Journal of Educational Psychology Copyright 2005 by the American Psychological Association

2005, Vol. 97, No. 2, 275–285 0022-0663/05/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.97.2.275

Differential Profiles of Students Identified by Their Teacher as Having

Avoidant, Appropriate, or Dependent Help-Seeking Tendencies in the
Classroom

Allison M. Ryan Helen Patrick

University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign Purdue University

Sung-Ok Shim
University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

In Study 1, teachers identified 6th-grade students (N ⫽ 844) as having 1 of 3 help-seeking behavioral

tendencies in the classroom: avoidant, appropriate, or dependent. More students were identified as having
appropriate (65%) than avoidant (22%) or dependent (13%) help-seeking tendencies. Student self-reports
of help avoidance were in line with teacher reports. In Study 2, students displaying different help-seeking
tendencies in math class differed from each other in self-reported motivational, affective, relational, and
achievement-related ways. In general, avoidant help seekers had a more maladaptive profile compared
with appropriate help seekers. In general, dependent help seekers had an adaptive profile regarding social
relationships (similar to appropriate help seekers) but a maladaptive profile regarding anxiety, academic
efficacy, and achievement (similar to avoidant help seekers).

Keywords: help seeking, motivation, achievement, young adolescents, classroom engagement

Inevitably, students encounter ambiguity or difficulty in their self-reports of their motivational beliefs and help-seeking behavior
schoolwork and need assistance. In such a situation, asking some- in the classroom (e.g., Newman, 1990; Ryan & Pintrich, 1997).
one for help has the potential to be an adaptive strategy to continue Experiments have been useful in isolating the effects of certain
the learning process (Karabenick, 1998; McCaslin & Good, 1996; motivational factors related to help seeking (i.e., achievement goal
Nelson-Le Gall, 1985; Newman, 2000). However, many students orientations), but questions remain about how generalizable the
do not seek help with their work when needed (e.g., Good, Slav- results are to the classroom setting. Questionnaires involve stu-
ings, Harel, & Emerson, 1987; Newman, 1990; Ryan, Gheen, & dents reporting on their help-seeking behavior in the classroom
Midgley, 1998). Furthermore, the nature of students’ help-seeking setting, but questions remain about students’ subjective percep-
strategies varies and may or may not be adaptive for their learning tions of their behavior. To date, no researchers have collected and
(e.g., Butler, 1998; Nelson-Le Gall & Glor-Scheib, 1985; New- analyzed teacher reports of students’ classroom help-seeking be-
man, 1998; Ryan & Pintrich, 1997). Recent research permits an haviors even though teachers are likely to be quite knowledgeable
expanded understanding of student characteristics and social cir- about students’ help-seeking tendencies.
cumstances that are related to help-seeking behavior by highlight- In this article, we report on the development of a teacher
ing the important role that motivational factors play in students’ measure of students’ help-seeking behavior in the classroom for
academic help-seeking behavior. gathering information about observable help-seeking behavior that
Research concerning the relation between students’ motiva- young adolescent students engage in with their teacher in the
tional characteristics and their help-seeking behavior has predom- classroom. We investigated several important but unanswered
inantly been one of two types: experiments in which students’ goal questions about help-seeking behavior in the classroom. First,
orientations are manipulated and their help seeking recorded (e.g., what is the scope of help-seeking problems from the teachers’
Butler & Neuman, 1995; Newman & Schwager, 1995) or students’ perspective? Second, is there congruence between teacher and
student reports of help avoidance in the classroom? Information
about these first two questions is important if we are to understand
Allison M. Ryan and Sung-Ok Shim, Department of Educational Psy- the nature of help-seeking problems in the classroom. The avoid-
chology, University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign; Helen Patrick, De- ance of help seeking has attracted considerable attention from
partment of Educational Studies, Purdue University. researchers as a pervasive problem with young adolescent students
This research was supported by Spencer Foundation Grant 200000290,
(e.g., Ryan & Pintrich, 1997; Turner et al., 2002), but it has been
awarded to Allison M. Ryan and in collaboration with Helen Patrick. The
unknown whether teachers could identify this behavior in students;
data presented, the statements made, and the views expressed are solely the
responsibility of the authors. such identification would be critical for intervention.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Allison Third, what psychological factors are related to the differential
M. Ryan, 230 Education Building, 1310 South Sixth Street, Champaign, IL help-seeking behavior that teachers observe in the classroom? We
61820-6990. Email: [email protected] examined student reports of motivation and attitudes in conjunc-

