+ 2

Wireless Systems are Different!

nPhysical layer is not really “physical”

Lecture 2 n High error rates compared to copper/fibre

Overview of Wireless Systems (1) nEnd devices are not fixed

n Mobility makes protocols more complicated

nPower is a big issue

n Devices run on battery power, have small size,
and limited capabilities

+ 3
+ 4

PHY Layer Issues Spectrum Regulation (1)

n The radio channel is harsh n Spectrum Regulation

n Cables and wires have “predictable” and time-invariant n The medium of transmission is air
transmission characteristics n The medium cannot be easily duplicated and it must be shared by ALL
n The radio channel is dynamic and harsh (High error rates need applications
mitigation) n Communications, broadcast, emergency services, television, military,
etc.
n Examples of problems
n Fading n Sharing is achieved by allocating separate “bands” of spectrum to
n Multipath dispersion users of different applications
n Signal attenuation due to rain or snow n Broadcast radio: 520-1605.5 kHz – AM Radio
n Interference (again!) n Broadcast radio: 87.5 – 108 MHz – FM Radio
n A band of spectrum refers to a range of electromagnetic frequencies
n Coverage
n The FCC regulates the spectrum allocated to applications
n Effect on protocols
Show spectrum allocation chart
+ 5
+ 6

Spectrum Regulation (2) MAC layer Issues + Network

Design & Deployment
n There is LIMITED spectrum for different applications n MAC layer issues
n The frequency bands are not “contained” as in the case of wired n Shared “broadcast” medium
transmissions n Need for a simple medium access mechanism
n There is some interference between signals transmitted in one frequency n Performance
band and another
n Throughput, delay and QoS
n Same thing is true if you choose to split the band for an application (think
AM)
n Network design and deployment
n Capacity is limited and we need novel methods to improve capacity n No single type of wireless access is available everywhere
n SUMMARY n Spectrum is scarce
n Spectrum and hence bandwidth is limited n Coexistence, interference, planning
n Radio transmissions can cause interference n Frequency reuse and cellular topology

+ 7
+ 8

Radio Resource Management & Mobility Management

Power Management
n Resource limitations n Wireless devices are popular n In wired communications the
because they do not need to be “address” of the device identifies its
n Radio resources – link “quality” varies substantially over time and space tethered to a place like wired location – this is no longer true with
n Power: devices wireless devices
n A mobile device relies on battery power
n Wireless devices are continuously n A moving device will “see” a harsher
n Transmissions consume energy! changing locations channel!
n The transmission scheme MUST be efficient in terms of energy n The connectivity changes
consumption n Mobility management
n Devices may move out of
n Computation: The device cannot perform complex operations like a wired coverage of a service n Location management
device n Someone should keep track of n Tracking where a MS is
where the device is to deliver n Handoff management
n Radio resource and power management information to it
n Routing calls/packets as a MS
n Assignment of radio channels and transmit power n Someone should make sure that moves
Admission control, power control and handoff decision the connection is not broken as a
n n Routing in ad hoc networks
wireless device moves
n Database issues
+ 9
+ (Class Focus) 10

Operations and Security Summary – I

n Management and Security n Service discovery and data n Spectrum is scarce

n Mobile end host is no longer management
confined to the home network n We need to squeeze as many data bits as possible in a
n Wireless links can be easily
n Sensors and RF-IDs given bandwidth
“tapped” How is data maintained?
n
n The more data bits you squeeze in the more stringent
n Fraud
n Accounting and billing
n Where should data reside? are the system requirements
n Conflicts with other issues
n How can it be efficiently n Example: Squeezing in more data => larger signal to
accessed? noise ratio requirement => larger transmit power =>
n Network operations and
management
lower battery life
n Accounting and billing to charge n Example: multipath dispersion is not a problem at low
subscribers correctly data rates
n Access to resources and services
on the network n Example: complex processing can result in large form
factor

