Cambridge O Level Physics Your notes

3.1 General Properties of Waves

Contents
Features of Waves
The Wave Equation
Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
Wave Behaviour
Ripple Tank
 Features of Waves
Your notes
Waves - Basic
Waves transfer energy and information
Waves are described as oscillations or vibrations about a fixed point
For example, ripples cause particles of water to oscillate up and down
Sound waves cause particles of air to vibrate back and forth
In all cases, waves transfer energy without transferring matter
For water waves, this means it is the wave and not the water (the matter) itself that travels
For sound waves, this means it is the wave and not the air molecules (the matter) itself that travels
Objects floating on water provide evidence that waves only transfer energy and not matter
 Worked example
Your notes
The diagram below shows a toy duck bobbing up and down on top of the surface of some water, as
waves pass it underneath.

Explain how the toy duck demonstrates that waves do not transfer matter.
Answer:
Step 1: Identify the type of wave
The type of wave on the surface of a body of water is a transverse wave
This is because the duck is moving perpendicular to the direction of the wave
Step 2: Describe the motion of the toy duck
The plastic duck moves up and down but does not travel with the wave
Step 3: Explain how this motion demonstrates that waves do not transfer matter
Both transverse and longitudinal waves transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
This means when a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels with it, the points
on the wave just vibrate back and forth about fixed positions
Objects floating on the water simply bob up and down when waves pass under them,
demonstrating that there is no movement of matter in the direction of the wave, only energy

Examiner Tip
There is a key distinction between the particles (or oscillations) of a wave, and the wave itself.
The motion of the wave causes the particles to move. The particles themselves are not the wave.
Wave Motion
Wave vibrations can be shown on ropes (transverse) and springs (longitudinal) Your notes
Motion of Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

Waves can be shown through vibrations in ropes or springs

Demonstrating Wave Motion
Properties of waves, such as frequency, wavelength and wave speed, can be observed using water
waves in a ripple tank
Ripple Tank
 Your notes

Wave motion of water waves may be demonstrated using a ripple tank

The wavelength of the waves can be determined by:
Using a ruler to measure the length of the screen
Dividing this distance by the number of wavefronts
The frequency can be determined by:
Timing how long it takes for a given number of waves to pass a particular point
Dividing the number of wavefronts by the time taken
The wave speed can then be determined by:
Using the equation wave speed = frequency × wavelength
Features of a Wave
When describing wave motion, there are several terms which are important to know, including: Your notes
Crest (Peak)
Trough
Amplitude
Wavelength
Frequency
Wave speed
Wavefront

Crests & Troughs

A crest, or a peak, is defined as:
The highest point on a wave above the equilibrium, or rest, position
A trough is defined as
The lowest point on a wave below the equilibrium, or rest, position
Crest and Trough of a Wave

Diagram showing a crest and a trough on a transverse wave

Amplitude
Amplitude is defined as: Your notes
The distance from the undisturbed position to the peak or trough of a wave
It is given the symbol A and is measured in metres (m)
Amplitude is the maximum or minimum displacement from the undisturbed position

Wavelength
Wavelength is defined as:
The distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next wave
In a transverse wave:
The wavelength can be measured from one peak to the next peak
In a longitudinal wave
The wavelength can be measured from the centre of one compression to the centre of the next
The wavelength is given the symbol λ (lambda) and is measured in metres (m)
The distance along a wave is typically put on the x-axis of a wave diagram
Wavelength and Amplitude

Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave

Frequency
Frequency is defined as:
The number of waves passing a point in a second
Frequency is given the symbol f and is measured in Hertz (Hz)

Wave Speed
 Wave speed is the speed at which energy is transferred through a medium
Wave speed is defined as:
The distance travelled by a wave each second Your notes
Wave speed is given the symbol, ν, and is measured in metres per second (m/s), it can be calculated
using:
wave speed = frequency × wavelength
Wavefronts
Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above: each wavefront is used to represent a
single wave
The image below illustrates how wavefronts are visualised:
The arrow shows the direction the wave is moving and is sometimes called a ray
The space between each wavefront represents the wavelength
When the wavefronts are close together, this represents a wave with a short wavelength
When the wavefronts are far apart, this represents a wave with a long wavelength
Wavefronts

Diagram showing a wave moving to the right, drawn as a series of wavefronts

 Worked example
Your notes
Small water waves are created in a ripple tank by a wooden bar. The wooden bar vibrates up and down
hitting the surface of the water. The diagram below shows a cross-section of the ripple tank and water.

