Awareness Programme

on
Value Added Products from Fruits and Vegetables Code: NPV-001

2 POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT OF

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Sponsored by – School of Agriculture

Ministry of Agriculture Indira Gandhi National Open
(Deptt. of Agriculture & Co-operation) University, New Delhi
Govt. of India
“

Å
””

“Education is a liberating force, and in

our age it is also a democratising force,
cutting across the barriers of caste and
class, smoothing out inequalities imposed
by birth and other circumstances.”

Indira Gandhi

2
Code: NPV-001 Module-2

POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Awareness Programme
on
Value Added Products from Fruits and Vegetables

Sponsored by

Ministry of Agriculture
(Deptt. of Agriculture & Co-operation)
Govt. of India

School of Agriculture
Indira Gandhi National Open University
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068

3
Organizing Committee
Prof. H. P. Dixit Prof. S. C. Garg Prof. Panjab Singh Mr. A. K. Agarwal
Ex-Vice Chancellor Acting Vice Chancellor Former Professor, SOA & presently Joint Secretary (Extn)
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi Vice Chancellor Ministry of Agriculture
BHU, Banaras (U.P) Deptt. of Agri. & Cooperation
(Govt. of India)
Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi

Expert Committee
Dr. P. G. Adsule Dr Nirankar Nath Dr. (Mrs.) Charanjit Kaur
Director, Professor (Retd.) Senior Scientist
National Research Center for Grapes, Post Deptt. of Food Science and Tech., Division of Post Harvest
Bag No. 3, Solapur Road, Pune- 412307 G.B.P.U.A & T, Pantnagar-263145 Technology
(Maharashtra) (Uttaranchal) IARI, New Delhi-110012

Dr. S. Laxmi Devi Mr. A. K. Srivastava Mr. K. M. Nath

Principal, GM, Mother Dairy Food Processing Ltd. Deputy Director
Shaheed Rajguru College of Applied Fruit and Vegetables Unit, Mangolpuri Fruit and Vegetable Preservation
Sciences for Women, Jhilmil Colony, Vivek Indl Area, Phase-1, New Delhi-110083 Deptt. of Food Processing
Vihar, Industries (Govt. of India), New
New Delhi-110095 Dr. B. P. Singh Delhi-110011
Principal Scientist
Mr. N. C. Saha Deptt. of Horticulture
Professor & Head, Central Institute for Subtropical
Laboratory Division Horticulture, Post Office, Kakori,
Indian Institute of Packaging, Lucknow-227107 (U.P)
E-2, M.I.D.C Area, Andheri-East, Mumbai-
400093 (Maharashtra)

IGNOU FACULTY (School of Agriculture)

Prof. Panjab Singh, Former Director
Dr. M. C. Nair, Deputy Director, CEE
Dr. M. K. Salooja, Professor
Dr. Indrani Lahiri, Assistant Director
Dr. D. S. Khurdiya, Senior Consultant
Dr. P. L. Yadav, Senior Consultant
Shri Jaya Raj, Senior Consultant
Shri Rajesh Singh, Consultant

Programme Preparation Team

Module Writer : Dr. P. G. Adsule, Director, National Research Center for Grapes, Post Bag No. 3, Solapur
Road, Pune- 412307 (Maharashtra); and
Dr. B. P. Singh, Principal Scientist, Deptt. of Horticulture, Central Institute for Subtropical
Horticulture, Post Office, Kakori, Lucknow-227107 (U.P)
Editors : Dr. D. S. Khurdiya, Senior Consultant, SOA; Dr. M. C. Nair, Dy Director, CEE; and
Ms. Poonam Agarwal, Junior Consultant, SOA
Programme Director : Dr. B. S. Hansra, Director, SOA
Programme Coordinator: Dr. M. C. Nair, Dy Director, CEE; and Dr. P. Vijaykumar, Lecturer, SOA

Project Coordination Committee

Project Director : Dr. B. S. Hansra, Director, SOA
Project Coordinator : Dr. M. C. Nair, Dy Director, CEE; Dr. M. K. Salooja; and Dr. P. Vijaykumar, Lecturer, SOA
Aug 2006
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2005.
ISBN:
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Copyright holder.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the office of School of
Agiculture at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the official website of IGNOU at www.ignou.ac.in.
Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Prof. S.C. Garg, Acting -Vice
Chancellor, IGNOU.
Printed at
Paper Used: Agrobased Environment Friendly
4
 PROGRAMME INTRODUCTION

