~ $TEM CELLS10 11 12 13 14 15 TABLE OF CONTENT TOPIC Stem Cells Potential Uses Of Stem Cells Types Of Stem Cells Why Don’t All Cells Reproduce Forever ? How Do Stem Cells Help ? A Brief History of Stem Cell Research How Are Stem Cells Used in Medicine ? What Diseases Can Stem Cells Possible Help Treat ? How Do Physicians Harvest Stem Cells ? How Do Scientists Force Stem Cell Development Along Certain Lines ? What Are the Risks Associated with Stem Cell Therapy ? Some Examples Of Stem Cell Research Somatic cell nuclear transfer Conclusion BibliographyO sit 2 ”STEMCELLS Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the capacity to both differentiate and multiply into the 200 cells types that form a human being. Other cells in the body can only replicate a limited number of times before they begin to break down. When a stem cell divides, it can either remain a stem cell or turn into a differentiated cell, such as a muscle cell or a red blood cell. This means they're capable of developing into cells that serve numerous functions in different parts of the body. In total, the human body is composed of an estimated 30 trillion cells, making stem cells extremely important to human development. The use of stem cells to treat human disease is being investigated within scientific research, as well as thousands of clinical trials worldwide. Stem cells are also found in plants and animal.POTENTIALUSES OF STEMCELLS:- Since stem cells have the ability to turn into various other types of cell, scientists believe that they can be useful for treating and understanding diseases. Stem cells can be used to: *Grow new cells in a laboratory to replace damaged organs or tissues. *Correct parts of organs that don't work properly. *Research causes of genetic defects in cells. *Research how diseases occur or why certain cells develop into cancer cells. *Test new drugs for safety and effectiveness TYPESOF STEMCELLS:- Embryonic stem (ES) cells are pluripotent stem cells derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst-stage embryo. They can form any of the more than 200 cell types present in the human body. Quickly, embryonic stem cells start to specialize and lose their ability to turn into any type of cell.ADULT STEMCELLS: Adult stem cells are undifferentiated cells, found throughout the body after development, that multiply by cell division to replenish dying cells and regenerate damaged tissues . Also known as somatic stem cells. Adult stem cells are present in the human body after birth, during childhood, and throughout the adult lifespan. They exist in a number of places, including within the teeth, liver, brain, skeletal muscle, gut, ovarian epithelium, testis, heart, and a few other places. However, the most common places from which to harvest those cells today include the bone marrow, adipose tissue (fat cells), and peripheral blood. TYPES OF ADULT STEMCELLS * Hematopoietic Stem Cells (Blood Stem Cells) + Mesenchymal Stem Cells + Neural Stem Cells + Epithelial Stem Cells *Skin Stem CellsGeripoteut and pluripotent stem cold Pluripotent Stem CellTOTIPOTENT STEMCELLS Stem cells that exist in early development, are the most unspecialized cells called totipoten cells. Totipotent stem cells are the less differentiated cells and are present in the early stages of embryonic development. They are capable of dividing and differentiating into cells of the complete organism, both embryonic and extra-embryonic tissues, Totipotent stem cells have the capacity to produce all adult cell types, can enter the germ line (i.e. contribute genetic material to succeeding generations), and have proven ability to self-replicate (i.e. produce daughter cells that are identical to the parent). Totipotent stem cells are the most versatile stem cell type, because they are formed shortly after fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm cell. They can become all of the cells of the human body, as well as the cells of the embryo and developing fetus. At about four days into development, these totipotent cells specialize slightly , becoming pluripotent stem cells.PLURIPOTENT STEMCELLS: Pluripotent stem cells can give rise to all of the cell types that form the human body, but are not as versatile as totipotent cells. These are found only in the earliest stages of embryonic development. Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are an example of pluripotent stem cells, as are a type of "lab made" stem cell called an induced pluripotent stem cell (iPS cell Both types of pluripotent stem cells can give rise to nearly all of the tissues that form the human body. EMBRYONIC STEMCELLS Embryonic stem cells are controversial , because they are collected from early-stage embryos. Even though the embryo only consists of 100-200 cells at this stage, this limits their use. Induced pluriootent stem cells (Ips cells) are not controversial, because they are made from adult cells . IPS cells are differentiated cells scientists have coaxed back to an earlier stage of pluripotency, which is the ability to turn into any cell within the human body. They are usually created from skin or blood cells.Totipoten = wh = 3G remune system Nervous System | Multipotent / Unipotent Multipotent Stem CellTISSUE SPECIFIC ( MULTIPOTENT) STEMCELLS Adult stem cells are tissue-specific, meaning that they can become a limited number of cell types. An example of tissue-specific stem cells includes the mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which can develop into many of the cells associated with the skeletal system, such as bone cells, cartilage cells, muscle cells, and fat cells. Similarly, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) can give rise to a wide range of blood cells, including white blood cells, platelets, red