fiddler crabs, have
internal ‘biological clocks’ that help to time
feeding activities to the most favorable part of
the tidal cycle.

• Estuaries occur in Rivers Ogun and Osse. River

Niger has a delta and there is an extensive lagoon
system in Lagos State.

DELTAS
• Many rivers flow eventually into the sea or a lake,
where they deposit sediment when velocity falls
below that required to keep particles in motion.
• This sediment often builds up into a delta composed
of fine-grained deposits.
• The large delta at the mouth of the river Niger is a classic
example.
• Deltas are usually very fertile areas and are extensively used for
agriculture.
• They contain good soils, have abundant water supplies available
for irrigation and –in natural rivers that are not controlled
upstream –are frequently flooded, which brings regular inputs of
nutrients and fertile silt.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
• Environmental pollution is the unfavourable alteration of our
surrounding wholly or largely as a by-product of man’s actions,
through direct or indirect effects of changes in energy patterns,
radiation levels, chemical and physical constitution and the
abundance of organisms.
• Biologists define pollution more broadly as ‘ the addition to an
environment of any
BOT 101: INTRODUCTORY BOTANY 1 (3 UNITS)
FIRST SEMESTER, 2022/2023 SESSION.

TOPIC: ELEMENTS OF ECOLOGY, TYPES OF

HABITAT, AND ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTION
LECTURER: DR. D. S. AKINYEMI
Department of Botany

LECTURE 3
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
• Environmental pollution is the unfavourable alteration of our
surrounding wholly or largely as a by-product of man’s actions,
through direct or indirect effects of changes in energy patterns,
radiation levels, chemical and physical constitution and the
abundance of organisms.
• Biologists define pollution more broadly as ‘ the addition to an
environment of any
• Material which has detrimental effect on the
ecosystem.
• By this standard, pollution could be natural rather
than man-made.
• Natural sources of pollution. Processes that
cause natural pollution involve emission of toxic
elements in the environment, such as:
• 1. Volcanic eruptions (output): SO2 and particles.
• 2. Sea spray: Salt particles

• 3. Vapour-phase outgasing of relatively volatile

elements: As, Hg, Se, Methane, (outgasing from
natural gas and coal deposits.

• 4. Re-entrainment by wind during dry weather: dust

• Forest fires: soot particles, oxides of nitrogen (NOx),

Sulphur dioxides (SO2) and other gases.
• 6. Biological processes: CO2, carbon monoxide(CO
), nitrous oxide,N2O (denitrification), methane
(from microbial fermentation in anaerobic
wetlands, smaller sources from incomplete
oxidation of organic matter during forest fires).

• 7. Radionuclides: from cosmic rays, soils and

rocks.
Anthropogenic/ made-made sources.
• Emission by human activities.
• 1. Burning of fossil fuels, wood and agricultural
burning: CO2, CO, NOX (NO, NO2), SO2, particulate
matter.

• 2. Metal mining and processing industries

(smelters, brass works, and secondary lead
plants: Heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury
etc)
• 3. Agricultural practices: pesticides, herbicides,
fertilizer and related substances.

• 4. Chemical plants and waste burning: industrial

compounds like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

• 5. Nuclear reactors and bomb tests: radionuclides.

• Pollutants originating from forest fires can be

• Classified as either natural (caused by lightning)
or anthropogenic.

• Although some natural process cause pollution,

nearly all the pollution that troubles us today is
anthropogenic- produced by man.

• Also natural pollution is usually relatively local in

extent.
Pollutants
• Pollutants are materials which when injected into
the biosphere in quantities so great they affect
the functioning of ecosystems and have adverse
on plants, animals and man.

• There are two main types of pollutants:

degradable and non-degradable.

• Degradable pollutants are broken down

completely or reduced to acceptable levels by
natural processes. Those broken down by
• by living organisms (usually specialised bacteria)
are called biodegradable pollutants. Example of
substance that are biodegradable is human
sewage.

• Others are degradable by nonbiological processes,

such as the decay f radioactive substances.

• Degradable pollutants become a problem only

when we introduce them into the environment
faster than natural processes break them down.
• Non-degradable pollutants are not broken down by
natural processes. Examples are some plastics,
mercury and lead.