Fruits and vegetables have been a part and parcel of the life of human beings since
time immemorial. The popularity of vegetarian food not only in India but also in western
countries makes the fruits and vegetable sector more important now a days. India ranks
second in world fruits and vegetable production but this huge potential is untapped. Lot of
produce goes waste due to improper post harvest practices, unplanned marketing
strategies of fresh produce and ignorance to value addition. If farmers, farm women,
agricultural labourers and rural youth are made aware about the scientific, economic and
entrepreneurial aspects of fresh produce marketing and their preservation/ processing, it
will be a major boost to our food sector. To make people aware about value addition to
fresh as well as processed products, the School of Agriculture, Indira Gandhi National
Open University, New Delhi under the sponsorship of Ministry of Agriculture, Deptt. of
Agriculture and Co-operation, Govt. of India has developed an awareness programme on
“Value added products from fruits and vegetables”. In this programme nine modules
including Introduction, Post Harvest Management, Factory Standards and Product
Specifications, Processing and Value Addition, Quality Assurance, Packaging, Marketing
of Fresh and Processed Fruits and Vegetable Products, Setting up an Enterprise,
Institutional Support to the Entrepreneurs have been developed along with audio visual
films on various aspects of value addition to fruits and vegetables.
2. POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

S. No. Module Structure P. No.

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Post Harvest Management
3.1 Losses caused by various factors
3.1.1 Physiological factors
3.1.2 Physiological breakdown
3.1.3 Physical factors
3.1.4 Pathological and entomological factors
3.2 Prevention of Losses
3.2.1 Tools used for harvesting
3.2.2 Field containers
3.2.3 Least exposure to sunlight/heat and care during field
transport
3.2.4 Sizing and grading
3.2.5 Cleaning and washing
3.2.6 Trimming
3.2.7 Sorting
3.2.8 Curing
3.2.9 Waxing
3.2.10 Disease control
3.2.11 Packing
3.2.12 Packaging
3.2.13 Ripening or colour initiation
3.2.14 Cooling/ Precooling
3.3 Maturity, Maturity Indices and Harvesting System
3.3.1 What is maturity?
3.3.2 Horticultural maturity
3.3.3 Indices of maturity/harvesting
3.3.4 Maturity determination
3.4 Harvesting Methods
3.4.1 Time of harvesting
3.4.2 Handling during harvesting
4.0 Let us sum up
5.0 Self Assessment Questions and Answers
6.0 Activities
7.0 Assignments
8.0 Do’s and Don’ts
9.0 Keywords

6
2. POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We daily eat fruits as fresh in form of salad and vegetables after cooking, but
many of us hardly know where they come from and how much care they have received
during handling. Management of fruits and vegetables after the harvest is an important
step till it reaches in the hands of the consumer. We as a consumer always look for the
freshness of produce with least damage. Fruits and vegetables being most perishable,
bulky, soft and wet are more prone to injuries / damages during handling and as a result
losses its good appearance and freshness. In order to reduce the damage to fresh fruits and
vegetables during their handling a lot of care has to be taken in terms of better handling
methods, packaging, good transportation. In this module, losses caused to fruits and
vegetables, prevention of losses, appropriate maturity for better quality, handling and
storage have been described.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this module you will be able to:

Know the type of losses caused by the various factors;

Suggest the measures and ways to reduce or prevent the losses;

Guide on various pretreatments to improve the shelf life of the commodity;

Suggest better packaging and transportation for fresh fruits and vegetables to
reduce their damage and to extend shelf life; and

Guide on various maturity parameters for harvesting the produce

3.0 POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT

3.1 Losses caused by various factors

It is important to know why fruits and vegetables are considered highly

perishable commodities among all the food stuffs. This is due to their higher (85 to 95
per cent) water content. Even a small loss of water to the extent of 2 to 5 per cent from
these commodities leads to shriveling and the commodity becomes unmarketable. Apart
from this, fruits and vegetables are in large unit size, having high respiration rate, soft

7
texture and therefore, more prone to bruising. These factors further lead to more rotting
and senescence and thus limits the shelf life of fruits and vegetables.

There are various factors which cause the losses in fruits and vegetables. Let us
know these factors.