Identify the letter which shows:

a) The amplitude of a water wave.
b) The wavelength of the water wave.
Answer:
(a)
Step 1: Recall the definition of amplitude
Amplitude = The distance from the undisturbed position to the peak or trough of a wave
Step 2: Mark the undisturbed position on the wave
This is the centre of the wave

Step 3: Identify the arrow between the undisturbed position and a peak
The amplitude is shown by arrow D
(b)
Step 1: Recall the definition of wavelength
 Wavelength = The distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next wave
Step 2: Draw lines on each horizontal arrow
Your notes
This helps to identify the points on the wave the arrows are referring to

Step 3: Identify the arrow between two of the same points on the wave
The wavelength is shown by arrow C
 The Wave Equation
Your notes
The Wave Equation
Wave speed is defined as:
The distance travelled by a wave each second
Wave speed is given the symbol ν and is measured in metres per second (m/s)
Wave speed is the speed at which energy is transferred through a medium
Transverse and longitudinal waves both obey the wave equation:
v=f ×λ
Where:
v = wave speed in metres per second (m/s)
f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
λ = wavelength in metres (m)

The wave speed equation may need to be rearranged, which can be done using this formula triangle:
Equation Triangle for the Wave Equation
Your notes
 Worked example
Your notes
A wave in a pond has a speed of 0.15 m/s and a time period of 2 seconds. Calculate:
a) The frequency of the wave
b) The wavelength of the wave
Answer:
(a)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Time period, T = 2 s
Step 2: Write out the equation relating time period and frequency

1
f =
T
Step 3: Rearrange for frequency, f, and calculate the answer

1
f =
2
Frequency, f = 0.5 Hz
(b)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Wave speed, v = 0.15 m/s
Frequency, f = 0.5 Hz
Step 2: Write out the wave speed equation

v=f ×λ
Step 3: Rearrange the equation to calculate the wavelength

v
λ=
f
Step 4: Use the frequency you calculated in part (a) and put the values into the equation

0 . 15
λ=
0.5
 Wavelength, λ = 0.30 m

Your notes
Examiner Tip
When stating equations make sure you use the right letters:
For example, use λ for wavelength, not L or W
If you can’t remember the correct letters, then just state the word equations
Be careful with units: wavelength is usually measured in metres and speed in m/s, but if the wavelength
is given in cm you might have to give the speed in cm/s
Likewise, watch out for frequency given in kHz: 1 kHz = 1000 Hz
 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
Your notes
Transverse Waves
Waves are repeated vibrations that transfer energy
Waves can exist as one of two types:
Transverse
Longitudinal

Transverse Waves
Transverse waves are defined as:
Waves where the points along its length vibrate at 90 degrees to the direction of energy
transfer
For a transverse wave:
The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
They can move in solids and on the surfaces of liquids but not inside liquids or gases
Some transverse waves (electromagnetic waves) can move in solids, liquids and gases and in a
vacuum
The point on the wave that is:
The highest above the rest position is called the peak, or crest
The lowest below the rest position is called the trough
Vibrations of a Transverse Wave
 Transverse waves can be seen in a rope when it is moved quickly up and down
Examples of transverse waves are: Your notes
Ripples on the surface of water
Vibrations on a guitar string
S-waves (a type of seismic wave)
Electromagnetic waves (such as radio, light, X-rays etc)

Representing Transverse Waves

Transverse waves are drawn as a single continuous line, usually with a central line showing the
undisturbed position
The curves are drawn so that they are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer
These represent the peaks and troughs
Transverse Wave Graph

Transverse waves are represented as a continuous solid line

Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal waves are defined as: Your notes
Waves where the points along its length vibrate parallel to the direction of energy transfer
For a longitudinal wave:
The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
They can move in solids, liquids and gases
They can not move in a vacuum (since there are no particles)
The key features of a longitudinal wave are where the points are:
Close together, called compressions
Spaced apart, called rarefactions
Longitudinal Wave on a Spring

Longitudinal waves can be seen in a slinky spring when it is moved quickly backwards and forwards
Examples of longitudinal waves are:
Sound waves
P-waves (a type of seismic wave)
Pressure waves caused by repeated movements in a liquid or gas