• Mercury and lead are non-degradable because they

are elements and nothing short of a nuclear
physics laboratory can break down an element.

• Plastics tend to be non-degradable because they

are artificial substances that have not been around
for very long and living
• Organisms that can feed on them have not yet
evolved.

• The trouble with non-degradable pollutants is that

the only way to keep them out of the environment is
not to release them in the first place or to remove
them once they have been released. Both tend to
be very expensive solutions.

• Three factors determine how severe the effects of

a pollutant will be.
• 1. Its chemical nature-how active and harmful it is
to specific types of organisms.

• 2. Its concentration-the amount per unit volume of

air, water, soil or body weight.

• One way to reduce concentration of a pollutant is

to dilute it by adding it to a large volume of air r
water. Until we started overwhelming the air and
water ways with inputs of pollution, dilution was
the solution to pollution. Now it
• Is only a partial solution.

• 3 A pollutant’s persistence –how long it stays in the

air, water, soil and our bodies. Degradable or non-
persistent pollutants are broken down completely
or reduced to acceptable levels by natural, physical,
chemical and biological processes.

• A major problem is that many of the substances or

products we have made and introduced into
• into the environment in large quantities often takes decades or
longer to degrade).

• Examples are slowly degradable or persistent pollutants are

insecticides, DDT, most plastics, aluminium cans,
chloroflurocarbons (CFCs).
Types of Pollution: Air Pollution
• The atmospheric composition is N2=78.08%,
O2=20.95%, Argon= 0.93%, CO2=0.035%,
Neon=0.0018%, helium=0.005%,
Krypton=0.0001%.

• Air pollution covers those pollutants that are

emitted into the atmosphere (usually from land)
as gases and particulates which then directly or
indirectly, degrade or adversely affect physical
and biological systems.
• The addition of these unwanted airborne matter
changes the composition of the earth’s
atmosphere, possibly harming life and altering
materials.

• Air pollutants range from visible particles such as

smoke and dust to invisible and odourless gases
such as carbon monoxide.

• In the atmosphere pollutants may move from dry

gaseous phase into a liquid phase falling to the
surface.
• The most important gaseous pollutants are
sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
oxides of N (NO, N2O, NO2), ammonia (NH3)
carbon monoxide (CO) carbon dioxide (CO2)
methane (CH4) ozone (O3) and peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN).

• In addition, there are pollutant vapour of

hydrocarbons and elemental mercury and
particulates with small diameter
• (<µm) that behave aerodynamically like gases and
remain suspended in the atmosphere fo a long
time.

• Gaseous air pollutants may separated into primary

and secondary forms. Primary air pollutants like
SO2, most nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and
unburnt hydrocarbons (HCs) are emitted directly
into the atmosphere and have a direct effect
immediately on release into the environment
• . Secondary air pollutants, such as ozone and
peroxyalkyl nitrites (PANs) are formed later by
atmospheric reaction involving primary air
pollutants and strong light.

• Once injected into the atmosphere, air pollutants

enter the biogeochemical cycles by various
routes.

• Fine particulate matter and gaseous substances

may be carried by atmospheric currents to points
far removed from the source.
• . A portion reaches land as dry fallout, it may
enter nutrient cycles and food chains through
water and soil.

• Other contaminants react chemically and

photochemically with each other and produce
such secondary pollutants as sulphuric acid and
ozone.

• Aerosols and other forms of fine particulate

matter act as condensation nuclei and return to
earth as rainfall.
Automobile Exhaust and Photochemical
smog.
• One of the most persistent forms of air pollution
which is difficult to control is automobile exhaust.
• Automobile exhaust contains carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2) hydrocarbons and in the
case of leaded gas, particulate lead. Carbon
monoxide combines with haemoglobin in human
blood to form carboxyhaemoglobin which impairs
oxygen transport.
• Nitrogen (NO, NO2) and hydrocarbons (methane,
ethane, toluene) are primary components of
photochemical smog which forms when sunlight
activates chemical reactions of these compounds
with oxygen.

• Photooxidative reactions are complex involving the

conversion of nitrogen oxide (NO), water,
hydrocarbons (such as methane, CH4, ethane, C2H6,
Toluene, C7H9 etc)
• and oxygen and nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
peroxyacetyl nitrate or PAN (C2H3O5N)and ozone.