3.1.1 Physiological factors

It is interesting to know that like mammals, fruits and vegetables also respire after
harvest. During this process inhale oxygen (O2) and give out carbon dioxide (CO2) as
they are living entities. This action leads to breaking of the stored organic materials into
simple end products. In this process energy is released in the form of heat. The loss of
stored food reserves during respiration means hastening the senescence, reduced food
value, loss of flavor, quality particularly sweetness and loss of salable dry weight.
Vegetables like spinach, peas, asparagus, sweet corn, mushroom has the highest
respiration rate while it is the least in dried fruits and vegetables, dates and nuts. Apples,
beet, citrus, garlic, onion, papaya, pineapple and potato has comparatively low rate of
respiration and therefore, better shelf life compared to other commodities.

Fig.1: Fruits in low respiration group (citrus fruit)

Fig.2: High respiration group (leafy vegetables)

Apart from CO2 fruits and vegetables also produce ethylene, the simplest of the organic
compounds affecting the physiological processes of plants. Ethylene, as plant hormone,
regulates many aspects of growth, development and senescence. It is physiologically

8
active in trace amounts i.e. less than 0.1 ppm. Generally, ethylene production rate
increases with maturity, at harvest, physical injuries, disease incidence, and increased
temperature up to 30oC. Sapota, passion fruit and cherimoya has the highest ethylene
production rate while the citrus, cauliflower, cherry, grape, pomegranate, strawberry, leaf
and root vegetables, potato, cauliflower, banana, fig, guava, mango, litchi and tomato has
the moderate level of ethylene production. By now it will be clear to you that higher
respiration and ethylene production after the harvest of fruit and vegetables reduces their
shelf life at ambient temperature.

Fig.3: Fruit of higher ethylene production (sputa)

Physiological factors like carbon dioxide and ethylene production are not visible
but metabolic changes are quite visible. Metabolic changes after harvest in fruits and
vegetables change the colour, texture, taste and flavor and this leads towards shortening
of shelf life. Starch to sugar conversion; loss of chlorophyll (green pigment) in fruits (for
e.g. mango, guava) leads to ripening by forming carotenoid (yellow) and anthocyanin
pigments (blue, purple) while it is not desirable in vegetables.

Have you ever noticed that after prolonged storage potato, apple, banana and
mango tastes sweeter whereas peas and sweet corn get tougher. This is due to the fact that
starch is converted into sugar after harvest in potato, apple, banana, mango; while the
sugar is converted into starch in peas and sweet corn. Breakdown of protein and other
polysaccharides and increase in lignin content after harvest results in softening of fruits
and toughening of root vegetables respectively. Loss of Vitamin-C in fruits and
vegetables during storage reduce the nutrient quality. Sprouting of potato, onions, garlic
and root crop reduces the utilization value and accelerates deterioration (Fig: 4 & 5).

9
Fig. 4: Sprouting reduces the utilization value Fig. 5: Change of colour leading to
reduced shelf life.

Seed germination inside fruits such as tomatoes, peppers and lemons after
harvest is undesirable change. Water loss during transpiration from the peel of fruits
and vegetables after harvest is the main cause of deterioration because it results not only
in direct quantitative loss but also in appearance, besides texture and nutritional quality
see (Fig: 6).

Fig. 6: Water loss from fruit results into shriveling

3.1.2 Physiological breakdown

This factor is generally ignored due to unawareness. Exposure of commodity to

indispensable temperature can result in physiological disorders and some examples are
given below:

Heat injury is induced by exposure to sunlight and/or in extreme high

temperature. This situation can occur in fruits and vegetables after harvest see (Fig: 7).

Fig. 7: Heat injury on lemon fruit

Certain type of physiological disorders like softening of

texture/peel/pulp originates from preharvest nutritional
imbalances particularly of calcium, potassium, zinc, boron, molybdenum etc. Other types
of injuries like freezing injury can occur due to holding or storing fruit below its freezing

10
temperature while the chilling injury occurs in tropical and subtropical fruits due to
storing fruits below their optimum storage temperature. For instance, banana gets
chilling injury and turns black when stored in refrigerator at 4oC as against its optimum
temperature of 13oC (Fig: 8).

Fig. 8: Chilling injury to banana

Very low level of oxygen (O2) and high level of carbon dioxide (CO2) can also
cause injury in fruits and vegetables during gas storage or at ordinary storage due to over
capacity or under capacity of fruits / vegetables during storage.

3.1.3 Physical factors

Various types of physical damage like surface injuries, impact injuries, vibration
bruising also occur in fruits and vegetables after harvest and these are major contributors
to deterioration of the horticultural produce. In wholesale sabji mandi we usually see
damaged fruits and vegetables lying here and there. These injuries/damages mainly occur
in indigenous types of packaging materials like bamboo baskets, wooden boxes and
gunny sacks where there is no appropriate padding or cushioning inside the container to
take care of these injuries during handling and transport of produce.