275
 276 RYAN, PATRICK, AND SHIM

tion with teacher reports of help-seeking behavior to corroborate avoid asking for help (Newman, 2000). Therefore, we expected
previous conclusions about the relation of motivational factors to teachers to identify avoidant help seeking as a more prevalent
help-seeking behavior in studies based exclusively on student problem than dependent help seeking in our early adolescent
reports and experimental research. We also examined student samples.
reports of affect and relationships to extend current knowledge of Given our expectation that help avoidance would be the most
student characteristics related to help-seeking behavior. Thus, we prevalent help-seeking problem in our early adolescent sample, we
identified similarities and differences in an array of important also asked students to self-report on their help-avoidant behavior
psychological characteristics to create profiles for students who so we could compare reports of help avoidance across informants.
displayed different help-seeking behaviors in the classroom. Re- We expected that students whom teachers identified as having
searchers have predominantly taken a variable-centered analytic avoidant help-seeking tendencies would be the highest on self-
approach and examined the unique effects of particular variables. reported help avoidance. To date, researchers have not used mul-
Our person-centered approach portrays student perceptions in a tiple informants to assess students’ help-seeking behavior. It may
holistic fashion, thus complementing and enriching prior variable- be challenging for teachers to recognize this avoidance behavior in
centered work (Magnusson & Stattin, 1998). their students because it is something they are not currently doing.
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Fourth, what is the relation of help-seeking behavior to aca- However, because teachers grade student work, they can assess
demic achievement? Although it is widely theorized that help- students’ need for help. They also observe whether or not students
seeking behavior impacts learning and achievement, no research- ask for help and therefore should be able to identify which students
ers have actually investigated this with school-age children in the tend to avoid asking for help when they need it. We conducted our
classroom. In the present study, we used concurrent and longitu- research in the spring of the school year so that teachers would
dinal achievement data to examine whether the experimental find- have had much previous opportunity to observe students’ help-
ings linking help-seeking behavior and performance could be seeking behavior. Convergence across informants would indicate
documented in the classroom (Butler, 1998; Newman & Schwager, that the avoidance of help seeking was not a hidden behavior
1995). known only to the student but was also identifiable by teachers,
which would be a critical first step for intervening with this
Teacher Reports of Students’ Help-Seeking Tendencies maladaptive tendency.
Next, we compared these three teacher-identified help-seeking
We examined teacher reports of three distinct help-seeking groups along several different dimensions. These were self-
behavioral tendencies in the classroom: avoidant, dependent, or reported help-seeking attitudes, goal orientations, affect, teacher
appropriate. The distinction between dependent and appropriate support, and social and academic efficacy. Documenting differ-
help seeking focused on the necessity of students’ requests for ences between these groups on these psychological factors will
help. This was important because help seeking is only likely to be provide insight regarding why students engage in different help-
adaptive if a student is experiencing difficulty and truly needs help seeking behavior.
to complete the work (Newman & Schwager, 1995). Experimental
research often further distinguishes adaptive help seeking as a Help-Seeking Attitudes
request for a hint rather than for the answer. However, students are
given the option to ask the experimenter for the answer (e.g., There are three general concerns students have about help
Butler & Neuman, 1995; Newman & Schwager, 1995). Distin- seeking that relate to their help-seeking behavior: autonomy, abil-
guishing between requests for hints versus request for answers is ity, and expedient concerns (Butler, 1998; see also van der Meij,
less relevant to help seeking with teachers in later elementary age 1988). Autonomy concerns refer to a resistance to help seeking
classrooms because teachers are unlikely to simply give students because of a desire to complete work on one’s own without
the answers and, by early adolescence, students know this. Indeed, depending on assistance from someone else. Ability concerns refer
in an observational study of third- and fifth-grade classrooms, to a resistance to help seeking because of worries that one will look
Nelson-Le Gall and Glor-Scheib (1986) found that almost all dumb if she or he asks for help. Expedient concerns refer to a
requests for an answer were directed to peers, not the teacher. It is resistance to help seeking because of a belief that it will not be
interesting to note that even in an experiment in which students effective (i.e., there is not a competent, willing helper who can
were given the option to ask for the answer, Newman and Schwa- provide assistance or getting help will simply take too long). Butler
ger (1995) found that the majority had no instances of asking for (1998) investigated how students’ endorsement of these three
an answer; the few students who did request an answer were more different concerns related to their help-seeking behavior during a
likely to be in third grade rather than sixth grade. problem-solving task. Students who endorsed autonomy concerns
Thus, we asked teachers to report whether students tended to were more likely to request adaptive help. If help avoidance is born
exhibit avoidant help-seeking behavior (avoiding asking for help out of a desire to be autonomous, then perhaps when students
altogether when they need it), dependent help-seeking behavior ultimately do seek help to continue with a task, they are going to
(tending to ask for help the minute they encounter difficulty, ask for the type of help that will support their own autonomy in the
needing to develop more independence), or appropriate help- future. In contrast, students who endorsed ability concerns were
seeking behavior (asking for help when they truly need it but not more likely to avoid help seeking (see also Newman, 1990; Ryan
being overly dependent, not asking for help the minute they & Pintrich, 1997). Students who endorsed expedient concerns
encounter difficulty). By early adolescence, most students have the were more likely to request dependent help (request for specific
cognitive skills to determine when they need help and know how directions that led directly to the answer). In line with these
to do so, but for motivational and social reasons, many choose to findings, we expected that students with avoidant help-seeking
 STUDENTS’ HELP-SEEKING TENDENCIES IN CLASS 277

tendencies would be highest on ability concerns and students with who do not use the teacher as a resource for help with difficulties
appropriate help-seeking tendencies would be highest on auton- and students who tend to be overly dependent help seekers are
omy concerns. Given the difference between dependent help seek- likely to be anxious about their performance. Therefore, we ex-
ing as explored in Butler’s experiment and our classroom-based pected students with avoidant and dependent tendencies to report
study, we did not make specific predictions about expedient more anxiety than students with appropriate help-seeking
concerns. tendencies.

Achievement Goal Orientations Students’ Social Relationship With Their Teacher

Achievement goal orientations are important to understanding Positive social relations increase the likelihood that a student
students’ help-seeking behavior. A mastery goal orientation con- will ask someone for help (Nelson-Le Gall & Gumerman, 1984;
cerns a focus on gaining understanding, insight, or skill; learning Newman & Schwager, 1993; Wintre, Hicks, McVey, & Fox,
is seen as an end in itself. Performance goal orientations concern 1988). In the present study, we examined several important aspects
a desire to be evaluated positively by others, especially in relation of teacher–student relationships that have not been investigated in
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to one’s peers. Whereas a performance-approach goal orientation regard to help seeking: teacher support and students’ social effi-
concerns a focus on demonstrating one’s ability, looking smart, or cacy with their teacher. There are different aspects of teacher
outperforming others, a performance-avoid goal orientation con- support, including a concern with the student both as a learner
cerns a focus on avoiding negative judgments of one’s ability or (academic support) and as a person (socioemotional support;
competence—in effect, trying to avoid looking dumb or stupid Patrick, Anderman, Ryan, Edelin, & Midgley, 2001; Turner et al.,
(Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996). 2002; Wentzel, 1997). As help seeking is both a learning strategy
A mastery goal orientation has been found to be related posi- and a social interaction, both types of support are likely to be
tively to adaptive help seeking (Butler & Neuman, 1995; Newman important. We expected that students who were willing to ask the
& Schwager, 1995; Ryan & Pintrich, 1997). Performance goal teacher for help (either dependent or appropriate) would report
orientations have been associated with the avoidance of help higher levels of both academic and socioemotional teacher sup-
seeking (Ryan, Hicks, & Midgley, 1997; Ryan & Pintrich, 1997). port, as well as greater efficacy relating to the teacher, than
When the approach–avoid distinction was made, a performance- students with avoidant tendencies.
avoid goal orientation had a stronger relation than a performance-
approach goal orientation to help avoidance (Middleton & Midg- Academic Efficacy
ley, 1997). Achievement goal orientations seem to be unrelated to
dependent help seeking in that Butler and Neuman (1995) found Students with high levels of academic efficacy are more likely
no difference between mastery and performance goal conditions in to perceive help seeking as a useful strategy for learning, whereas
how quickly students asked for help. Thus, we expected students students with low academic efficacy are more likely to be con-
with appropriate help-seeking tendencies to endorse a mastery goal cerned that others will think their need for help indicates that they
orientation more strongly than students with avoidant help-seeking are incapable, and therefore, they are more likely to avoid asking
tendencies. We expected students with avoidant help-seeking ten- for help when they need it (Butler & Neuman, 1995; Newman,
dencies to endorse performance-approach and, particularly, per- 1990; Newman & Goldin, 1990; Ryan et al., 1998; Ryan &
formance-avoid goal orientations more strongly than students with Pintrich, 1997). Thus, we expected that students with appropriate
appropriate help-seeking tendencies. help-seeking tendencies would have the highest levels of efficacy
and that students with avoidant help-seeking tendencies would
have the lowest levels of efficacy. We expected that students with
Affective Experiences in the Classroom
dependent help-seeking tendencies would be in the middle because
Researchers have investigated students’ feelings of threat spe- they would be willing to ask the teacher for help in the classroom.
cifically related to help seeking (i.e., whether students feel dumb or Such students would probably perceive that the benefits of help
embarrassed by asking for help; Butler, 1998; Newman, 1990; seeking outweigh the costs, but they would tend to ask the teacher
Ryan & Pintrich, 1997). There has been no study, however, of for help the minute they encountered difficulty, for they would
students’ more general affective experiences in the classroom in have little confidence in their own capabilities to solve the problem
relation to help-seeking behaviors. Affective experiences have independently.
been shown to be important to understanding students’ motivation
and engagement more generally (Roeser, Eccles, & Strobel, 1998), Summary of Hypothesized Psychological Differences
and it is likely that they play a role in students’ help-seeking Among Help-Seeking Groups
behavior in particular. Students’ affective experiences in class may
predispose them to feeling positively or negatively about help In general, students with avoidant help-seeking tendencies were
seeking and thus be related to their behavior. In the present study, expected to have a more maladaptive profile compared with stu-
we asked students about their positive affect and anxiety in class. dents with appropriate help-seeking tendencies. Specifically, we
We hypothesized that students who exhibited avoidant tendencies hypothesized that students with avoidant help-seeking tendencies
would be less likely to report positive affect compared with the would have more maladaptive attitudes (higher ability concerns,
other students. Students with dependent tendencies often seek lower autonomous concerns), goals (higher performance-approach
help; thus, we expected that they would feel generally positive and performance-avoid, lower mastery), affective experiences
about class, similar to the appropriate help seekers. Both students (lower positive affect, higher anxiety), social relationships (lower
 278 RYAN, PATRICK, AND SHIM