blood cells and more. Tissue-specific stem cells are multipotent stem cells, because they can turn into many different, but not all, types of cells. TF Ce- Skeletal muscle Gass coltOtigopoteut- aud unipotent stem cell Oligopotent Stem Cell J Unipotent Stem CellOLIGOPOTENT STEMCELLS Oligopotent cells, are similar to the multipotent stem cells, but they become further restricted in their capacity to differentiate. While these cells can self-renew and differentiate into only a few cells, they can only do so to a limited extent. They can only do so into closely related cell types. For example, Hematopoietic stem cell (HSCs) are cells derived from mesoderm that can differentiate into other blood cells. Specifically, HSCs are oligopotent stem cells that can differentiate into both myeloid and lymphoid cells. Myeloid cells include basophils, dendritic cells, eosinophils, erythrocytes, macrophages, megakaryocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, and platelets, while lymphoid cells include B cells, T cells, and natural kills cells. UNIPOTENT STEMCELLS Unipotent stem cells are the least potent, produce only one cell type but have the property of self renewal that distinguishes them from non-stem cells. Examples of a unipotent stem cell are a germ line stem cell (producing sperm) and an epidermal stem cell (producing skin).Stem cell transplant Collection of patient sparen Stu yoreoved e p .. blood stem cells eg Sone Remaining blood F is returned Patient receives to patient retreatment to release ‘SC from bone marrow into bloodstream are infused back oT 3 Stem cells are frozen y 4 Thawed stem cells—— until needed into patient Patient receives supportive treatment to help bone marrow regrowWhile muscle stem cells can self-renew and differentiate, they can only do so into a single cell type. They are unidirectional in their differentiation capacity. Why Don't All Cells Reproduce Forever ? Some parts of the body do produce more stem cells on their own. For instance, bone marrow is capable of producing stem cells that differentiate into various types of blood cells. For that reason, most people do not need to worry about their blood becoming compromised over time, except in cases where the cells themselves are defective (ex. sickle-cell anemia), or cases where the bone marrow itself suffers damage (ex. leukemia). Normally, though, if you have blood drawn, or even if you lose a lot of it to injury, you can make more. Other parts of the body are not so lucky. Other cell types can proliferate, but to a limited extent. When damage occurs to the heart or brain, if it is severe enough, there is usually no saving the victim. The same is true for cartilage cells. Degenerative conditions such as osteoarthritis, in which cartilage in the joints breaks down over time, eventually result in a painful grinding of bone on bone. In some cases, surgery or medicine can help , steroid injections may provide relief. But, few approaches can help the cartilage to grow back. After a certain number of divisions, the cells can start to have problems. That’s because the ends of each chromosome start to unravel. These sites (called telomeres) degrade over time, resulting in worse and worse copies of your genetic information. TheseLae of stemcells in different forms Brain & Spinal cords — ‘e " te! os Tooth Ribs & ‘ooth bud Sternum ¢ o Intestine Biopsy & Tissue harvest Stem cell isolation Cell expansion and 2 differentiation to cell culture’ specific lineages (bone, cartilage. Cell map treatments adipose cellsye etc. Osteoarthritis; Spinal cord tans Genitalia injury; Skin burns; Fractures; Muscle dystrophy; Ischemic heart disease“senescent cells” just aren’t good anymore. So , cells can’t replace themselves as effectively. People die. How Do Stem Cells Help ? Stem cells solve this problem of finite cell division, as well as the problem of traumatic injury to parts of the body that cannot repair themselves. Unlike regular cells, which have a dedicated role, stem cells can turn into many types of cell. So, for instance, a muscle cell could never fill in for a blood cell or heart cell. That’s not what it’s made for. However, a stem cell could see a need in the body, head to that location (called “honing”) and become the necessary cell type through a guided transformation involving chemicals, growth factors and other complex determinants. In addition, stem cells are the foundation of development in complex plants and animals. The embryo, or extremely early life stage, contains stem cells. As development progresses, these stem cells turn into the different cell types needed to create a fully functioning human, cow, or tree. They turn into the tissue-specific cells discussed above. Some types of stem cells are only present in the earliest stages of development, while other types remain throughout the remainder of fetal development. Still, others remain present in the body throughout an adult's lifetime.A Brief History of Stem Cell Research: Researchers have known since the early 1900s that some cells had the ability to generate blood cells in the body. In the late 70s, scientists discovered stem cells in human umbilical cord blood, and created the first successful in vitro stem cells. Further includes successful stem cell lines created from a hamster in 1988, primate stem cells in 1995, a cloned lamb in 1997, and embryonic stem cell lines in 1998. This kicked off a serious disagreement between those who believe it is wrong to use human embryos for scientific research and those who think embryos are a critical tool in the development of scientific research. For years, stem cell research got mired at this impasse, research put even further behind with George W. Bush’s executive order banning stem cell experimentation