Fig.9: Physical damage to ber and tomato due to crushing and bruising

3.1.4 Pathological and Entomological factors

It is one of the most common and obvious symptoms of deterioration that results
from the activity of bacteria and fungi which are already present on the surface of fruit or
vegetables. Have you noticed that cut and bruised fruits and vegetables deteriorate rapidly
than their wholesome counterparts? It is because the microorganisms get access into

11
commodities through its physical or mechanical injuries and bring deterioration in the
form of rot and softening of fruits. The known fungi during storage are Aspergillus,
Penicillium, Rhizopus, Cladosporium and bacteria like cocci and lactobacillus group.
Stem end rot is most common in mango, Alternaria rot in grape, Penicillium in citrus
fruits, Aspergillus and Rhizopus in most vegetables (Fig: 10).

Fig.10: Apple scab & onion rot

Fig.11: Brinjal and pomegranate affected by fruit borer

Presence of fruit fly or stone weevil infestation that

mainly occurs in mango during storage is major
entomological problem and therefore, damage caused by this
pest is most important. Insect infestation in dried fruits
during storage is also common damage and therefore
maintaining appropriate moisture level in dried fruits and
moisture proof packagings are important aspects in storage of
dried fruits (Fig:12).
Fig. 12: Food deterioration due to
insects and pests

3.2 Prevention of losses

Earlier we have learnt about the various factors that cause the losses. The factors
include the physiological including respiration and ethylene production, metabolic
changes after the harvest, physiological breakdown due to heat injury, chilling injury,

12
freezing injury, and the mineral deficiencies leading to cell wall damage, besides physical
damage and pathological damage. Now we shall look in to various approaches and
means by which these losses can be prevented and reduced.

Protection of fruits and vegetables, therefore, must begin with cultural practices in
the field and continue until they are consumed. Deterioration or losses can result during
production from improper pruning, thinning, fertilization, disease control and so on.
Many problems result from cumulative insults to the fruit during the post harvest
handling periods. Thus, protection is vital, both in the field and the pack house to avoid
immediate causes of deterioration and to delay its onset later in the distribution channel.

3.2.1 Tools / methods used for harvesting

Fig. 13: Use of hand gloves Fig. 14: Use of scissors and secature for harvest

Tools or hand used for harvesting the fruits and vegetables should cause least injuries or
bruising while plucking and handling these commodities. Tapered nails on the hand
fingers and also the rough surface of hand palm may also cause injuries and bruising and
therefore, it is advisable to use soft hand gloves while harvesting and handling. You can
see correct method of harvesting of fruits from tree in figure 15.

X √
Fig. 15: Wrong and correct methods of plucking fruits from tree

13
3.2.2 Field containers

Field containers used to gather fruits in the field should have smooth bottom and
sides so that while gathering the fruits in such containers bruises or injury does not occur.
Plastic crates have become common field containers in place of bamboo or metal baskets.

Fig. 16: Crates used for collecting fruits and vegetables

3.2.3 Least exposure to sunlight / heat and care during field transport

Assembled goods in the field should not be exposed to direct sunlight or heat and

shall be stored under the shade before packing and entering into the distribution channel.

Many opportunities for bruising occur during field transport. This may occur due
to impact, over or under filling of containers. Supervision is needed at all stages of field
transport to minimize the accumulation/occurrence of physical injuries.

Fig. 17: Fruits and vegetables stored in shade away from sunlight

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3.2.4 Sizing and Grading

Depending upon the commodity to be packed, other special treatment may be

required pre sizing and grading. This operation is done by hand before packing but
machines are also used for this purpose in modern pack houses established in this country
for fruits like mango, citrus and few root or stem vegetables commodities. Such facilities
are available in few private pack houses and also in National Dairy Development Board
(NDDB) owned pack houses under the “SAFAL” chain. One has to see that no injury or
bruising occurs as result of dumping or friction or rough handling during the process.
Weight, volume, length, diameter or other parameters are used as the criteria for
separating products in to unit size (Fig: 18).

Fig. 18: Graded fruits and vegetables

3.2.5 Cleaning and washing

Fruits and vegetables may need cleaning and washing to remove soil or
contamination or other foreign material or wax from product surface by washing or
brushing or both (Fig: 18). The wash water may or may not be chlorinated. However, the
recycled water shall always be chlorinated. Generally municipal tap water is chlorinated.