Representing Longitudinal Waves

Longitudinal waves are usually drawn as several lines to show that the wave is moving parallel to the
direction of energy transfer
Drawing the lines closer together represents the compressions
Drawing the lines further apart represents the rarefactions
Diagram of a Longitudinal Wave
 Your notes

Longitudinal waves are represented as sets of lines with rarefactions and compressions
Comparing Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
The different properties of transverse and longitudinal waves are shown in the table:
Transverse Waves v Longitudinal Waves Table

Property Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves

Structure Peaks and troughs Compressions and rarefactions

90° to direction of energy Parallel to direction of energy

Vibration
transfer transfer
Electromagnetic waves (a
Vacuum transverse wave) can travel Cannot travel in a vacuum
through a vacuum
Can move in solids, liquids and Can move in solids, liquids and
Material
gases gases

Density Constant density Changes in density

Pressure Constant pressure Changes in pressure

 Dependent on the material it Dependent on the material it
Speed of wave
travels in travels in
Your notes

Examiner Tip
The key difference between transverse and longitudinal waves is the direction of the vibrations with
respect to the direction of the wave itself. For transverse waves, these are perpendicular to each other,
whilst for longitudinal waves, these are parallel.
 Wave Behaviour
Your notes
Reflection, Refraction & Diffraction
All waves, whether transverse or longitudinal, can be reflected, refracted and diffracted

Reflection
Reflection occurs when:
A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through, but instead stays
in the original medium
The law of reflection states:
The angle of incidence = The angle of reflection
When waves hit an object, such as a barrier, they can be reflected:
Reflection

When waves reflect off a barrier, the angle of reflection, r, is equal to the angle of incidence, i
Refraction
 Refraction occurs when:
A wave passes a boundary between two different transparent media and undergoes a
change in direction Your notes
When waves enter a different medium, their speed can change
This effect is called refraction, and it can have two other effects:
The wavelength of the waves can increase or decrease
The waves can change direction
Refraction

Waves can change direction when moving between materials with different densities
If the waves slow down, the waves will bunch together, causing the wavelength to decrease
The waves will also start to turn slightly towards the normal
If the waves speed up then they will spread out, causing the wavelength to increase
The waves will also turn slightly away from the normal

Diffraction
When waves pass through a narrow gap, the waves spread out
This effect is called diffraction
Diffraction
 Your notes

Diffraction: when a wave passes through a narrow gap, it spreads out

Examiner Tip
When drawing waves being reflected take care to:
Make sure that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
Keep the wavelength of the waves the same
Similarly, when waves are diffracted the wavelength remains constant.
Refraction is the only wave effect in which the wavelength changes.
Remember:
Refraction is the name given to the change in the speed of a wave when it passes from one medium to
another. The change in direction is a consequence of this.
Factors Affecting Diffraction
Diffraction, as shown above, only generally happens when the gap is smaller than the wavelength of Your notes
the wave
As the gap gets bigger, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in the case that the gap is very
much larger than the wavelength, the waves no longer spread out at all
Diffraction and Gap Size

The size of the gap (compared to the wavelength) affects how much the waves spread out
Diffraction can also occur when waves pass an edge
Diffraction around an Edge
 Your notes

When a wave goes past the edge of a barrier, the waves can curve around the edge
 Ripple Tank
Your notes
Investigating Waves with a Ripple Tank
Ripple tanks are commonly used in experiments to demonstrate the following properties of water
waves:
Reflection at a plane surface
Refraction due to a change in speed caused by a change in depth
Diffraction due to a gap
Diffraction due to an edge
Ripple Tank Apparatus
 Reflection, refraction and diffraction can be demonstrated using a ripple tank
Your notes
Investigating Reflection
Reflection can be shown by the waves hitting a plane (straight) surface, such as a wall or mirror
Reflection in a Ripple Tank

Investigating Refraction
Refraction can be shown by placing a glass block in the tank
The glass block should sit below the surface of the water and cover only some of the tank floor
The depth of water becomes shallower here the glass block is placed
Since speed depends on depth, the ripples slow down when travelling over the block
This is a good model of refraction showing how waves slow down when passing from deep water into
shallow water
Refraction in a Ripple Tank
 Your notes