in 2001. Five years later, according to research reported in The New York Times, Japanese scientists of Kyoto University discovered a means of reversing cell development, turning adult cells back into pluripotent stem cells. By obviating the need to obtain stem cells from embryos, these researchers revitalized the field. The first successful stem cell transplant occurred in 1969, using donor cells from a healthy person to treat severe combined immunodeficiency in two sibling patients. Since then, stem cell transplants and stem cell therapy have proven viable in a huge range of cases.n cell therapyHow Are Stem Cells Used in Medicine ? Stem cells are used in a variety of ways in medicine. For instance, when a person has a blood or bone marrow disorder, they may receive a stem cell transplant. If they have lost the ability to manufacture their own new marrow or blood cells, then replenishing their stem cells will renew that function. Stem cells also offer an opportunity to restore damaged nerves and heart cells. Formerly, physicians were only able to manage conditions associated with such damage. That historically meant that heart disease, Alzheimer’s, brain damage and other catastrophic conditions were permanent. While the patient might still have years of life ahead of them, they typically couldn’t expect to regain any lost function. However, scientists might have the opportunity to treat such conditions by injecting stem cells at the site of the problem. Along with growth factors and other compounds, the stem cells have the potential to react to their conditions in several different ways. Some types of stem cell, such as MSCs, can exert therapeutic effects by reducing inflammation, reducing fibrosis (scarring), and positively impacting the regulation of the human immune system. Other types of stem cells, such as iPSCs, may be able to repair tissue by replacing damaged cells. It’s also possible that researchers could use stem cells to grow new organs. In the future, someone who needs a heart transplant may be able to receive a new, fully grown heart. Scientists haven’t developed this technology yet, many researchers are exploring the \2 of stem cells within these types of tissue engineeringapplications. By using a patient’s own stem cells to create it, it would also eliminate the risk of organ rejection or a dangerous immune response by the patient. What Diseases Can Stem Cells Possible Help Treat ? These are just a few examples of the types of issues researchers are working to solve with stem cells. Theoretically, other potential breakthroughs that stem cells could facilitate in the near (or far) future include: Treating neurological diseases throughout the body and brain Replacing organs damaged or lost to disease or traumatic impact Responding to autoimmune diseases that attack the body Helping people who have trouble manufacturing new cells do so Treating degenerative diseases, such as back problems Managing all types of arthritis Treating cancer patients and replacing diseased areas of the body How Do Physicians Harvest Stem Cells ? Typically, researchers harvest stem cells from peripheral blood, bone marrow, or fat tissue. Adult stem cells are present in other parts of the body, but they can be harder to access or require collection at a certain point in human development (for example, dental pulp stem cells). However, peripheral blood, bone marrow, and fat stores are ready sources of stem cells.Depending on whose stem cells the patient is using, the harvesting process looks different : * Using Your Own Stem Cells : When a patient uses their own cells, those cells get harvested and isolated using a centrifuge or other device. Sometimes they get augmented in a lab over time to increase their number, after which they get injected back into the patient. Researchers refer to this as an autologous transplant, and essentially means that the procedure uses the patient’s own cells from start to finish. “ Donor Cells: An allogeneic transplant, is when a patient receives donor cells. This may occur because the patient’s cells are too compromised. For instance, they might have cancer, and using their own stem cells runs the risk of reintroducing that cancer to the system they’re trying to save. In that case, healthy donor cells from someone else are the best. Donor cells may come from: A family member who offers blood, bone or fat samples. © Banked cord blood, found inside the umbilical cord of a newborn infant, donated by parents. ¢ Banked stem cells from anonymous donors While it is wonderful that people are willing to donate their stem cells, the chances of a match between two unknown parties are relatively small. There is a third option for patients, who store umbilical cord blood stem cell from their newborn children. Those who banks healthystem cells at birth will later have these cells available for use in the case of disease or injury. If used by the child from whom they were collected, the cells will be a perfect match and will prevent an immune response if used later in life. How Do Scientists Force Stem Cell Development Along Certain Lines ? It’s not enough simply to stick some pluripotent stem cells into a damaged heart, however. Scientists must offer many other tools to the stem cell to ensure that it is able to differentiate and proliferate appropriately. These tools include growth factors (the chemicals that tell stem cells how to grow) and morphogenic factors (chemicals that instruct stem cells about which types of tissue to become). Stem cells also need structural support, which is where “scaffolding materials” come in. These are materials, sometimes organic and sometimes manufactured in a lab, onto which stem cells can grow to create new bodily tissues. What Are the