academic and socioemotional teacher support), and efficacy (lower anxiety, teacher support, social and academic efficacy, and
social and academic efficacy) than students with appropriate help- achievement in math. We first report the methods and findings
seeking tendencies. We expected that students with dependent from Study 1 and then report on Study 2.
help-seeking tendencies would have an adaptive profile regarding
positive affect and social relationships (similar to appropriate help
Study 1
seekers) but a maladaptive profile regarding anxiety (similar to
avoidant help seekers) and academic efficacy (lower than appro-
Method
priate help seekers and higher than avoidant help seekers).
Participants
Does Help-Seeking Behavior Predict Achievement?
The data were collected as part of the Adolescent Transitions Project.
Although, in experimental research, adaptive help seeking im- The participants were 844 sixth-grade students from 37 classrooms within
proves achievement on specific problem-solving tasks (e.g., But- 15 urban elementary schools. The sample was ethnically diverse (50%
African American, 44% European American, 3% Hispanic, and 3% other),
ler, 1998; Butler & Neuman, 1995; Newman & Schwager, 1995),
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from families of predominantly lower socioeconomic status. There were

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there has been no research linking help-seeking behavior to sub-

51% female and 49% male students in the sample.
sequent achievement for school-age children in classrooms. More
often, researchers have examined whether prior achievement pre-
dicts help-seeking behavior (e.g., Nelson-Le Gall & Glor-Scheib, Recruitment
1985; Newman & Goldin, 1990; Newman & Schwager, 1993). In
Letters describing the project were sent home to the parents. If parents
a recent investigation, college students who reported avoidant did not want their child to participate in the study, they were instructed to
tendencies midsemester had lower subsequent exam performance have their child return an attached form to the child’s teacher, call the
than students who reported adaptive help-seeking tendencies school, or call the researchers at the university number provided on the
(Karabenick, 2003). In the present study, after examining concur- letter. In all classes, letters were distributed at the end of the day at a time
rent relations, we examined whether young adolescent students’ when students were organizing their materials to take home. All teachers
help-seeking behavior predicted future achievement (controlling were given two copies of the letter for each student, and teachers checked
for prior achievement) to investigate the assumption that help- with students that the letters were delivered home. Less than 5% of the
seeking behavior is an important strategy for learning and achieve- parents declined to have their child participate.
ment for early adolescents. We expected that students with appro- The decision to use opt-out consent procedures (i.e., parents were
notified about the research and given opportunities to exclude their chil-
priate help-seeking tendencies would be higher achievers and
dren from the study) was appropriate given the nature of our research and
show greater gains in achievement over time compared with stu- the importance of having a representative sample. The study involved
dents with avoidant help-seeking tendencies. We expected that minimal risk for the children in that they reported on achievement beliefs
students with dependent help-seeking tendencies would be in the and behaviors that were a regular part of their school experience. A
middle because, although they would not persist independently, representative sample was necessary to gather accurate information about
they would be engaged in formulating questions and getting help the extent of different help-seeking tendencies and their relation to moti-
with their schoolwork, which should be more beneficial than vational and achievement variables. Prior research has suggested that
avoiding help seeking altogether. opt-in consent procedures (i.e., parents provide written consent for their
children to participate) may result in a biased sample with underrepresen-
tation of lower achieving and less involved students (Anderman et al.,
Overview 1995). Our decision to use opt-out consent procedures was supported by
the participating schools’ personnel and the University of Illinois Institu-
We conducted two studies with large samples of young adoles- tional Review Board.
cent students in the spring of their last year of elementary school
(sixth and fifth grades for Studies 1 and 2, respectively). In Study
1, we used teacher reports to identify three different groups of Procedure
students—those with tendencies to (a) avoid seeking help, (b) be
Surveys were administered to students in their classrooms in the spring
overly dependent on asking for help, and (c) seek help appropri- of the school year. Instructions and items were read aloud while students
ately in the classroom. We examined the prevalence of the various read along and responded. Students were told that the survey was not a test
help-seeking tendencies and then compared the three groups on a and that there were no right or wrong answers. Students were told that the
student-reported measure of help avoidance in the classroom. In purpose of the survey was to find out about students’ beliefs and behaviors
Study 2, we asked teachers to identify students’ help-seeking about school and that this was a chance for them to express their opinions.
tendencies in math class. We focused on math in Study 2 because Students were assured that the information in the survey would be kept
much of the experimental and student survey research on motiva- confidential. In addition, students were told that filling out the survey was
tion and help seeking that we were seeking to corroborate has been voluntary and that if, at any point, they wanted to stop, they could do so.
specific to math (e.g., Butler, 1998; Newman, 1998; Newman & While the students were completing the survey, teachers filled out a brief
survey that provided information about students’ help-seeking tendencies
Schwager, 1993, 1995; Ryan & Pintrich, 1997). This is likely
in class. Teachers were told that the purpose of the teacher survey was to
because students perceive math to be a difficult subject (Stodolsky, better understand students’ help-seeking tendencies, that their participation
1988) that elicits greater need for help compared with other sub- was voluntary, and that they could stop at any point and were assured that
jects (Newman & Goldin, 1990). We then examined differences all information in the survey would be kept confidential. We visited the
between the three groups with different help-seeking tendencies on schools one additional day to administer makeups for students who were
student-reported attitudes, goal orientations, positive affect and absent for survey administration.
 STUDENTS’ HELP-SEEKING TENDENCIES IN CLASS 279