• The latter two products of photochemical smog ,

PAN and Ozone are reported in air pollution data
as total oxidants-they are very reactive
compounds which are injurious to human health
above certain concentrations
• and they also have other harmful ecological
effects including damage to vegetation and
agricultural crops.

• Lead, another pollutant from automobile has long

term environmental pollution effect.

• Significant concentrations of lead have been

found in rainfall.
Air Pollution’s Effect On Weather,
Climate and Atmospheric Process
• Two world wide problems of air pollution involue
contamination of the upper atmosphere and
alteration of weather and climate by air pollutants.

• 1. There is no doubt that pollution and population

concentrations influence local weather patterns.
Since local rainfall patterns are altered by the
distribution and abundance of particulate nuclei in
lower atmosphere ,
• There is a significant increase in precipitation in
and around cities that is due to pollution.

• 2.There is also the possibility that air pollution

affects weather on a continental or global basis.

• Many gaseous pollutants and fine aerosols reach

the atmosphere where they have basic effects on
the penetration and absorption of sunlight.
• And Increasing particulate concentration/loading
of the atmosphere .

• Many gaseous pollutants and fine aerosols reach

the upper atmosphere where they have basic
effects on the penetration and absorption of
sunlight.

• Some scientists feel that increasing particulate

pollution may be reducing the amount of sunlight
energy reaching the earth’s surface, thereby
lowering
• solar radiation at the earth’s surface and
producing a cooling effect on world climate
which could ultimately trigger another ice age.
BOT 101: INTRODUCTORY BOTANY 1 (3 UNITS)
FIRST SEMESTER, 2022/2023 SESSION.

TOPIC: ELEMENTS OF ECOLOGY, TYPES OF

HABITAT, AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
LECTURER: DR. D. S. AKINYEMI

Department of Botany

LECTURE 4
B. Global warming: ‘greenhouse
effect’
• A potential important consequence of increasing
concentration of radiatively active trace gases
CO2, methane, (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)and tropospheric
ozone (O3) called ‘greenhouse’ gases in the
earth’s atmosphere is that of global warming due
to the process called the greenhouse effect.

• The warming phenomenon is caused by

interference with the process
 • by which the earth disspiates absorbed
solar radiation. Greenhouse gases are

• transparent to incoming shortwave radiation but absorb and

trap longwave radiation emitted by the earth’s surface.
• Thus, the equilibrium temperature of the earth is greater as a
result of these gases and will increase with continuing increases
in atmospheric concentrations of selected greenhouse gases
due to human activities. When high energy solar radiation
(mainly visible and UV) enters the atmosphere,
• some are immediately reflected back into space
by clouds, etc. but when about half reaches the
earth’s surface, most of this is reflected back as
lower energy longwave infra red (IR) radiation.

• The presence of these radiatively active gases

(greenhouse gases) in the atmosphere obstructs
this reradiated longwave (IR) radiation from
traveling out to space.

• A small proportion of this is reradiated

• energy (10%) passes directly out into space but
the main component is absorbed by the
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

• They then reradiate a proportion of this absorbed

infrared energy in all directions, some out to
space and some back to earth’s surface (directly
by solar radiation and indirectly by reradiated IR).

• Thus the greenhouse effect is the warming of the

earth’s surface and
• atmosphere due to the retention of heat by
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

• This process is called ‘greenhouse’ effect because

its physical mechanism is similar to the one by
which a glass enclosed space is heated, that is, the
encasing glass and humid atmosphere of a
greenhouse are transparent to incoming radiation
but they absorb much of the outgoing longwave
• Infrared radiation and slow down the radiative
cooling of the interior.

• One dramatic effect will be a partial melting of

the world’s great polar ice-caps which will cause
the sea level to rise. The rise in sea level will
cause coastal cities around the world to be
submerged.

• Another effect of the rising sea level will be

flooding and disappearance of coastal
• Wetlands such as marshes and mangrove
swamps. These wet wetlands are home to
innumerable species of birds and they are vital to
the survival of sea food species such as oysters,
shrimps, crabs and many species of fish.