When water waves travel from deep areas to shallow areas they slow down
Investigating Diffraction
Diffraction can be shown in a ripple tank by placing small barriers and obstacles in the tank
As the water waves encounter two obstacles with a gap between them, the waves can be seen to
spread out as follows:
Diffraction through a Gap in a Ripple Tank
 Your notes

Diffraction of water waves through a gap

As the water waves encounter the edge of an obstacle, the waves can be seen to spread out as follows:
Diffraction round an Edge in a Ripple Tank

Diffraction of water waves after passing an edge

The amount of diffraction depends on the size of the gap compared to the wavelength of the water
wave
The diagram below shows how the wavelengths differ with frequency in a ripple tank
The higher the frequency of the motor, the shorter the wavelength
The lower the frequency of the motor, the longer the wavelength
Generating Waves in a Ripple Tank Your notes

Ripple tank patterns for low and high frequency vibration

 Cambridge O Level Physics Your notes

3.2 Light
Contents
Reflection of Light
Investigating Reflection
Refraction of Light
Snell's Law
Total Internal Reflection
Thin Lenses
Real & Virtual Images
Linear Magnification
Uses of Lenses
Dispersion of Light
 Reflection of Light
Your notes
Ray Diagrams
Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to the boundary
The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence (i)
The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r)
The line at right angles (90°) to the boundary is known as the normal
When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is travelling
An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary
A reflected ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary
The angles of incidence and reflection are usually labelled i and r respectively
Reflection

A ray diagram for light reflecting at a boundary, showing the normal, angle of incidence and angle of
reflection
The Law of Reflection
The law of reflection states that these angles are the same: Your notes
Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)
Law of Reflection

Reflection of a wave at a boundary, i = r

Examiner Tip
When drawing light waves being reflected take care to get the angles equal.
If they are slightly out it won’t be a problem, but if there is an obvious difference between the angle of
incidence and the angle of reflection then you will lose a mark. Use a protractor to be sure of the
angles.
 Investigating Reflection
Your notes
Investigating Reflection
Aims of the Experiment
To investigate reflection by a plane mirror
Variables
Independent variable = angle of incidence, i
Dependent variable = angle of reflection, r
Control variables:
Distance of ray box from mirror
Width of the light beam
Same frequency / wavelength of the light

Method

Apparatus to investigate reflection

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
2. In the middle of the paper use a ruler to mark a straight line of about 10 cm long
3. Use a protractor to draw a 90° line that bisects (cuts in half) the 10 cm line
4. Place the mirror on the first line as shown in the diagram above
 5. Switch on the ray box and aim a beam of light at the point where the two drawn lines cross at an angle
6. Use the pencil to mark two positions of the light beam:
A point just after leaving the ray box Your notes
The point on the reflected beam about 10 cm away from the mirror
7. Remove the ray box and mirror
8. Use a ruler to join the two marked positions to the point where the originally drawn lines crossed
9. Use the protractor to measure the two angles from the 90° line. The angle for the ray towards the mirror
is the angle of incidence, and the other is the angle of reflection
10. Repeat the experiment three times with the beam of light aimed at different angles
An example of the data collection table is shown below:
Example Results Table

Angle of Incidence, i / ° Angle of Reflection, i / °

10

30

45

80

Analysis of Results
The law of reflection states:
i=r
Where:
i = angle of incidence in degrees (°)
r = angle of reflection in degrees (°)
If the experiment was carried out correctly, the angles should be the same, as shown below:
Correct Results of the Experiment
 Your notes

Law of reflection demonstrated correctly

Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly
Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
If the mirror is distorted, this could affect the reflection angle, so make sure there are little to no
blemishes on it
Random Errors:
The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
Use a protractor with a higher resolution

Safety Considerations
The ray box light could cause burns if touched
Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
Avoid looking directly at the light
Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper
Take care using the mirror
Damages on the mirror can affect the outcome of the reflection experiment Your notes
 Refraction of Light
Your notes
Ray Diagrams for Refraction
When drawing refraction ray diagrams, angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a
line at 90 degrees to the boundary
The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence (i)
The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of refraction (r)
The line at right angles (90°) to the boundary is known as the normal
When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is travelling
An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary
A refracted ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary
The angles of incidence and refraction are usually labelled i and r respectively
The change in direction depends on which media the light rays pass between:
From less dense to more dense (e.g air to glass), light bends towards the normal
From more dense to less dense (e.g. glass to air), light bends away from the normal
When passing along the normal (perpendicular) the light does not bend at all
Refraction from Less Dense Medium to More Dense Medium