Measures Summary
Teacher reports of students’ help-seeking tendencies. The 37 teachers In Study 1, sixth-grade teachers viewed most of their elementary
were given a brief survey with the following instructions: school students as having appropriate help-seeking tendencies in
class. Avoidant help-seeking tendencies were more frequent than
An important skill for students to develop is appropriate help-seeking
dependent help-seeking tendencies. Results indicate a shared per-
strategies with their schoolwork. We asked the students about their
help seeking but would value your assessment of student skills. Which
spective between teachers and students regarding students’ help
students in your class would you identify as fitting the following avoidance. In Study 2, we investigated teacher-identified help-
profiles? seeking types in math class, which allowed an application of the
newly developed teacher measure to a specific content area. We
Teachers were asked to categorize each of their students according to their then examined teacher-reported behavior in conjunction with
predominant help-seeking tendencies in class: (a) “do not ask for help student-reported psychological variables and achievement.
when they need it with their schoolwork (i.e., need to develop help-seeking
skills, tend to avoid asking for help altogether even when they need it),” (b)
Study 2
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“ask for too much help with their schoolwork (i.e., need to develop more
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independence; tend to ask for help the minute they encounter difficulty),”
and (c) “generally display appropriate help-seeking skills with their Method
schoolwork (i.e., ask for help when they truly need it but are not overly
dependent/do not ask for help the minute they encounter difficulty).”
Participants
Additionally, teachers were asked, “Are there children in your classroom The data were collected as part of the Young Adolescents’ Motivation in
that do not fit into any of these three categories?” During initial pilot Math Project. The participants were 474 fifth-grade students from 24
testing (with a different group of teachers), grouping students into these classrooms within four suburban schools and one rural elementary school.
three categories was meaningful for teachers; the three categories captured Some of the schools had small numbers of students who were in remedial
the key differences in help-seeking behaviors among their students. Survey or accelerated math classes. These students and their teachers were not
administrators were available to answer questions from the teachers re- included in the study. The sample was predominantly White and middle
garding the measure, but few teachers had any questions. Across the 37 class and was 50% female.
teachers, 16 students (16 out of 860 ⫽ 2%) were identified as not fitting
into one of the three help-seeking profiles. These 16 students were dropped
from the study, resulting in a final sample of 844 students. Recruitment and Procedure
Student reports. The format for all student survey items was a 5-point
scale (1 ⫽ not at all true to 5 ⫽ very true). Avoidance of help seeking (5 The recruitment and procedure for Study 2 were identical to Study 1
items, ␣ ⫽ .70) refers to instances when students need help but do not seek with the exception that the purpose of the project was described to students
it (Ryan & Pintrich, 1997). A sample item is “When I do not understand my as finding out student opinions about beliefs and behaviors in math, not
schoolwork, I often put down any answer rather than ask for help.” For school in general. Less than 3% of the parents declined to have their child
discriminant validity purposes, we also assessed students’ disengagement participate.
(5 items, ␣ ⫽ .70). Disengagement refers to lack of involvement and effort
in school (Miserandino, 1996). A sample item is “I practically fall asleep Measures
in my classes.”
In Study 2, all measures were specific to math class. The format for all
student survey items was a 5-point scale (1 ⫽ not at all true to 5 ⫽ very
Results true, except where noted). We used factor analysis to guide the construc-
tion of all student-reported measures.
Teachers indicated that the majority of students used appropriate Teacher reports of students’ help-seeking tendencies. This measure
help-seeking strategies in class (n ⫽ 546, 65%). Teachers reported was identical to the one used in Study 1 with the exception that teachers
a sizable number of students avoided help seeking in class (n ⫽ were asked to report on students’ help-seeking tendencies in math class, not
184, 22%). They reported a smaller number of students exhibited school in general. In Study 2, across the 24 teachers, 9 students (9 out of
dependent help-seeking tendencies (n ⫽ 114, 13%). 483 ⫽ 2%) were identified as not fitting into one of the three help-seeking
tendencies. These 9 students were dropped from the study, resulting in a
We examined whether students with different help-seeking ten-
final sample of 474 students.
dencies as reported by the teacher (appropriate, avoidant, or de- Help-seeking attitudes. To assess students’ attitudes about avoiding
pendent) differed in their self-reported avoidance of help seeking help seeking, we adapted Butler’s (1998) “reasons for not requesting help
with one-way analyses of variance. Students with different help- in math class” measure. Instructions specific to this section of the ques-
seeking tendencies differed in their reported avoidance of help tionnaire were as follows:
seeking, F(2, 841) ⫽ 12.31, p ⱕ .001. Students identified by the
teacher as avoidant help seekers had the highest level of self- We want to understand why students do not ask for help even when
reported help avoidance (M ⫽ 2.82), followed by dependent help they know they need it. Below are different reasons students might not
seekers (M ⫽ 2.66) and appropriate help seekers (M ⫽ 2.42). The ask for help in their math class. Help us understand why students
might not ask for help by telling us how true these statements are for
difference between avoidant and appropriate help seekers was
you. I do not ask for help when I’m having difficulty on math
significant (Tukey’s criteria; Hays, 1994). Students with different problems because. . . .
help-seeking tendencies did not differ in their self-reported disen-
gagement in class, providing support that teachers were indeed The items concerned ability-focused concerns (4 items, ␣ ⫽ .86; e.g., “I do
reporting on students’ avoidance of help seeking, not simply their not want to look stupid in front of the teacher”), autonomous concerns (5
general lack of involvement in or effort toward school. items, ␣ ⫽ .82; e.g., “I want to overcome the difficulty by myself”), and
 280 RYAN, PATRICK, AND SHIM