Risks Associated with Stem Cell Therapy ? In allogeneic stem cell transplant (one that uses donor cells instead of the patient’s own cells) , the donor cells may, upon entering the host body, initiate an immune response against the host. They attack host cells as though they were a foreign invader in the donor’s own body. This can cause diarrhea, rash, eye irritation, and, if it continues long enough, even death.It’s also possible that the host will reject the transplant as well, which can also cause sickness and if the transplant doesn’t take, death. Infection is always a hazard. While antibiotics usually take care of the bacterial infections that might develop at the site of incision, there’s no guarantee that infection won’t develop anyway. Similarly, it is possible for a patient to die under anesthesia no matter the procedure, especially if they are older or in delicate health. One of the biggest risks of stem cell transplant is the potential that cells may grow uncontrollably. Uncontrolled cells are basically the definition of cancer, which is a serious problem. Scientists need more research to determine what will reduce or eliminate these risks to the greatest degree possible. Some Examples Of Stem Cell Research The process of cell differentiation : A primary goal of research on embryonic stem cells is to learn how undifferentiated stem cells turn into differentiated stem cells that form specific tissues and organs. Researchers are also interested in figuring out how to control this process of differentiation. Over the years, scientists have developed methods to manipulate the stem cell process to create a particular cell type. This process is called directed differentiation. A recent study also discovered the first steps in how stem cells transform into brain cells and other 1st ¢ of cells. More research on this topic is ongoing.Medical couditious treated by cell therapy Parkinson's Disease Rheumatoid arthritis weCell-based therapies : If researchers can find a reliable way to direct the differentiation of embryonic stem cells, they may be able to use the cells to treat certain diseases. For example, by directing the embryonic stem cells to turn into insulin-producing cells, they may be able to transplant the cells into people with type 1 diabetes. Other medical conditions that may potentially be treated with embryonic stem cells include : traumatic spinal cord injury stroke severe burns rheumatoid arthritis heart disease hearing loss retinal disease Huntington’s disease Parkinson’s disease Using stem cells to test new drugs : Researchers are also using differentiated stem cells to test the safety and effectiveness of new medications. Testing drugs on human stem cells eliminates the need to test them on animals. Somatic cell nuclear transfer Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), technique in which the nucleus of a somatic (body) cell is transferred to the cytoplasm of an enucleated egg (an egg that has had its own nucleus removed). Once inside the egg, the somatic nucleus is reprogrammed by eggcytoplasmic factors to become a zygote (fertilized egg) nucleus. The egg is allowed to develop to the blastocyst stage, at which point a culture of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) can be created from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst. Mouse, monkey, and human ESCs have been made using SCNT; human ESCs have potential applications in both medicine and research. The most practical application of SCNT is in the reproductive cloning of farm animals that have exceptional qualities, such as the ability to produce large quantities of milk. Reproductive cloning is accomplished by implanting an SCNT-derived blastocyst into the uterus of a surrogate mother, in which the embryo develops into a foetus carried to term. Dolly the sheep, born in 1996, was the first mammal cloned using SCNT. The technique also could be used to resurrect extinct species; for example, cells collected from a frozen woolly mammoth could be used as nuclear donors for enucleated elephant eggs. Proof of principle for such “resurrection” was provided by an experiment in which mice were cloned using somatic cell nuclei derived from a mouse that was frozen for more than 15 years. Somatic body cell with desired genes Nucleus fused with denucleated egg cell Ce s a Nucleus removed REPRODUCTIVE CLONING es —— Surrogate Mother THERAPEUTIC CLONINGHSCT activity in India(N=10381) in total 52 different centres EHSCT activity in India(N=10381) in total 52 different centres, Yearwise growth of overall hematopoetic stem cell transplant activity in India 1985-90(17/0) _1991-2000(492/216) 2001-10(7028/1497) 2011-15(7706/2425) Allogeneic Autologous Yearwise growth in autologus and allogenic stem cell transplant activity in India.Conclusion Stem cell research has the potential to have a significant impact on human health. However, there is some controversy around the development, usage, and destruction of human embryos. Scientists may be able to ease these concerns by using a new method that can turn adult stem cells into pluripotent stem cells, which can change into any cell type. This would eliminate the need for embryonic stem cells in research. Such breakthroughs show that much progress has been made in stem cell research. Despite these advancements, there’s still a lot more to be done before scientists can create successful treatments through stem cell therapy. Bibliography https://bioinformant.com/do-you-know-the-5-types-of-stem-cells- by-differentiation-potential/ https://www.healthline.com/health/stem-cell-research https://bioinformant.com/stem-cells/ https://www.unmc.edu/stemcells/educational-resources/types.html https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1129084/