• They also serve an important role in breaking

down pollutants that wash down rivers from
further inland. Without them, we shall lose much
of our seafood, many species
• of plants and animals and much of our ability to
protect ocean from pollution.
Ozone layer Depletion
• Ozone serves as a ultraviolet shield. AS such it
helps to protect organisms on earth’s surface from
deleterous effects of UV radiation.

• Another potential problem in the upper atmosphere

is the accumulation of fluorocarbons (Halocarbons)
known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) or
Chlorofluoromethanes (CFMs). These compounds
with commercial name of ‘freon’
• are widely used as aerosol propellants,
refrigerants (refrigerator coolants) , foam blowing
agents, for the production of insulation and
packing materials etc., solvents to clean
electronic components or to thin and strip paints
or medically as anaesthetics or for spray
inhalants for treatment of asthmatics and angina
pectoris attacks.

• They are inert in normal chemical reactions

• and there seems to be no known chemical and
physical process by which they are removed from
the lower atmosphere.

• They become widely dispersed in the upper

atmosphere (stratosphere) and accumulate in
significant levels at high altitudes.

• In the stratosphere (layer of atmosphere air about

10-60 km above the earth’s surface) these inert
gaseous compounds release chlorine
• atoms under the influence of intense shortwave
ultraviolet reaction.

• Each atom of chlorine then chain reactions with

more than 100,000 molecules of ozone,
converting ozone to oxygen.

• This reduction in stratospheric ozone (known as

ozone layer depletion) permits greater
penetration of ultraviolent light which intensifies
the UV radiation at the earth’s surface. Some
scientists feel that this
• intensified radiation will cause a significant
increase in skin cancer and eventually a lethal
effect on many organisms including man.

• Ozone can also be consumed by other reactions

including a ultraviolet photodissociation and
reaction with trace gases such as NOX, N2O and
ions or simple molecules of fluorine.

• The protective ozone layer of stratosphere is also

considered to be
• endangered by supersonic jets (SSJs). The jet
engines of supersonic aircraft flying at high
altitudes release nitrogen oxides which
catalytically destroy ozone molecules.
Water Pollution
• Water pollution is man-made alteration of
chemical, physical or biological quality of water
which results in an unacceptable depreciation of
the utility or environmental value of the water
(Hester, 1986).

• Or it refers to any type of aquatic contamination

between two extremes(i) a highly enriched over
productive biotic community, such as a river or
lake enriched
• with nutrients from sewage or fertilizer or (2). a
body of water poisoned by toxic chemicals which
eliminate organisms or even all forms of life.

• Water pollution occurs in several ways

• 1. Physical pollution: takes place when solid

debris is put into steams, smothering life on the
stream-bed or when relatively hot water from
factories and power stations is
• discharged into a river. The rise in temperature of
the river water lowers the available dissolved
oxygen which supports life critical for the self-
purification processes taking place in the river.

• 2. Biological pollution arises when living things

are added to water, for example, human disease-
causing organisms of faecal origin in sewage
effluent. Discharges of biodegradable,
• organic chemicals may upset the natural balance
of organisms in a stream, promote excessive
growth and lower oxygen levels to critical levels.

• 3. Chemical pollution is the addition of chemical

contaminants to water. The major cause is the
discharge of waste water from urban areas. Other
important sources are spillage of oil and industrial
chemicals,
• disposal of sludge to the sea, disposal of solid
wastes and landfill sites and use of fertilizers and
pesticides in agriculture.
Eutrophication: Effects of
Excessive Nutrients in Water
• Eutrophication is the natural enrichment of
aquatic system. It is a natural state in many lakes
and ponds with a rich supply of nutrients.

• It occurs as part of the aging process in lakes and

ponds as nutrients accumulate through natural
succession. The aging process involves some
filling by inert materials such as sand, rock and
gravel. This occurs when a geological young
unproductive
• water body gradually increases in productivity as
nutrients accumulate over time as the basin
becomes shallow due to sedimentation. Lakes
or water body undergoing natural eutrophication
generally have water quality adequate for most
human uses, as well as a healthy, diverse
biological community, through much of their
existence.

• Such water bodies are commonly described as

OLIGOTROPHIC.
• Eutrophication or cultural eutrophication becomes
excessive , however, when abnormally high
amounts of nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus,
from sewage, fertilizer, animal wastes and
detergents enter steams and lakes, causing
excessive growth of microorganisms and aquatic
vegetation.