+ (Class Focus) 11
Mostly Circuit Switched
12

Summary - II 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s

4G LTE-Advanced

Wide Area Networks

1G Analog 2G Digital TDMA/ 3G Cellular OFDMA/MIMO
FM/FDMA CDMA CDMA
4G LTE

n Physical layer makes wireless communications

OFDMA/MIMO
Independent Cellular Overlay
Mobile Data CDPD

unreliable and erroneous

4G WiMax
OFDMA/MIMO

n Contributes greatly to the complexity of the system Local and Personal Area Networks
Circuit Switched
n Impacts all other aspects of a wireless system
Analog Cordless Digital Cordless DSS/FHSS
Phone FM/FDMA TDMA DECT - TDMA

n Fundamentally different from wired networks WLAN IEEE 802.11b IEEE 802.11a/g IEEE 802.11n
CCK/DSSS OFDM OFDM/MIMO

n Resource issues IEEE 802.11

DSSS/FHSS

n Mobility issues
IEEE 802.15.3 60 GHz Gigabit
UWB/OFDM/DSSS UWB
IEEE 802.15.1

n Network design issues

WPAN Bluetooth/FHSS
IEEE 802.15.4 IEEE 802.15.6
PSTN Access Zigbee/DSSS BAN

Internet Access
+ 13
+ 14

Circuit switched voice call First Generation Cellular Systems

Alice
(simplified)
Circuit
IXC-A’s n Goal: Provide basic voice service to mobile users over large
Network area
IXC – A’s
IXC – A’s POP
POP n 1 G Systems developed late 70’s early 80’s, deployed in 80’s
Central n Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) - USA
Office Tandem Central
Tandem n Total Access Communications Systems (TACS) - UK
Office Office
Office n Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) System – Scandinavian PTTs
… Central n C450 - W. Germany
… Office IXC – B’s
IXC – B’s n NTT System - Nippon Telephone & Telegraph (NTT) – Japan
POP
POP IXC-B’s n Incompatible systems using different frequencies!
Network
Make this n Have similar characteristics though
wireless &
POP = Point of Presence OR
mobile

+ 15
+ 16

1G Cellular (voice) Standards Duplexing Modes

Show RF Spectrum Allocation Chart

Standard Downlink Uplink Channel Multiple Region Comments n Simplex – one way communication (e.g., broadcast AM)
(MHz) (MHz) Spacing Access
AMPS 869-894 824- 30 kHz FDMA USA FM & FSK n Duplex – two way communication
849 Modulation n TDD – time division duplex
TACS 935-960 890-915 25 kHz FDMA EC Later, bands n Users take turns on the frequency channel
allocated to n FDD – frequency division duplex
GSM
n Users get two channels – one for each direction of
ETACS 917-950 872-905 25 kHz FDMA UK communication
n For example one frequency channel for uplink (mobile to base
NMT-450 463-467.5 453-457.5 25 kHz FDMA EC station) another frequency channel for downlink (base station
to mobile)
NMT-900 935-960 890-915 12.5 kHz FDMA EC
n Half-duplex
JTACS 860-870 & 915-925 + 25/12.5 FDMA Japan n As in 802.11, a device cannot simultaneously be transmitting
others kHz and receiving
+ 17
+ 18

Uplink and Downlink Example: AMPS

45 MHz

824 849 869 894

Uplink Band Downlink Band
MHz MHz MHz MHz

n The linkfrom the mobile

Up
lin
ko
to the tower is called the 30 kHz

rR
ev
“uplink”

ers
eC
Block A Block B

ha
n Sometimes called the

nn
el
“reverse” channel 21 Control & 395
Voice Channels

n The link
from the tower to n Voice channels occupy 30 kHz and use frequency modulation (FM)

Do
the mobile is called the

wn
lin
n 25 MHz is allocated to the uplink and 25 MHz for the downlink

ko
“downlink”

rF
orw
n 12.5 MHz is allocated to non-traditional telephone service providers (Block
n Sometimes called the

ard
A)

Ch
“forward” channel

an
12.5 MHz / 30 kHz = 416 channels

ne
n

l
n 395 are dedicated for voice and 21 for control

+ 19
+ 20

What does “Channel Spacing” Modulation and demodulation:

mean? Pictorial View
n A frequency carrier (sinusoid) with modulation has
Analog or Digital Baseband
a certain “bandwidth” Data Signal Signal Analog
n This bandwidth varies across technologies and systems 101101001 Generation Modulation Radio Transmitter

n Logically, you can think of

it as a slice or chunk of
0.6

Radio
0.4

0.2

spectrum occupied by a signal Carrier

0

−0.2

−0.4

n Physically, it is more complicated

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
4
x 10

n Multiple carriers are used in all wireless systems Baseband Analog or digital
n The “separation” between the frequencies of the Analog
Signal
Synchronization data
carriers = “channel spacing Demodulation Decision 101101001 Radio Receiver