15
Fig. 19: Washing and cleaning of vegetables before sale

3.2.6 Trimming

Removal of unwanted leaves, stems or roots before grading or packing mostly in

vegetables of cabbage, cauliflower, dried onion, garlic, lettuce and asparagus is called
trimming. This reduces the unnecessary foreign weight of the commodity.

3.2.7 Sorting

Select the product by maturity, shape, colour or some other physical parameters.
Culling is part of both sorting and grading. Spoiled and damage fruits and vegetables
should be sorted out from fresh and healthy lot.

Fig. 20: Sorting of damaged fruits before packing

3.2.8 Curing

Vegetables particularly garlic, onions, potatoes, sweet potatoes are cured after
harvest and before storage and marketing. Don’t confuse it with curing of disease. Onions
and garlic are cured to dry the necks and outer scales. Potatoes and sweet potatoes are
cured to develop wound peridermis over cut, broken or skinned surfaces. Curing helps to
heal harvesting injuries, reduces water loss, and prevents entry of decay causing
organisms during storage. In our country this operation is generally done in the fields.

Fig: 21: Curing and storing of fruits

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3.2.9 Waxing

Cover surface of product with food grade wax to reduce water loss through
epidermal openings or to replace natural wax removed during washing. Don’t use
commercial candle wax. Waxes are generally applied only to fruit type vegetables like
tomatoes, egg plant, cucumber, capsicum and fruits like mango, banana, citrus, lime, etc.
This can be applied by giving dip in waxol (6 to 12%) solution or spraying it on the
surface of fruit. There are wax applicators developed for this purpose.

3.2.10 Disease control

Some post harvest disease preventing treatments may be applied during packing.
Heat treatment or vapour heat treatment has been suggested in case of mango, papaya and
other fruits to control the rot diseases and the infestation of fruit fly or stone weevil.

Fig. 22: Diseased and disease free vegetable

Fungicide application, when needed, is commonly applied through dip or spray method or

often with waxing or immediately after waxing. Fungicides are often incorporated into
fruit waxes to aid in achieving a uniform surface application. All chemical application
must be made in strict conformity to label provisions.

3.2.11 Packing

Enclose the consumer units of product in individual packaging (wraps, bags,

sleeves, trays or other units) that are then packed in master packages. Most material used
for consumer units packaging are plastic films composed of two or more types of films
material combined into single film. Paper bags are also used. Product unit in a consumer
unit packages should be of comparable weights, size, maturity and grade. Some

17
 packaging involves enclosing a single product unit (a head of cauliflowers) while in other
cases, the product units are enclosed in a single consumer unit (potatoes, radish, carrots).
Packaging is done both manually and automatically.

Fig. 23: Packing material used for packaging fruits and vegetable

3.2.12 Packaging

Packaging is used to protect fruits and vegetables from environment factors, it

makes produce more attractive. For packaging assemble a given quantity (count or
weight) of comparably sized product units or consumer units in packages. When counts
are used, products are often packed in specific arrangements within packages. Counts,
arrangements, and weights are often specified in and regulated by, various government
and industry codes or tariffs. Packages may be earthen pots, bamboo baskets, bags,
cartons, crates, lugs, bulk bins. Some products are shipped unpacked to market in bulk
trucks or railroad cars. Bananas and other fruits are examples of these cases.

3.2.13 Ripening or colour initiation

Apply ethylene or ethylene producing materials to stimulate ripening in fruits like

banana and mango and tomato or change the colour in oranges, lime and lemons. There
are specialized chambers/rooms to control temperature, air composition and humidity for
such treatments. Such facilities are available now with few private packers and National
Dairy Development Board (NDDB) pack houses.

Fig.24: Change of colour indicates

maturity in tomato Fig.25: Chambers with controlled storage conditions

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3.2.14 Cooling/Precooling

Remove heat from product before shipping or long-term storage by cooling.

Lowering product temperature fast after harvest extends storage and shelf life. This is
followed for high value and long distance traveling fruit/vegetable commodities
particularly for export purpose. In export pack houses particularly in case of grapes,
mango and banana; those are common practices to reduce the temperature of harvested
produce to minimum optimum storage temperature within smallest possible time after
harvest (i.e. 4 to 6 hrs after harvest).