expedient concerns (5 items, ␣ ⫽ .76; e.g., “What my teacher says Analysis Plan
probably will not help me get the answer”). Because of coordination with
another project, students in some classes did not complete the three First, we examined descriptive statistics of teacher and student reports.
attitudes-about-help-seeking scales (autonomy, ability, and expedient con- Second, we performed a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA)
cerns). Therefore, the sample size in Study 2 for analyses concerning with help-seeking tendency (avoidant, dependent, appropriate) as the in-
dependent variable. We analyzed the dependent variables in six sets: (a)
attitudes about help seeking is 405 instead of 474.
avoidant help-seeking attitudes, (b) achievement goal orientations, (c)
Achievement goal orientations. Three measures from the Patterns of
affective experiences, (d) social relationship with the teacher, (e) academic
Adaptive Learning Survey (PALS; Midgley et al., 1996) were used to
efficacy and achievement in fifth grade, and (f) achievement in seventh
assess students’ goal orientations in math class. Goal orientations refer to
grade. Once we demonstrated that there was a significant multivariate
students’ reasons or purpose for engaging in their math work. Mastery goal effect, we proceeded to evaluate the univariate analyses of variance. Tukey
orientation items (6 items, ␣ ⫽ .86) assess the extent to which students post hoc analyses were used to determine where the significant differences
endorse doing their math work to develop their competence. A sample item were among groups.
is “An important reason I do my math work is because I want to improve
my skills.” Performance-approach goal orientation items (5 items, ␣ ⫽ .77)
Results
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assess the extent to which students endorse doing their math work to
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demonstrate their competence relative to other students in the class. A Means, standard deviations, and correlations among the student-
sample item is “An important reason I do my math work is because I want reported measures are presented in Table 1.
to show my teacher that I’m smarter than the other students in my class.”
Performance-avoid goal orientation items (5 items, ␣ ⫽ .78) assess the
extent to which students endorse doing their math work to avoid looking
Teacher Reports of Students’ Help-Seeking Tendencies
inferior relative to other students in the class. A sample item is “An Teachers indicated that the majority of students used appropriate
important reason I do my schoolwork is so that the teacher does not think help-seeking strategies in math class (n ⫽ 350, 74%). Teachers
I know less than others.” reported that a significant number of students avoided help seeking
Affective experiences. Two scales were adapted to assess students’ in math class (n ⫽ 92, 19%). Teachers reported that a smaller
positive affect (4 items, ␣ ⫽ .91) and anxiety (4 items, ␣ ⫽ .79; Pintrich, number of students exhibited dependent help-seeking tendencies
2000a; Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1993). A sample item of the
(n ⫽ 32, 7%). In contrast to Study 1, there was a sex difference:
positive affect scale is “I enjoy being in math class.” A sample item of the
Boys (n ⫽ 62) were more likely than girls (n ⫽ 30) to be described
anxiety scale is “When I do math, I worry about problems I cannot figure
by their teacher as avoiding help seeking in math class, ␹2(2, N ⫽
out.”
169) ⫽ 16.02, p ⬍ .001. We explored sex as a covariate and an
Students’ social relationship with their teacher. Items from the Class-
room Life Measure (Johnson, Johnson, Buchman, & Richards, 1985) were
interaction term in preliminary MANOVAs. Sex did not impact the
adapted to assess teacher emotional support (3 items, ␣ ⫽ .79) and teacher effects for help-seeking tendency, nor were there any interactions
academic support (4 items, ␣ ⫽ .76). A sample item of teacher emotional between help-seeking tendency and sex. Thus, although male
support is “Does your teacher try to help you when you are sad or upset?” students were more likely to be identified by the teacher as having
A sample item of teacher academic support is “Does your teacher care avoidant help-seeking tendencies, both male and female students
about how much you learn?” For these items, the scale ranged from 1 ⫽ with avoidant help-seeking tendencies showed the same profile of
almost never to 5 ⫽ often. We also assessed students’ judgments of their beliefs, affect, and achievement. Given that our focus was not on
ability to relate effectively and satisfactorily to their teacher (Patrick, sex differences in the various outcome variables, we then dropped
Hicks, & Ryan, 1997). A sample item of social efficacy with the teacher (4 sex from the final models.
items, ␣ ⫽ .78) is “I can explain my point of view to my teacher.”
Academic efficacy. The measure of students’ academic efficacy (5 Mean Differences Among Help-Seeking Groups
items, ␣ ⫽ .85) refers to students’ judgments of their capability to complete
their math work successfully and is from PALS (Midgley et al., 1996). A Means and standard deviations of student beliefs and behaviors
sample item is “I’m certain I can figure out how to do even the most for the three different help-seeking groups are presented in Ta-
difficult math work.” ble 2.
Achievement. Students’ final math grades from fifth and seventh Avoidant help-seeking attitudes. The multivariate effect was
grades were collected from their school records. The grades were coded significant, F(6, 852) ⫽ 4.23, p ⱕ .001. Students with different
E ⫽ 1 through A⫹ ⫽ 13. Students’ scores on the math section of help-seeking tendencies differentially endorsed avoiding help
standardized tests taken in fifth and seventh grades were collected from seeking due to ability concerns, F(2, 429) ⫽ 6.12, p ⱕ .01, and
their school records. In fifth grade, all students in each of the three school expedient concerns, F(2, 429) ⫽ 12.13, p ⱕ .001, but not auton-
districts took the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test. Students re- omy concerns. Avoiders endorsed ability (M ⫽ 2.54) and expedi-
ceived a three-digit score (sample range was 134 –200 for the math por- ent (M ⫽ 2.30) concerns more strongly than did appropriate help
tion). In seventh grade, students took one of three different standardized
seekers (M ⫽ 2.08 and M ⫽ 1.79 for ability and expedient,
tests (Stanford Achievement Test, Iowa Basic Achievement Test, or Illi-
respectively).
nois Learning Battery from Scholastic Testing Service). Seventh-grade
Butler (1998) examined students who were primarily oriented
math achievement test scores were standardized within type of test before
toward one type of concern (a student was selected as expressing
combining scores across different tests. Primarily because of students
moving out of the district, seventh-grade achievement indicators were not
autonomy, expedient, or ability concerns only if he or she was
available for all of our sample (n ⫽ 388 for grades in seventh grade and above the mean on one concern and below the mean on the other
n ⫽ 382 for test scores in seventh grade, representing 82% and 81% of the two concerns). Because one aim of our study was to examine
sample for grades and test scores, respectively). whether Butler’s experimental findings regarding help-seeking
attitudes and behaviors would be found in the classroom, we also
 STUDENTS’ HELP-SEEKING TENDENCIES IN CLASS 281

examined students with a primary orientation. Only 118 out of 405

9.22
2.66
16

—
(29%) students met this stringent criterion (similar to 30% of
students in Butler’s sample). As expected, appropriate help seekers

.60** .62**
15

—
were more likely to be oriented toward autonomy concerns (n ⫽

0.00
0.97
59, 64%) than ability (n ⫽ 23, 25%) or expedient concerns (n ⫽

.54**
10, 11%). However, contrary to the hypothesis that they would
14

8.70
2.05
have higher ability concerns, avoidant help seekers were equally
likely to be oriented toward autonomy (n ⫽ 8, 38%), ability (n ⫽
7, 33%), or expedient concerns (n ⫽ 6, 29%). There were few