n This is also roughly equal to the bandwidth of the

0.6

Radio
0.4

signal
0.2

Carrier
0

−0.2

−0.4

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2

4
x 10
+ 21
+ 22

What is Modulation? Terminology - Sinusoid

n Basic Idea n Period (T) - amount of time it takes for one repetition of
n Convert digital or analog information to a waveform the signal
n Waveform is suitable for transmission over a given medium n T = 1/f
n Process n Phase (f) - measure of the relative position in time within
n Involves varying some parameter of a carrier wave as a function of the a single period of the signal
“information”
n Carrier = sinusoidal waveform at a given frequency
n Wavelength (l) - physical distance occupied by a single
n After modulation, signal has a “bandwidth”
cycle of the signal
n Or, the distance between two points of corresponding phase
n Information of two consecutive cycles
n Usually contained in a message signal at baseband that is either
analog or digital n For electromagnetic waves in air or free space, l = cT =
c/f where c is the speed of light
n General sinusoid A cos (2pf t + j) C

Phase
Amplitude Frequency

+ 23
+ 24

The sinusoid – A cos(2pft +f) The sinusoid continued

cos(2⇡t) cos(2⇡ ⇥ 2 ⇥ t)
2
2
More
cycles
n General sinusoid wave
1 1

0 0
n s(t) = A cos(2pft + f)

n Previous slide shows the effect of varying each of the

-1 -1

three parameters
Amplitude

-2
-2
-1 0 1 2 3 4 -1 0 1 2 3 4

2 cos(2⇡t) cos(2⇡t + ⇡/4) n A = 1, f = 1 Hz, f = 0 => T = 1s

n Increased peak amplitude; A=2
2
2

Shift from origin

1 1
n Increased frequency; f = 2 => T = 1/2
0 0 n Phase shift; f = p/4 radians (45°)

n Note: 2p radians = 360° = 1 period

-1 -1

-2 -2
-1 0 1 2 3 4 -1 0 1 2 3 4

time
+ 25
+ 26

Why Modulate? Analog Modulation

n Support medium characteristics n Example: n Message signal (baseband) is analog: we have

n 900 MHz RF signal
n Antenna size n l = 3 ´ 108 /9 ´ 108 = 1/3 m = 33.3 three types of modulation
cm
n Usually the size of an antenna
n Antenna is 33.3 / 4 = 8.3 cm long n Amplitude modulation (AM)
is proportional to the
wavelength n Interference rejection
n Vary the amplitude with the analog baseband
n Typical antenna size = l/4 n Some modulation schemes are signal
Smaller wavelengths => more robust than others in the
n Frequency modulation (FM)
n
smaller antennas presence of interference
n Compare AM and FM
n Vary the frequency with the analog baseband
n Example: n Multiplexing signal
n 3000 Hz baseband signal n Signals can be moved to a
different part of the spectrum n Phase modulation (PM)
n l = 3 ´ 108/3 ´ 103 = 105 m
n Antenna is 100 km / 4 = 25 km n Simplify circuitry n Vary the phase with the analog baseband signal
= 15.6 miles long

+ 27
+ 28

FM in Wireless Systems Centralized Multiple Access

Techniques
n Frequency modulation was employed in 1G analog cellular n FDMA (frequency division multiple access)
Separate spectrum into non-overlapping frequency bands
telephone systems n

n Assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a receiver

n AMPS (30 kHz channels) n Different users share use of the medium by transmitting on non-overlapping frequency bands
n JTACS (25 kHz channels) at the same time
n NMT n TDMA (time division multiple access):
n Assign a fixed frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a receiver for a
n One channel carried one voice call certain amount of time (users share a frequency channel in time slices)
n Uplink or downlink
n CDMA (code division multiple access):
Assign a user a unique code for transmission between sender and receiver, users transmit on
n Reason for selecting FM n
the same frequency at the same time
n More robust to interference and fading compared to AM
n Capture effect was useful and forms the basis for the original n OFDMA (orthogonal frequency division multiple access):
frequency reuse design n Advanced form of FDMA/TDMA
+ 29
+ 30