3.3 Maturity, maturity indices and harvesting system

For most fresh perishables, harvest is manual, so the picker is responsible for
deciding whether or not the product has reached the correct maturity for harvest.
Maturity has an important bearing on their storage life and quality. This may affect the
way they are handled, transported and marketed.

Fig. 26: Stage of watermelon and maize harvest for use

3.3.1 What is maturity?

Maturity is a stage at which a commodity has reached a sufficient stage of growth

and development. After harvesting and post-harvest handling including ripening, its
quality will be at least the minimum acceptable to the ultimate consumer.

3.3.2 Horticultural maturity

It is very important to know when fruits should be plucked from trees and when
vegetables should be taken up from the plants for good quality produce. Horticultural
maturity is the stage of development where a plant possesses the requisite characters for
utilization by the consumer for particular purpose. For example, sprouts or seedlings are
horticulturally mature in the early stage of development where as most vegetative tissue,
flowers, fruits and underground storage organs become horticulturally mature in the mid
stage, and seeds and nuts in the late stage of development. The fruit becomes edible only

19
after proper ripening has taken place. In contrast, in most vegetables optimal maturity
coincides with optimal eating quality.

Fig. 27: Radish ready for harvest

3.3.3 Indices of maturity/ harvesting

The maturity index for commodity is a measurement or measurements that can be used to
determine whether a particular commodity is mature. Harvesting indices are important to
the trade in fresh fruits and vegetables to meet trade regulations and marketing strategy.

Fig. 28: Indications of maturity in fruits

Objective maturity indices are vital for accurate prediction of harvested dates.
Maturity indices for selected fruits and vegetables are given below:

Maturity Indices Examples of fruits / vegetables

Elapsed days from full bloom to Apples, pears, mango, banana
harvest
Mean heat units during development Peas, apples, sweet corn
Development of abscission layer Some melons, apples
Surface morphology and structure Cuticle formation on grapes, tomatoes, Netting on
some melons, Gloss of some fruits (development of
wax)
Size All fruits and many vegetables
Specific gravity Cherries, water melons, potatoes, mangoes

20
 Shape Angularity of banana fingers, Full cheeks of mangoes,
Compactness of broccoli and cauliflower
Solidity Lettuce, cabbage, Brussels, sprouts
Textural properties
Firmness Apples, pears, stone fruits
Tenderness Peas
Colour, external All fruits and most vegetables
Internal colour and structure Formation of jelly like material in tomato fruits, Flesh
colour of some fruits
Compositional factors
Total solids Avocados, kiwifruit
Starch content Apples, pears
Sugar content Apples, pears, stone fruits, grapes
Acid content, sugar/acid ratio Pomegranates, citrus, papaya, melons, kiwifruit
Juice content Citrus fruits
Oil content Avocados
Astringency (tannin content) Persimmons, dates
Internal ethylene concentration Apples, pears, banana, mango
Development of abscission layers, surface morphology and structure, size, shape, texture
properties, colour, total solids, sugar, starch, acid and juice are important indices for us.

3.3.4 Maturity determination

Methods of maturity determination in various fruits and vegetables are given below:

Index Method of determination Subjective Objective Destructive Non-

destructive
Elapsed days from Computation ×
full bloom
Mean heat units Computation from weather × ×
data
Development of Visual or force of separation × × ×
abscission layer
Surface structure Visual × ×
Size Various measuring devices, × ×
weight
Specific gravity Use of density gradient × ×
solutions, flotation techniques
vol/wt
Shape Dimensions ratio charts × × ×
Solidity Feel, bulk, density, -rays, X- × × ×
rays

21
Textural properties
Firmness Firmness testers, deformation × ×
Tenderness Tenderometer × ×
Toughness Texturometer, fibro meter × ×
(also: chemical methods for
determination of poly-
saccharides)
Colour, external Light reflectance, × ×
Visual colour charts × ×
Colour internal Light transmittance, delayed × ×
light emission
Internal structure Light transmittance, delayed × ×
light emission
Visual examination × ×

From the table above you can infer that maturity is determined by subjective,
objective, destructive and nondestructive methods. For example- Size measured by
various measuring devices is objective and nondestructive whereas tenderness measured
by tenderometer is an objective and destructive method.

The various changes occurred at maturity which help in maturity determination

are further described:

1. Physical changes at maturity

A wide range of physical characters of commodity is used to assess their maturity.

Changes in size, shape or surface characteristics of fruits and vegetables are common
maturity indices. Vegetables are harvested when they have reached a marketable size,
and before they become too large. Banana maturity is determined as a change in diameter
of the fingers and their angularity. The change in surface gloss or feel (waxiness) is used
as practical tool in harvesting of some fruits and vegetables.