• This can cause adverse water quality conditions.

These adverse conditions, in turn interfere
• significantly with human uses of water
resource. This is characteristic of a ‘EUTROPHIC’
water body and is often termed ‘CULTURAL
EUTROPHICATION’ to distinguish it from the
natural process.

• The term ‘MESOTROPHIC’ describes an

intermediate condition between the two extremes
of oligotrophic and eutrophic.
• The most conspicuous symptom of
• eutrophication is large increase in standing crop
of phytoplankton, known as ‘ALGAL BLOOM’.
Usually there is a change in algal species
composition. In shallow water body, there may be
also a vigorous growth of vascular plants.

• The most widely accepted cause of cultural

eutrophication is excessive nutrient loading
particularly nitrogen and phosphorus from
• sewage, fertilizer, animal wastes and detergents
which enter lakes and streams. Ammonia
nitrogen, nitrites, nitrates and phosphates
stimulate algal growth and lead to plankton
blooms.

Effects of Eutrophication in Water Body

• i. Production of odours and tastes and toxic
metabolic products in water.
• Plankton blooms, particularly those of blue
• Green algae produce obnoxious odours and
tastes in water. Others such as dinoflagellate
blooms or ‘red tide’ produce toxic metabolic
products which can result in major fish kills.

• 2. Depletion of dissolved oxygen in water

• Plankton blooms of green algae do not always
produce undesirable odours or toxic products but
can still create problems of oxygen supply in
water. While these blooms exist under
• abundant sunlight, they contribute oxygen to the
water through photosynthesis but under
prolonged cloudiness they begin to die and decay
and consume more oxygen than they produce,
leading to oxygen depletion in the water causing
kills of fish and other biota.

• This occurs when dissolved oxygen declines

rapidly from favourable levels of 10 to 12 ppm
to levels of 2 or 3 ppm at which point fish begin
to die.
• Excessive levels of iron, manganese and
fowl-smelling hydrogen sulphide in bottom
waters may also occur as a result of oxygen
depletion.
• 3. Impairment of fishing, bathing, fish spawning
and navigation.

• Excessive nutrient levels in aquatic systems can

cause other kind of ecologic consequence. They
may lead to extensive growth of aquatic
• water weeds such as water hyacinth and many
others which have become a worldwide problem.

• Excessive growth of these weeds can impair

fishing, bathing, fish spawning and navigation and
thus represent a major economic problem as well
as a complete disruption of aquatic ecology.
• 4. Negative aesthetic impacts: Excessive algae
and aquatic plant growths highly visible and
• can detract significantly from aesthetic quality of
a water body.

• With dense quantities of algae in a lake or

reservoir the transparency of the water is greatly
reduced and the water body can acquire
undesirable ‘pea-soup’ green colour.

• Excessive algal densities can also interfere

significantly with swimming and other
recreational activities. Large ‘mats’ of dead algae
can accumulate on beaches and
• with negative aesthetic impacts.

• 5. Potential negative health impacts.

• There also are potential negative health impacts,

especially in tropical and subtropical regions.
• Cultural eutrophication can aggravate the
occurrence of parasitic diseases such as
schistosomiasis, onchocerciasis and malaria by
enhancing the habitats of the organisms
responsible for their transmission to humans.
• These characteristics adversely
affect the multiple use of water body for such
purposes as drinking, a fishery, recreation and
aesthetics.
• Eutrophication of water bodies does have some
positive aspects. For example in some countries,
controlled eutrophication is used to enhance fish
production and other forms of aquaculture.

• In such cases the management goal is to

maximise this productivity with a minimum cost
and effort.
Pesticide Contamination
• Pesticides (biocides) are substances that used to
protect humans against the insect vectors of
disease causing pathogens, to protect crop,
plants and livestock from disease and
degradation by fungi, insects, mites and rodents.

• The most widely used types of

pesticides are insecticides (insect killers)
herbicides (weed killers) fungicides (fungus
killers and rodenticides (rodent killers).
• They have proved beneficial to human
populations, reducing, eliminating insects and
other animals which transmit diseases, destroy
agricultural crops, damage homes and stored
products and directly or indirectly affect human
health and welfare.