Multiple Access OFDMA

n Flexibleresource
FDMA TDMA CDMA allocation in time

frequency
and frequency
MS 8 MS 7 MS 8
user 3
n Unit ofallocation:
MS 7 MS 3
MS 6
MS 6 MS 2
guard band
“Physical Resource
guard time

guard time
frequency

frequency

frequency
MS 5
user 2
2
1,2,3 3 MS 4 MS 3
guard band Blocks”
user 1

user 2

user 3
MS 3 MS 1
MS 2
user 1 3 1 subcarrier MS 2
n LTE
Downlink, MS 1
time time time
WiMax uplink and
time

Slot

Wireless systems often use a combination of downlink

schemes; GSM – FDD/FDMA/TDMA

+ 31
+ 32

FDMA FDD/FDMA - general scheme, example

AMPS (B block)
f
893.97MHz
n FDMA – simplest and oldest method 799

n Band of width F is divided into T non-overlapping frequency

channels 355 30 kHz
880.65 MHz
n Guard bands minimize interference between channels
20 MHz
n Each station is assigned a different frequency
849.97 MHz 799
n Can be inefficient if more than T stations want to transmit or
traffic is bursty
n Results in unused bandwidth and delays 835.65 MHz 355
t
n Receiver requires high quality filters for adjacent channel
rejection
f(c) = 825,000 + 30×(channel number) kHz <- uplink
n Used in First Generation Cellular (AMPS, NMT, TACS) f(c) = f uplink + 45,000 kHz <- downlink

In general all systems use some form of FDMA

+ 33
+ 34

2G Cellular Systems (voice) GSM: Global System of Mobile

Communications
n Motivation for 2G Digital Cellular n A heterogeneous analog cellular implementation was observed
n Increase System Capacity in Europe in the 1980s
n Add additional services/features n United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, Austria: TACS (900 MHz)
n SMS, caller ID, etc. n Scandinavia, Germany, The Netherlands, Spain: NMT (450 MHz,
900 MHz)
n Reduce Cost
n France: Radiocom
n Improve Security
n Interoperability among components/systems n 1987: 12 Member countries sign MOU for a common standard
n GSM only
n ETSI: European Telecommunications Standards Institute in
n Main 2G Systems 1989 took over the standardization of all cellular telephony in
n North American TDMA (NA-TDMA) (IS-136) Europe
n Global System for Mobile (GSM) n Strongly influenced by ISDN
n IS-95 (cellular CDMA) n Signaling System 7

+ 35
+ 36

2G Standards Digital Modulation (1)

System/Parameter IS-54/IS-136 JDC GSM IS-95 n Changing the parameters of a sinusoid is called “shift keying” if
information is digital
Region USA Japan Europe, Asia etc. USA/Asia n Types
Multiple access TDMA/FDMA/FDD TDMA/FDMA/FDD TDMA/FDMA/FDD CDMA/FDMA/FDD n Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
/duplex
n Amplitude difference of carrier
Channels/carrier 3 3 8 Variable n Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
Channel spacing 30 kHz 25 kHz 200 kHz 1.25 MHz n Frequency difference near carrier frequency
Uplink 824-849 MHz 810-826 MHz 890-915 MHz 824-849 MHz n Phase-shift keying (PSK)
n Phase of carrier signal shifted
Downlink 869-894 MHz 940-956 MHz 935-960 MHz 869-894 MHz
n Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
Channel bit rate 48.6 kbps 42 kbps 270.83 kbps 1.288 Mchips/s
n Both amplitude and phase of the carrier carry data
Modulation Scheme p/4 - DQPSK p/4 - DQPSK GMSK QPSK/OQPSK
n Bits/Symbol
Spectral efficiency 1.62 bps/Hz 1.68 bps/Hz 1.35 bps/Hz Variable
n Binary (one bit in one symbol => two symbols)
Frame duration 40 ms 20 ms 4.615 ms 20 ms n M-ary (log2M bits in one symbol => M symbols)
Peak power 0.6 W 1W
Data Service 9.6 kbps 9.6-14.4 kbps 9.6-14.4 kbps 9.6-115 kbps
+ 37
+ 38

Digital Modulation (2) Line Codes

n Binary n Non Return-to-Zero (NRZ)

Recap NRZ n Each digital value is represented by a voltage pulse
n 2 symbols – 0 and 1 n The voltage value is constant for the entire symbol duration
‘0’ -> positive pulse
n 1 bit per symbol
‘1’ -> negative pulse n Return-to-Zero (RZ)
n Voltage pulses have duty cycles
n M-ary n They do not last for the entire symbol duration
n M symbols -- a1, a2, a3, a4, … , aM n If the duty cycle is 100%, it becomes NRZ

n We have k = log2M bits/symbol n Unipolar

n Usually M = 2k n Signal values are 0V or some positive voltage

n Antipodal (or bipolar)

n Use amplitude, frequency or phase to carry the n Both positive and negative voltage values (usually identical in
discrete information magnitude) exist