Measurement of the development of abscission zone at the stalk of the fruit is

possibly the oldest of all maturity indices. The colour change that accompanies maturity
in many fruits is widely used as maturity index. Colour comparison techniques are
therefore commonly used to assess the fruit maturity.

Maturation of fruit is often accompanied by softening. Over mature vegetables

frequently become fibrous or tough. These properties can be used to indicate maturity.

22
2. Chemical changes at maturity

The maturation of fruits and vegetables is also accompanied by profound changes

in their chemical composition. Chemical changes that are used for maturity estimation
include the change in total soluble solids, measured using refractometer, changes in the
distribution of starch in the flesh of the commodity, and measured using a starch / iodine
reaction, and the sugar / acid ratio, which is used as legal maturity index for citrus and
other fruits in some countries.

3. Physiological changes at maturity

The maturation of commodities is associated with changes in their physiology as

measured by changing patterns of respiration and ethylene production. However, these
are hardly followed due to variability and complexity involved in these methods.

3.4 Harvesting methods

The goal of harvesting are to gather a commodity from the field at the proper
level of maturity, with a minimum of damage and loss, as rapidly as possible and at
minimum cost. Today, as in the past, these goals are best achieved through hand
harvesting in most fruits, vegetables and flower crops. Hand harvesting has many
advantages over mechanical/ machine harvesting. Humans can accurately select maturity,
allowing accurate grading and multiple harvests. This is most relevant and appropriate in
Indian situation. Recently some mechanical devices have been developed by ICAR and
SAU, which can enhance the efficiency of hand harvesting. Machine harvesting is
generally followed in the developed countries.

3.4.1 Time of Harvesting

Have you noticed at what time farmers harvest their produce? The fruits and
vegetables should be harvested early in the morning or late afternoon or evening. This
will protect the produce from high temperature.

3.4.2 Handling during harvesting

Handle fruit with minimum of damage. Hiring more workers can increase speed.
This requires less capital investment and use household employees.

23
4.0 LET US SUM UP

Post harvest management of fruits and vegetables is important to improve food

availability and to provide nutritional security to the nation. There are various factors
which cause losses of fruits and vegetables. Major factors include physiological,
physiological breakdown, physical, pathological and entomological. Respiration and
transpiration rate and ethylene production as a result of physiological disorder or physical
injuries in the form of bruising or cut or microbial attack are the major factors responsible
for losses.

Having understood the reasons of losses, the preventive measures have been then
suggested to control the losses. It must be begin with cultural practices in the field and
continue until they are consumed. The prevention of losses includes various approaches.
These approaches suggests the tools / methods used for harvesting, type of field
containers, least exposure to sunlight and heat, and care during transport, curing, waxing,
disease control treatments after harvest of produce, packaging and cooling of produce.

Maturity indices are an important parameter in deciding the harvest of produce for
better quality and shelf life of the product after harvest. Subjective and objective methods
of maturity determinations have been elaborated in chart and tabulative form for better
understanding the stage of maturity. Subjective method of maturities like size, shape,
colours are more popular and easy to follow.

5.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q.1 List out the type of losses.

Ans. Reduced food value, loss of flavour, quality particularly sweetness, loss of
saleable dry weight, decreased shelf life, sprouting of potatoes, heat injury, chill
injury, surface injuries and bruises, insect pest etc.

Q.2 List out the factors which cause losses.

Ans. Physiological factors, physiological breakdown, physical factors, pathological and

entomological factors.

Q.3 How will you prevent the losses of fresh fruits and vegetables?

Ans. By use of correct methods of harvesting, smooth field containers, least exposure to
sunlight, grading and sizing, curing, waxing, ripening, disease control and

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 precooling the produce.

Q.4 List out the various treatments undertaken for improving the appearance of the
produce and increase the shelf life.

Ans. Cleaning, washing, sorting, curing, waxing, application of fungicide, packing and
precooling.

Q.5 What is horticulture maturity and give maturity indices of few fruits and
vegetables.

Ans. Horticultural maturity is the stage of development where a plant possesses the
requisite characters for utilization by the consumer for particular purpose.
Angularity of banana fingers, full cheeks of mangoes, tenderness of peas, oil
content of avocados and development of abscission layer in mangoes are some
maturity indices.

Q.6 When fruits and vegetables should be harvested?