.58**
.77**
.48**
13

169.60
13.47
dependent help seekers, but most were oriented toward autonomy
(n ⫽ 3, 60%) rather than ability (n ⫽ 1, 20%) or expedient
concerns (n ⫽ 1, 20%). The chi-square was significant, ␹2(4, N ⫽
.43**
.38**
.38**
.30**
118) ⫽ 13.40, p ⬍ .01.
12

3.96
0.85
Achievement goal orientations. The multivariate effect was
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

significant, F(6, 938) ⫽ 3.83, p ⱕ .01. Students with different

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

.44**

.35**
.14**
.24** help-seeking tendencies differed in their mastery goal orientation,
11

.09

3.88
1.03
F(2, 470) ⫽ 6.84, p ⱕ .001, and performance-avoid goal orienta-
tion, F(2, 470) ⫽ 6.38, p ⱕ .01, but not their performance-
⫺.15** .48** .67** .52**
⫺.43** .56** .37** .37**

⫺.37** .35** .25** .33**

⫺.22** .25** .17** .12*

10

approach goal orientation. Avoiders reported lower mastery goal

.04

.08

4.51
0.67

orientation (M ⫽ 3.17) but higher performance-avoid goal orien-

tation (M ⫽ 2.91) than appropriate help seekers (M ⫽ 3.60 and
⫺.14** .37** .64**
—
9

⫺.41** .20** .01

⫺.31** .29** .08

3.80
0.99

M ⫽ 2.48 for mastery and performance-approach goal orienta-

tions, respectively).
⫺.15** .42**

Affective experiences. The multivariate effect was significant,

—
8

3.07
1.22

F(4, 938) ⫽ 9.36, p ⱕ .001. Students with different help-seeking

tendencies differed in their positive affect in math class, F(2,
⫺.32**

469) ⫽ 12.27, p ⱕ .001, and their anxiety in math class, F(2,

2.75
1.05
—
7

469) ⫽ 12.46, p ⱕ .001. Students with avoidant (M ⫽ 3.17) and

dependent help-seeking tendencies (M ⫽ 3.04) reported higher
.44**
⫺.29**
⫺.28**
⫺.19**
⫺.27**
⫺.29**
⫺.17**
⫺.28**
⫺.18**
⫺.26**

levels of anxiety than students with appropriate help-seeking ten-

2.57
1.06
—
6

dencies (M ⫽ 2.61). Avoiders (M ⫽ 2.54) reported lower levels of

positive affect than appropriate help seekers (M ⫽ 3.23)
.51**
.16**
⫺.13**
⫺.17**
⫺.13**
⫺.18**

⫺.13**

Social relationship with their teacher. The multivariate effect

⫺.04
.02
⫺.08
⫺.01

2.73
1.00
—
5

was significant, F(6, 928) ⫽ 7.08, p ⱕ .001. Students with differ-

ent help-seeking tendencies differed in the amount of teacher
support they perceived, both academically, F(2, 465) ⫽ 14.30, p ⱕ
⫺.15**
⫺.25**
⫺.18**
.70**
.51**
.43**
.60**
.55**

.22**
.19**
.18**
.06

3.51
1.00
—
4

.001, and emotionally, F(2, 465) ⫽ 6.77, p ⱕ .001. Students with

different help-seeking tendencies also reported different levels of
social efficacy with their teacher, F(2, 465) ⫽ 16.92, p ⱕ .001.
⫺.43**
.31**
.47**
.27**
⫺.36**
⫺.51**
⫺.37**
⫺.54**
⫺.38**
⫺.15**
⫺.31**
⫺.20**
⫺.26**
1.90
0.88
—

Avoiders (M ⫽ 3.47) reported lower levels of teacher emotional

3

support than appropriate help seekers (M ⫽ 3.89). Avoiders (M ⫽

4.19) reported lower levels of teacher academic support than
.22**

.19**

.25**
.15**
.17*
.18*
.12*
⫺.12*

⫺.13*

dependent (M ⫽ 4.61) and appropriate help seekers (M ⫽ 4.60).

⫺.03
⫺.05
.01

.01

.00
2.73
0.97
—
2

Avoiders (M ⫽ 3.35) reported lower levels of self-efficacy with

Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations

the teacher than dependent (M ⫽ 3.90) and appropriate help

.16**
.59**
⫺.26**
.36**
.66**
.39**
⫺.26**
⫺.31**
⫺.22**
⫺.32**
⫺.29**
⫺.18**
⫺.26**
⫺.18**
⫺.19**

seekers (M ⫽ 4.02).
2.19
1.16
—
1

Academic efficacy and achievement in fifth grade. The mul-

tivariate effect for fifth-grade efficacy and achievement vari-
Teacher support: Socioemotional

ables was significant, F(6, 898) ⫽ 28.07, p ⱕ .001. Students

with different help-seeking tendencies differed in their aca-
Performance-approach goals

Teacher support: Academic

Seventh-grade math grade

demic efficacy, F(2, 450) ⫽ 22.64, p ⱕ .001. Avoiders had the

Performance-avoid goals

Seventh-grade math test

Fifth-grade math grade

lowest efficacy (M ⫽ 3.47), dependent help seekers were in

Autonomous concerns

Fifth-grade math test

** p ⬍ .01.
Expedient concerns

between (M ⫽ 3.77), appropriate help seekers had the highest

Variable

Academic efficacy
Ability concerns

efficacy (M ⫽ 4.10), and each of these groups was significantly

Social efficacy
Positive affect
Mastery goals

different from the other two. Students with different help-

seeking tendencies differed in their math standardized test
Anxiety

* p ⬍ .05.

scores in fifth grade, F(2, 450) ⫽ 37.96, p ⱕ .001. Students

Table 1

with avoidant (M ⫽ 161.33) and dependent (M ⫽ 159.82)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

SD
M

help-seeking tendencies had lower test scores than students with

 282 RYAN, PATRICK, AND SHIM

Table 2
Differences Among the Three Help-Seeking Groups

Help-seeking category

Avoidant Dependent Appropriate

Variable (n ⫽ 92) (n ⫽ 32) (n ⫽ 350) F

Help-seeking attitudes 4.23***

Ability concerns 2.54a 2.43ab 2.08b 6.12**
Autonomous concerns 2.83a 2.60a 2.70a 0.71
Expedient concerns 2.30a 2.18ab 1.79b 12.13***
Achievement goal orientations 3.83**
Mastery goals 3.17a 3.48ab 3.60b 6.84***
Performance-approach goals 2.80a 2.79a 2.72a 0.27
Performance-avoid goals 2.91a 2.66ab 2.48b 6.38**
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Affective experiences 9.36***

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Positive affect 2.54a 2.97ab 3.23b 12.27***