+ Bandwidth of a 39
+ 40

Comparison of Four rectangular pulse

Example of 4-Ary digital
Combinations transmission scheme
n Combinations Pulse Pulse train
n Unipolar RZ, NRZ and Bipolar RZ, NRZ 1 1
3
n Assume RZ has 50% duty cycle 0 0 s0 (t) = 3s(t)
T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T
n Signal Power T time time
-1 -1
n Peak and average
Ts
Code rate = Rc Coded Data 0 1 s1 (t) = s(t)
n Bandwidth Data 1
n RZ needs more bandwidth (why?) (f )
0 1 1 0 1 0 Coder 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0

n Sampling threshold for discrimination 1 1 s2 (t) = s(t)

n Antipodal has a zero threshold for binary -1

Ru Rb
n Transitions
n RZ has more transitions, but no difference 1 0 s3 (t) = 3s(t)
between unipolar and antipodal
-3
1 Transmitted
1 frequency
Symbols
T T
Spectrum
(Power Spectral Density) Rs
+ 41
+ 42

Symbol Rate, Bit Rate, Code Rate Example

n Rs is the symbol rate (how many pulses per n Consider an 8-ary scheme (there are 8 different symbols)
second) BW ≈ 1/Ts
n Each symbol carries 3 bits

n Symbol duration is Ts = 1/Rs n Let the symbol duration be 1 μs - one symbol is transmitted
n Often we will simply use R and T
For most practical every microsecond
purposes n Symbol rate is 1 Msps (Rs = 1/Ts)
n Bit rate is Rb which is Rs × (Number of Bits/Symbol) n Raw bit rate is 3 Mbps (Rb = 3 × Rs)
n What is the approximate BW of the signal?
n If the scheme is M-ary, there are k = log2M bits/symbol
n Let the code rate Rc be 1/3
n “Code rate” is Rc which tells you what is the n This means, one out of every 3 bits is the actual data
fraction of “actual data” n 2 out of 3 bits are redundant
n Code rate is usually less than or equal to 1 n Actual (useful) data rate is 1 Mbps (Ru = Rc × Rb)

+ 43
+ 44

Why Digital Modulation? What is Spectral Efficiency?

n Analog cell phone systems n More reasons n It is defined as the raw bit rate supported in 1 Hz of
migrated to digital in the 1990s n Add additional bandwidth
services/features
Some main reasons
n
n SMS, caller ID, etc. η= bit rate/bandwidth
n Increase System Capacity
n Reduce cost and size of
n Squeeze more channels in a given
bandwidth mobile devices n Example: Compute the spectral efficiency of GSM
Example: Employ TDMA (3 n Improve Security (encryption
n Answer:
n
channels in 30 kHz in NA-TDMA) possible)
n Voice compression
n Data service and voice n The channel spacing or bandwidth is 200 kHz and the
n Efficient transmission treated same (4G systems) raw data rate is 270.83 kbps. So the spectral efficiency
n Error control coding, equalizers, is 270.83/200 = 1.35 bps/Hz
etc. => lower power needed n Note: Still analog signals
n More resistant to interference carrying digital data n Compute the spectral efficiency on Slide 35
+ 45
+ 46

TDMA 2G GSM - TDMA/FDMA/FDD

935-960 MHz
124 channels (200 kHz)

n Users share same frequency band in non-overlapping time downlink

intervals, 890-915 MHz

n E.g. Round robin 124 channels (200 kHz)
uplink
higher GSM frame structures
n Receiver filters are just windows instead of bandpass filters (as
in FDMA) time

n Guard time can be as small as the synchronization of the GSM TDMA frame
network permits 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n All users must be synchronized with base station to within a
fraction of guard time 4.615 ms

n Guard time of 30-50 μs common in TDMA

GSM time-slot (normal burst)
n Used in GSM, NA-TDMA, (PDC) Pacific Digital Cellular guard
tail user data S Training S user data
guard
tail space
space
3 bits 57 bits 1 26 bits 1 57 bits 3
546.5 µs
577 µs