A ray diagram for light refracting at a boundary, showing the normal, angle of incidence and angle of
refraction. The ray bends towards the normal as it is passing into a more dense medium.
Investigating Refraction
Aim of the Experiment Your notes
To investigate the refraction of light using rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks and triangular
prisms

Variables
Independent variable = shape of the block
Dependent variable = direction of refraction
Control variables:
Width of the light beam
Same frequency / wavelength of the light
Equipment List

Energy Store Description

Ray box to provide a narrow beam of light to refract in the perspex blocks

Protractor to measure the angles of refraction

Sheet of paper to mark the rays of light and the outlines of the blocks

Magnetic interacting with each other have energy in their magnetic

Pencil
store

Ruler to draw the rays of light and the outlines of the blocks

Perspex blocks (rectangular, semi-

to refract the rays of light
circular & prism)

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Protractor = 1°
Ruler = 1 mm
Ray Box and Blocks
 Your notes

Diagram showing a ray box alongside three different shaped glass blocks
Method
Diagram Showing Tracing Method
 Your notes

Apparatus to investigate refraction

1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the rectangular perspex block
using a pencil
2. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block
3. Mark on the paper:
A point on the ray close to the ray box
The point where the ray enters the block
The point where the ray exits the block
A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the block
4. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block where the points are
5. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines
6. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking the block at a
different angle
7. Repeat the procedure for each shape of perspex block (prism and semi-circular)

Analysis of Results
Consider the light paths through the different-shaped blocks
Rays Passing through the Blocks
 Your notes

Refraction of light through different shapes of perspex blocks

The final diagram for each shape will include multiple light ray paths for the different angles of
incidences (i) at which the light strikes the blocks
This will help demonstrate how the angle of refraction (r) changes with the angle of incidence
Label these paths clearly with (1) (2) (3) or A, B, C to make these clearer
Angles i and r are always measured from the normal
For light rays entering the perspex block, the light ray refracts towards the central line:
i>r
For light rays exiting the perspex block, the light ray refracts away from the central line:
i<r
When the angle of incidence is 90° to the perspex block, the light ray does not refract, it passes
straight through the block:
i=r

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:
An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly
 Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
Random Errors:
Your notes
The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
Use a protractor with a higher resolution

Safety Considerations
The ray box light could cause burns if touched
Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
Avoid looking directly at the light
Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper

Examiner Tip
In your examination, you might be asked to write a method explaining how you might investigate the
refraction of light through different shaped blocks
As part of this method you should describe:
What equipment you need
How you will use the equipment
How you will trace the rays of light before, while and after they pass through the block
 Snell's Law
Your notes
Refractive Index & Snell's Law
Refractive Index
The refractive index is a number which is related to the speed of light in the material (which is always
less than the speed of light in a vacuum):
The refractive index is a number that is always larger than 1 and is different for different materials
Objects which are more optically dense have a higher refractive index, eg. n is about 2.4 for
diamond
Objects which are less optically dense have a lower refractive index, eg. n is about 1.5 for glass
Since refractive index is a ratio, it has no units

Snell's Law
When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down and bends towards the normal
How much the light bends depends on the density of the material

Angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r through a glass block

If light travels from a less dense to a more dense medium (e.g. air to glass), r < i (bends towards the
normal)
If light travels from a more dense to a less dense medium (e.g. glass to air), r > i (bends away from the
normal)
The angles of incidence and refraction are related by an equation known as Snell's Law:
 sin i
n=
sin r Your notes
Where:
n = the refractive index of the material
i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
r = angle of refraction of the light (°)
'Sin' is the trigonometric function 'sine' which is on a scientific calculator