• Ecologically, however, pesticides have created

major problems which were not anticipated.
• 1. Persistence and accumulation in the
• Environment.
• In the first place many of them have persisted
and accumulated in the environment and have
harmed or contaminated numerous animals or
plants not intended to be targets.

• Pesticides not reaching target pests end up in

the soil, surface water, bottom sediments, food
and non-target organisms. Concentrations of fat
soluble, slowly degradable insecticides such as
• DDT, PCBs and other chlorinated hydrocarbons
can be biologically amplified thousands to
millions of times in food chain and webs. There is
also disruption of such ecological processes as
productivity and nutrient cycling.

• 2. Affected human health

• Secondly many of them have directly or indirectly
affected human health. The World Health
Organization estimates that each year
• about three million people are poisoned by
pesticides, and 5000 to 20000 of them die. At
least half of those poisoned and 75% of those
killed are farm workers from Less Developed
Countries, where educational levels are low,
warnings are few and pesticides regulation and
control methods are lax or non-existent.

• Accidents and unsafe practices in pesticide

plants can expose workers, their families and
•
• sometimes the general public to harmful levels of
pesticides or chemicals used in their
manufacture.

• A percentage of the food bought in the markets

has levels of residues of one or more of the
active ingredients used in pesticides that are
above level limit.

• 3. Development of genetic resistance

• Thirdly, many pest species especially insects
• can develop genetic resistance to a chemical
poison through natural election. Most pest
species –especially insects and disease
organisms can produce a large number of
similarly resistant offspring in a short time.

• When an area is sprayed with a pesticide, a few

organisms in a large population of a particular
species usually survive because they have genes
that make them resistant or
• immune to a specific pesticide. With repeated
spraying each succeeding generation contains a
higher percentage of resistant organisms.

• Thus, eventually, widely used pesticides

(especially insecticides) fail because of genetic
resistance, in fact, widespread use usually leads
to even larger populations of pest species ,
especially insects with large numbers of
offspring and short generation time.
• In temperate regions, most insects develop
genetic resistance to a chemical poison within 5
to 10 years, it happens much sooner in tropical
areas. Weeds and plant –disease organisms also
develop genetic resistance but not as quickly as
most insects.

• Because of genetic resistance, most widely used

insecticides no longer protect people from insect
transmitted diseases in many
• parts of the world leading to even more serious
out breaks of diseases.

• There is now abundant evidence that many

chlorinated hydrocarbons used in agricultural and
public health programme as pesticide are lethal
to a variety aquatic and terrestrial organisms in
small doses.

• Our present systems of agriculture and disease

control require pesticides but it is now
• imperative that ecological safer control systems
be developed and utilized.

• A sudden withdrawal of their use now would

certainly be damaging to agricultural production
and public health. Yet their continued
indiscriminate use is ecologically damaging to the
total environment.

• We must therefore find new methods of insect and

disease control which are less dangerous to the
total
• environment and more selective in their effects.

Alternative methods to use of pesticides

• 1. Biological control: Use of natural predators,
parasites, competitors and other biological
control to regulate pest populations.
• 2. Genetic control:
• i. Autocidal control: One method of genetic
• sterile organisms (autocidal control). This is the
release of great numbers of the pest species that
have been sterilized by gamma rays or chemicals
so that they mate with no progeny and exhaust the
reproductive capacity of their fertile wild mates.

• It is used for insect pests. However, difficulties

associated with large scale deployment of partially
sterile males renders autocidal control impractical
on a large scale.
• ii Resistant crop breeding. Genetic control is
achieved by breeding crop plants and animals
that are more resistant to pests which can be
produced by breeding techniques and also using
modern, high tech genetic engineering
techniques.

• iii. Integrated pest Management. The overall aim

of Integrated Pest Management is not
• eradication but keeping pest populations just
below the size at which they cause economic
loss.

• Within the context of Integrated Pest

Management (IPM), an acceptable pest control is
achieved by employing an array of
complementary approaches. If successfully
implemented, an IPM programme can greatly
reduce but not necessarily eliminate the reliance
on pesticides. It minimizes the hazard
• human health, wildlife and the environment from
the widespread use of chemical pesticides.

• An important component of IPM is the use of

procedures that are as pest specific as possible,
so that non-target damage can be avoided or
reduced.