Anxiety 3.17a 3.04a 2.61b 12.46***
Relationship with teacher 7.08***
Teacher support: Academic 4.19a 4.61b 4.60b 14.30***
Teacher support: Socioemotional 3.47a 3.81ab 3.89b 6.77***
Social efficacy with teacher 3.35a 3.90b 4.02b 16.92***
Efficacy and fifth-grade achievement 28.07***
Academic efficacy 3.47a 3.77b 4.10c 22.64***
Final fifth-grade math grade 6.65a 7.68b 9.36c 92.62***
Math standardized test score: Fifth-grade 161.33a 159.82a 172.67b 37.96***
Seventh-grade achievement 17.25***
Final seventh-grade math grade 7.40a 7.79a 9.79b 31.58***
Math standardized test score seventh-grade ⫺0.50a ⫺0.58a 0.25b 26.30***

Note. Means in the same row that do not share subscripts differ at p ⬍ .05, according to Tukey’s criteria.
** p ⬍ .01. *** p ⬍ .001.

appropriate help-seeking tendencies (M ⫽ 172.67). Regarding Follow-Up Analysis of Teacher Reports of Students’
grades, students with different help-seeking tendencies differed Help-Seeking Tendencies and Students’ Fifth-Grade
in their fifth-grade math grades, F(2, 450) ⫽ 92.62, p ⱕ .001. Achievement Level
Avoiders had the lowest grades (M ⫽ 6.65), dependent help
seekers were in between (M ⫽ 7.68), appropriate help seekers Given that teachers knew students’ achievement level, we
had the highest grades (M ⫽ 9.36), and each of these groups wanted to check that teachers were not simply listing the low
was significantly different from the other two. achievers as the students with inappropriate (i.e., avoidant and
Achievement in seventh grade. The multivariate effect for dependent) help-seeking tendencies. We examined the grades and
seventh-grade achievement variables was significant, F(4, 774) ⫽ standardized test scores (from fifth grade) of students identified as
17.25, p ⱕ .001. Students with different help-seeking tendencies in avoidant and dependent help seekers. Among students with
avoidant help-seeking tendencies, 35% received a failing grade
fifth grade also differed in their math test scores in seventh grade,
(D/F), 42% received a C, 21% received a B, and 2% received an
F(2, 387) ⫽ 26.30, p ⱕ .001. Students with avoidant (M ⫽ ⫺0.50)
A. Among students with dependent help-seeking tendencies 2%
and dependent (M ⫽ ⫺0.58) help-seeking tendencies had lower
received a D/F, 13% received a C, 59% received a B, and 26%
test scores compared with students with appropriate help-seeking
received an A. Students were categorized as meeting or falling
tendencies (M ⫽ 0.25). This pattern was found even when fifth-
below state standards on the basis of their standardized math test
grade math test scores were entered as a covariate, F(3, 381) ⫽ score. Fifty-three percent of the avoiders were above the state
184.41, p ⱕ .001. Thus, help-seeking tendencies in fifth grade standards, and 47% were below. Of students with dependent
predicted how students’ achievement would change 2 years later. help-seeking tendencies, 50% were above the state standards, and
Students with different help-seeking tendencies in fifth grade 50% were below. Given the diversity of the grades and test scores
also differed in their math grades in seventh grade, F(2, 387) ⫽ of avoidant and dependent help seekers, we conclude that teachers
31.58, p ⱕ .001. Students with avoidant (M ⫽ 7.40) and dependent were not simply identifying the lowest achievers as the students
(M ⫽ 7.79) help-seeking tendencies had lower grades (on average, with inappropriate help-seeking tendencies.
a C⫹) compared with students with appropriate help-seeking
tendencies (M ⫽ 9.79; on average, a B⫹). This pattern was found
Discussion
even when fifth-grade math grades were entered as a covariate,
F(3, 387) ⫽ 3.31, p ⱕ .05. Therefore, help-seeking tendencies in There are a number of new findings in this study. First, using
fifth grade predicted how students’ achievement would change 2 teacher reports provided insight into the extent to which teachers
years later. viewed various help-seeking tendencies as being displayed in
 STUDENTS’ HELP-SEEKING TENDENCIES IN CLASS 283

class. Second, there was agreement between teachers and students ers cannot identify the avoidance of help seeking, which is espe-
regarding reports of help avoidance, which has implications for the cially important with young adolescents. Furthermore, the low
understanding of the nature and measurement of help avoidance. frequencies of any type of help seeking in classrooms, particularly
Third, taking a person-centered approach enabled us to create with older children, have been an obstacle to observations of help
multidimensional profiles of students with different help-seeking seeking in the classroom.
behavioral tendencies in the classroom, documenting similarities Experiments have also been useful in providing information
and differences across those groups in attitudes, motivation, affect, about microprocesses of help seeking (e.g., observing success/
and relationships. This provided important corroboration with pre- failure on a particular problem as well as student response and
vious experimental and student-report research on the importance subsequent performance) and information about the effects of
of motivational factors and expanded our understanding of affect specific variables of interest (e.g., goals). However, with an ex-
and relationship factors related to help-seeking behavior. Finally, perimenter available to answer questions in a one-on-one session
we found that teacher reports of help-seeking behaviors were and explicit encouragement for students to choose adaptive or
associated with achievement both concurrently and longitudinally. maladaptive kinds of help (e.g., hints or answers), the context of
When we controlled for prior achievement, help-seeking behavior
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experiments is markedly different from the classroom. Finally,