Ans. Fruits and vegetables should be harvested at horticultural maturity.

Q.7 What is the time of harvesting?

Ans. The fruits and vegetables should be harvested early in the morning or late
afternoon or evening.

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 6. ACTIVITIES

Activity - 1 Activity - 2
Objective: Objective:
To enhance the participants To orient the participants about the methods
understanding about the various factors to prevent the losses.
of post harvest losses.
Material:
Material: Fruit or vegetable field ready for harvest,
Any kind of harvested fruits and field containers, paper, hand gloves or other
vegetables. harvesting tools.
Method: Method:
Ask the participants to classify the Participants to use hand gloves or cleaned
produce in to different lots based on hands or appropriate tools to harvest the
their damage / loss caused by produce.
i) Physiological -sorting out the drying Handle the produce carefully in the field.
up / shriveled produce. Use clean and internally smooth field
containers for harvest. Handling of
ii) Physical - sorting of
containers carefully in the field and do not
bruised / damaged material.
store under the open sunshine.
iii) Pathological / entomological –
Grade / sort / size the produce in the field.
commodities infected with fungi mold
Pack in appropriate containers. Follow
or by insect / pests.
curing, waxing or ripening treatments
depending upon the commodity. Give
disease / insect control treatment before
storage. Pre cool the produce before storage
in to cold storage.

Activity -3
Objective:
How to identify the maturity stage of fruits and vegetables.
Material:
Fruit or vegetable field ready for harvesting or the harvest produce of any commodities.
Method:
Participants to have the survey of the field. Participants to use the guidelines of
maturity like size, shape, colour and texture, besides total soluble solids and specific
gravity in some cases. Spot the commodity and label them based on their maturity
stages. Participants to use refractometer to measure TSS and water for sinkers and
floater commodity.

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7. ASSIGNMENTS

1. Visit a fruit/vegetable cultivation farm and note down the method and time of
harvesting of fruit and vegetables.

2. Assess the post harvest losses from harvest till storage.

8. DO’S AND DON’TS

DO’S DON’TS
Follow scientific and recommended Do not harvest the produce in the noon
package of practices for growing and after noon.
quality fruits and vegetables. Do not leave the fruits and vegetables
Harvest the fruits / vegetables as on the bare soil in the field.
per their horticultural maturity. Do not handle the produce carelessly.
Use containers while harvesting the Do not break the cold chain.
fruits in the field and avoid putting
the commodities in the bare soil. Do not make injuries to the fruits and
vegetables.
Use standardized packaging
containers or packaging and Do not harvest the produce before
storage. horticulture maturity.
Handle the produce with care.
Always store the produce at low
temperature to extend its storage
life.
Always keep the cold chain alive
for storing and marketing of fruits
and vegetables.

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 Fig. 29 (a)

Fig. 29 (b)

Fig.29: Correct method of handling the produce

9. KEYWORDS

Physiological breakdown: It is a condition of commodity as a result of exposure

to indispensable temperature, humidity or soil and environmental conditions
during growing or storage of commodity.

Pathological and entomological: It is a type of losses caused by the infection of

fruits and vegetables during growing or after harvest as a result of fungi, mould,
bacteria and insect pests.

Sizing/grading/sorting: It is a kind of treatment for increasing the market value

of the produce and done based on the size, shape and colour of the commodities.

Cleaning/washing: It is a kind of treatment to remove soil or other contaminants

to improve the appearance of the produce.

Trimming: It is a kind of treatment to remove the unwanted / non-functional

plant part to reduce the bulk of the commodity.

Curing: It is a kind of treatment after harvest and before storage to dry up the
outer scales and neck in case of garlic and onion and to develop wound peridermis
over cut surfaces in case of potato and sweet potato.

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Waxing: It is a process to cover the surface of commodity by use of good food
grade wax to reduce the water loss and gas exchange.

Packing/packaging: It is an operation to encase or pack the individual

commodity or group of commodities. This is packing. However, when a group of
packed commodities are encashed or palleted are called as packaging.

Ripening: It is a process by external application of ethylene gas to ripen the fruits

like mango, banana and tomato.

Pre-cooling or cooling: It is a process to remove the field heat of commodities

after harvest by use of forced air stream in shortest possible time to extend the
storage life of commodity.

Maturity: It is a stage at which the commodity has reached a sufficient stage of

development.

Horticultural Maturity: It is a stage of development where a plant possesses the

requisite characters for utilization by the consumer for particular purpose.

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