Worked example
A ray of light enters a glass block of refractive index 1.53 making an angle of 15° with the normal before
entering the block.
Calculate the angle it makes with the normal after it enters the glass block.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Refractive index of glass, n = 1.53
Angle of incidence, i = 15°
Step 2: Write the equation for Snell's Law

sin i
n=
sin r
Step 3: Rearrange the equation and calculate sin (r)

sin i
sin r =
n
sin( 15°)
sin r = = 0 . 1692
1 . 53
Step 4: Find the angle of refraction (r) by using the inverse sin function
r = sin–1 (0.1692) = 9.7 = 10°
 Examiner Tip
Your notes
Important: (sin i / sin r) is not the same as (i / r). Incorrectly cancelling the sin terms is a very common
mistake!
When calculating the value of i or r start by calculating the value of sin i or sin r.
You can then use the inverse sin function (sin–1 on most calculators by pressing 'shift' then 'sine') to find
the angle.
One way to remember which way around i and r are in the fraction is remembering that 'i' comes before
'r' in the alphabet, and therefore is on the top of the fraction (whilst r is on the bottom).
Additionally, make sure your calculator is in degrees mode, not radians mode, when you are given i
and r in degrees.
 Total Internal Reflection
Your notes
Total Internal Reflection
Sometimes, when light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense one, instead of being
refracted, all of the light is reflected
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection
Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs when:
The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and the incident material is denser
than the second material
Therefore, the two conditions for total internal reflection are:
The angle of incidence > the critical angle
The incident material is denser than the second material
Critical Angle and TIR

TIR occurs when the angle of incidence is greater than the angle of reflection
Total internal reflection is utilised in:
Optical fibres e.g. endoscopes
Prisms e.g. periscopes

Prisms
Prisms are used in a variety of optical instruments, including:
Periscopes
Binoculars
Telescopes
 Cameras

They are also used in safety reflectors for bicycles and cars, as well as posts marking the side or edge Your notes
of roads

A periscope is a device that can be used to see over tall objects

It consists of two right-angled prisms

Reflection of light through a periscope

The light totally internally reflects in both prisms
Internal Reflection in Prisms
 Your notes

Single and double reflection through right-angled prisms

Examiner Tip
If asked to name the phenomena make sure you give the whole name – total internal reflection
Remember: total internal reflection occurs when light travels from a denser material to less dense
material and ALL of the light is reflected.
If asked to give an example of a use of total internal reflection, first state the name of the object that
causes the reflection (e.g. a right-angled prism) and then name the device in which it is used (e.g. a
periscope)
Refractive Index & Critical Angle Equation
The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n Your notes
The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:
1
sin c =
n
This can also be rearranged to calculate the refractive index, n:
1
n=
sin c
This equation shows that:
The larger the refractive index of a material, the smaller the critical angle
Light rays inside a material with a high refractive index are more likely to be totally internally
reflected
 Worked example
Your notes
Opals and diamonds are transparent stones used in jewellery. Jewellers shape the stones so that light
is reflected inside.Compare the critical angles of opal and diamond and explain which stone would
appear to sparkle more.
The refractive index of opal is about 1.5
The refractive index of diamond is about 2.4
Step 1: List the known quantities
Refractive index of opal, no = 1.5
Refractive index of diamond, nd = 2.4
Step 2: Write out the equation relating critical angle and refractive index

1
sin c =
n
Step 3: Calculate the critical angle of opal (co)
sin(co) = 1 ÷ 1.5 = 0.6667
co = sin–1 (0.6667) = 41.8 = 42°
Step 4: Calculate the critical angle of diamond (cd)
sin(cd) = 1 ÷ 2.4 = 0.4167
cd = sin–1 (0.4167) = 24.6 = 25°
Step 5: Compare the two values and write a conclusion
Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence of light is larger than the critical angle (i
> c)
In opal, total internal reflection will occur for angles of incidence between 42° and 90°
The critical angle of diamond is lower than the critical angle of opal (co > cd)
This means light rays will be totally internally reflected in diamond over a larger range of angles
(25° to 90°)
Therefore, more total internal reflection will occur in diamond hence it will appear to sparkle more
than the opal
 Examiner Tip
Your notes
When calculating the value of the critical angle using the above equation:
First use the refractive index, n, to find sin(c)
Then use the inverse sin function (sin–1) to find the value of c
Optical Fibres
Total internal reflection is used to reflect light along optical fibres, meaning they can be used for Your notes
Communications
Endoscopes
Decorative lamps
Light travelling down an optical fibre is totally internally reflected each time it hits the edge of the fibre
This means information can be transmitted over long distances with minimal loss
Total Internal Reflection in an Optical Fibre