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predicted future achievement, providing strong evidence that help student reports have been useful in providing information about
seeking is a critical strategy for learning and achievement. We behavior in classrooms, but without any cross-informant validity
discuss each of these contributions below. of student reports, accuracy of student reports can be questioned.
Across two different large samples, we found similar assess- Particularly when student reports of behavior are associated with
ments regarding the scope of help-seeking problems for young student reports of motivational beliefs, shared method variance and
adolescent students. By the end of elementary school, teachers confounding third-variable explanations (e.g., general student out-
viewed the majority of their students (65% and 74% for Studies 1 look) of associations between beliefs and behavior remain unad-
and 2, respectively) as having appropriate help-seeking skills. dressed. Because teachers are in a position to assess student need
Teachers viewed the avoidance of help seeking as a problem and help-seeking behavior over extended periods of time, they are
affecting more students (22% and 19% for Studies 1 and 2, an important source of information about student help-seeking
respectively) than dependent help seeking (13% and 7% for Stud-
behavior in the classroom. The use of teacher reports contributes a
ies 1 and 2, respectively). This is consistent with a recent review
new angle on help seeking and provides a fuller understanding of
of help-seeking research in which Newman (2000) noted that there
help-seeking behavior in the classroom.
is a positive association with age and adaptive help-seeking skills
The groups of students that teachers identified as having differ-
that is related to the development of children’s metacognitive and
ent help-seeking tendencies differed from each other in many
social skills. Both Nelson-Le Gall and Newman have found that
ways. In general, the expected group differences were found, with
upper elementary school students display more adaptive help seek-
avoidant help seekers reporting the most maladaptive psycholog-
ing than do younger elementary school students (Nelson-Le Gall,
ical profile. These results corroborate previous experimental and
Kratzer, Jones, & DeCooke, 1990; Newman & Schwager, 1995).
survey studies regarding goals and academic efficacy. As hypoth-
However, despite the better help-seeking skills children acquire as
esized, students with avoidant help-seeking tendencies were less
they get older, there is a well-documented increase in the avoid-
ance of help seeking as children progress through school (Good et likely to be oriented toward mastery goals and more likely to be
al., 1987; Newman, 1990). Although children of all ages weigh oriented toward performance-avoid goals than students with ap-
costs (e.g., looking dumb) and benefits (e.g., getting useful infor- propriate help-seeking tendencies. This is consistent with the find-
mation) when deciding whether to seek help or not, potential costs ing that students with avoidant tendencies endorsed ability con-
have a stronger negative effect for older children (Newman, 2000). cerns as a reason for avoiding help more than students with
Thus, it is not surprising that in our samples of 12- and 11-year- appropriate help-seeking tendencies. There were no group differ-
olds, teachers tended to report most students as exhibiting appro- ences in performance-approach goal orientations. Whereas a con-
priate help seeking. However, when they perceived students as cern with garnering positive judgments of one’s ability was unre-
inappropriate help seekers, they saw avoidance as a more prevalent lated, a concern with avoiding negative judgments of one’s ability
issue than dependence. was strongly related to help-avoidance behavior. Thus, similar to
There was agreement between teachers and students regarding many other achievement behaviors, it is the avoidance aspect of
which students most often avoided help seeking when they needed performance goal orientations that is detrimental (Elliot & McGre-
it. Despite the fact that help avoidance is the absence of a behavior, gor, 2001; Middleton & Midgley, 1997; Pintrich, 2000b).
which plausibly could make it harder to detect, teachers could Students who tended to avoid help seeking also reported lower
identify this problem. Teachers were not simply picking up on academic efficacy than both other types of help seekers. Students’
general passivity, as was shown by there being no differences in perceptions were in line with their achievement: Students with
student-reported disengagement among the three teacher-identified avoidant help-seeking tendencies had lower standardized math test
help-seeking groups. Thus, teacher reports provide a new way to scores than students with appropriate help-seeking tendencies and
assess help-seeking tendencies in general and help-avoidant ten- lower math grades than students with either dependent or appro-
dencies in particular. Strengths of this approach can complement priate help-seeking tendencies. Furthermore, students with
challenges of other approaches. Observations have been useful in avoidant help-seeking tendencies showed a more maladaptive tra-
providing some information about help-seeking behavior (e.g., jectory of achievement over time compared with students with
contrasting types of questions asked in the classroom; Nelson-Le adaptive help-seeking tendencies, consistent with recent concep-
Gall, 1985). However, without knowledge of student need, observ- tualizations stating that adaptive help-seeking habits are a critical
 284 RYAN, PATRICK, AND SHIM

aspect of a self-regulated, strategic approach to learning (Karabe- though this is supported by our general pattern of findings, par-
nick, 1998; Nelson-Le Gall, 1985; Newman, 2000). ticularly with achievement variables, there is likely to be some
The profile of students who tended to avoid help seeking is variability in the quality of help dispensed by teachers, and this
troubling in many regards. Avoiders reported the lowest levels of may vary by teacher and student characteristics. Examining the
emotional support and social efficacy with the teacher. Part of the other side of the helping interactions with teachers would broaden
reason these students did not approach the teacher for help when the understanding of help seeking in the classroom. We focused
they needed it may be because they did not perceive the teacher as predominantly on individual characteristics that related to help-
caring about their feelings and were not confident about interacting seeking behavior (with the exception of perceived teacher sup-
successfully with their teacher. Avoiders also reported higher port). Contextual characteristics, such as teachers’ beliefs (Ryan et
levels of expedient concerns compared with appropriate help seek- al., 1998) and their instructional practices and messages (Patrick,
ers. They often did not ask for help because they did not think it Turner, Meyer, & Midgley, 2003), have also been shown to be
would result in useful information. Furthermore, avoiders per- related to patterns of student help seeking. In the future, research-
ceived less academic support from teachers compared with appro- ers could build on the present findings by exploring contextual
priate help seekers. They were less likely to believe the teacher characteristics in conjunction with teacher reports of student help-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

cared about their learning. Given these findings, it is not surprising seeking behavior.
that avoiders reported lower levels of positive affect in math class Appropriate help seeking—that is, making attempts to resolve
compared with all other students. Taken together, these results difficulty or uncertainty alone at first, but seeking help when
support the conclusion that social relationships are critical to reaching an impasse—is important to achievement. However,
understanding why students avoid help seeking (Nelson-Le Gall & teachers have reported that a sizable number of students do not
Gumerman, 1984; Newman, 2000; Newman & Schwager, 1993; engage in adaptive help-seeking behavior. Teachers can identify
Ryan, Pintrich, & Midgley, 2001; Wintre et al., 1988). students with different help-seeking behaviors. Our study identi-
Students who were viewed as being overly dependent on seek- fied how appropriate help seekers differ from dependent and
ing help in math class made up the smallest group. In many ways, avoidant help seekers on a range of psychological factors that may
these students did not show a profile unique from other types of not be so readily apparent to teachers. However, such information
help seekers. Specifically, their attitudes about help seeking, goal is critical for teachers to best support students’ help seeking and,
orientations, social relationship with their teacher, and positive ultimately, their success in school.
affect were similar to those of students viewed by teachers as
tending to display appropriate help-seeking strategies. However,
similar to avoiders, students perceived as being overly dependent References
reported higher levels of anxiety in math class than students who
were viewed as appropriate help seekers. Furthermore, although Anderman, C., Cheadle, A., Curry, D. S., Diehr, P., Schultz, L., & Wagner,
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particularly efficacious about their capabilities, experienced anxi- 630 – 643.
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when they experienced a challenge rather than persisting indepen- goals on help-seeking behaviors and attitudes. Journal of Educational
dently. Despite the small numbers of dependent help seekers, it Psychology, 87, 261–271.
would seem valuable to pay attention to this group of students. Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance
Over time, dependent help seekers had a more maladaptive achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis.
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Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (2001). A 2 ⫻ 2 achievement goal
(similar to avoidant help seekers). It may be that the manner in
framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 501–519.
which teachers interact with these students is crucial for long-term Good, T. L., Slavings, R. L., Harel, K. H., & Emerson, H. (1987). Student
outcomes. If teachers are perceived as frustrated, hurried, and passivity: A study of question-asking in K–12 classrooms. Sociology of
unwelcoming, dependent students may be more vulnerable to Education, 60, 181–199.
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