+ 47
+ 48

TDMA/FDMA/TDD – example CDMA

of DECT
n Narrowband message signal is multiplied by very large
Carrier 1 bandwidth spreading signal using direct sequence spread
1.728 MHz
spectrum
Carrier 2
n All users can use same carrier frequency and may transmit
simultaneously
. Time slots allocated to users on one carrier
n Each user has own unique access spreading codeword which is
10 MHz . 0 1 … 8 9 10 11 12 13 … 20 21 22 23 approximately orthogonal to other users codewords
Downlink 5ms Uplink 5ms
. 32 bit 388 bit 60 bit
n Receiver performs time correlation operation to detect only
specific codeword, other users codewords appear as noise due
preamble data guard to decorrelation
Carrier 5 64 control 320 bit 4 parity n Cocktail party example
bits channel bits
+ 49
+ 50

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Orthogonality

s(t)
Tc
n The original data stream is Data Bit Data In
“chipped” up into a pattern
multiply t
of pulses of smaller 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
T Vector notation:
duration [1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1]
×
n Good autocorrelation
properties
u(t) [1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1]
“Spread” Bits =
n Good cross-correlation [1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1]
properties with other t
patterns Spreading T
Sum the elements
Code In in the product
n Each pattern is called a 1

=> 0
original spectrum

spread spectrum code or s(t) ⇥ u(t)

0.9 spread spectrum

0.8

spread spectrum sequence

0.7

0.6

0.5

n E.g. Walsh Code 0.4

chip
0.3

0.2

Area under the

PN Codes 0.1

T
t
product is ZERO!
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10

(Later) normalized frequency

Periodic Spreading Code

+ 51
+ Simple CDMA Transmitter
Simple example illustrating CDMA
n Traditional n Simple CDMA
User 1 data in
n To send a 0, send +1 V for T seconds n To send a 0, Bob sends +1 V for T Spread
seconds; Alice sends +1 V for T/2 seconds
and -1 V for T/2 seconds
n To send a 1, send -1 V for T seconds
n To send a 1, Bob sends -1 V for T
n Use separate time slots or frequency seconds; Alice sends -1 V for T/2 seconds User 2 data in
bands to separate signals and +1 V for T/2 Spread

0 0 1 1 = [1, 1, 1, 1, -1, -1, -1, -1]

V
1
V
1 0 1 t 2
V
0 chip T 2T 3T 4T

Data 1 1
time V 1 0 1 0 = [-1, 1, 1, -1, -1, 1, 1, -1] T 2T 3T 4T t
T T T T 1

Code [1, 1] [-1, -1] t

[1, -1] [-1, 1] T 2T 3T 4T
Transmitted signal

52
+ 53
+ 54

Simple CDMA Receiver Simple CDMA continued

Despread User 1 data out n Proceeding in this fashion for each “bit”, the information transmitted by
correlate with [1, 1]
Alice can be recovered

n To recover the information transmitted by Bob, the received signal is

correlated bit-by-bit with Bob’s code [1,1]
Despread User 2 data out
correlate with [1, -1] n Such codes are “orthogonal”
n Multiply the codes element-wise
V
n [1,1] × [1,-1] = [1,-1]
2
n Add the elements of the resulting product
Received n 1 + (-1) = 0 => the codes are orthogonal
signal T 2T 3T 4T t
ò = -2 x T/2 = -T n CDMA used in IS-95 standard and both 3G standards: UMTS, cdma2000
V
1
n CDMA has big capacity advantage as frequency reuse cluster size = 1
Alice’s
Code T 2T 3T 4T t = -T has a negative sign
Þ Alice sent a 1
as the first bit

+ 55

Old Wide Area Data Systems

Can be considered 1G Mobile Data, GPRS is 2G Mobile Data

System ARDIS Mobitex CDPD GPRS Tetra

Frequency Bands 935-940 869-894 890-915 380-383

band (MHz) around 800 896-901 824-849 935-960 390-393
MHz
Channel bit 4.8 - 19.2 8.0 – 19.2 19.2 160 36
rate (kbps)

RF channel 25 kHz 12.5 kHz 30 kHz 200 kHz 25 kHz

spacing

Channel & FDMA/DSMA FDMA/Dyn. FDMA/DSMA FDMA/ FDMA/DSMA

Multi-user Slotted ALOHA TDMA/
Access Reservation

Modulation 4-FSK GMSK GMSK GMSK p/4-DQPSK

Technique