Optical fibres utilise total internal reflection for communications

Optical fibres are also used in medicine in order to see within the human body
Optical Fibres in Medicine
Your notes
 Your notes

Endoscopes utilise total internal reflection to see inside a patient's body

 Thin Lenses
Your notes
Features of Lens Diagrams
Lens diagrams can be described using the following terms:
Principal axis
Principal focus, or focal point
Focal length
The principal axis is defined as:
A line which passes through the centre of a lens
The principal focus, or focal point, is defined as:
The point at which rays of light travelling parallel to the principal axis intersect the
principal axis and converge or the point at which diverging rays appear to proceed
Focal length is defined as:
The distance between the centre of the lens and the principal focus
Converging & Diverging Lenses
A lens is a piece of equipment that forms an image by refracting light Your notes
There are two types of lens:
Converging
Diverging

Converging Lenses
In a converging lens, parallel rays of light are brought to a focus
This point is called the principal focus
This lens is sometimes referred to as a convex lens
The distance from the lens to the principal focus is called the focal length
This depends on how curved the lens is
The more curved the lens, the shorter the focal length
Converging Lens

The focal length is the distance from the lens to the principal focus. In a converging lens, parallel light
rays converge on the principal focus.
Diverging Lenses
In a diverging lens, parallel rays of light are made to diverge (spread out) from a point
This lens is sometimes referred to as a concave lens
The principal focus is now the point from which the rays appear to diverge from
Diverging Lens
 Your notes

Parallel rays from a diverging lens appear to diverge from the principal focus
Representing Lenses
In diagrams, the following symbols are often used to represent each type of lens:
Symbols for Lenses
 Concave and convex symbols
Your notes
Examiner Tip
Make sure you remember the symbol for each type of lens, as you will be expected to draw these for
ray diagrams in your exam!
To remember which lens is converging or diverging, think of the following: Convex lens = Converging
If you struggle with the difference between convex and concave, remember that a concave shape
curves inwards, like a cave.
 Real & Virtual Images
Your notes
Real & Virtual Images
Images produced by lenses can be one of two types:
A real image
A virtual image

Real Images
A real image is defined as:
An image that is formed when the light rays from an object converge and meet each other
and can be projected onto a screen
A real image is one produced by the convergence of light towards a focus
Real images are always inverted
Real images can be projected onto pieces of paper or screens
An example of a real image is the image formed on a cinema screen
Projecting a Real Image

A real image can be projected onto a screen

Real images are where two solid lines cross in ray diagrams

Virtual Images
A virtual image is defined as:
 An image that is formed when the light rays from an object do not meet but appear to
meet behind the lens and cannot be projected onto a screen
Your notes
A virtual image is formed by the divergence of light away from a point
Virtual images are always upright
Virtual images cannot be projected onto a piece of paper or a screen
An example of a virtual image is a person's reflection in a mirror
Virtual Image in a Reflection

A reflection in a mirror is an example of a virtual image

Virtual images are where two dashed lines, or one dashed and one solid line crosses in ray diagrams
Real Images with Converging Lenses
Lenses can be used to form images of objects placed in front of them Your notes
The location (and nature) of the image can be found by drawing a ray diagram:
Object Between f and 2f

Diagram showing the formation of a real image by a lens

1. Start by drawing a ray going from the top of the object through the centre of the lens. This ray will
continue to travel in a straight line
2. Next draw a ray going from the top of the object, travelling parallel to the axis to the lens. When this ray
emerges from the lens it will travel directly towards the principal focus
3. The image is found at the point where the above two rays meet
The above diagram shows the image that is formed when the object is placed at a distance between
one focal length (f) and two focal lengths (2f) from the lens
In this case, the image is:
Real
Enlarged
Inverted
The following diagram shows what happens when the object is more distanced – further than twice the
focal length (2f) from the lens:
Object over 2f from Lens
 Your notes

Diagram showing the formation of a real image by a lens with the object at distance
In this case the image is:
Real
Diminished (smaller)
Inverted
If the object is placed at exactly twice the focal length (2f) from the lens:
Object Exactly 2f from Lens

Diagram showing the formation of a real image with the object at 2f

In this case the image is:
Real
Same size as the object
Inverted
Virtual Images with Converging Lenses
A converging lens will produce a real image of an object which is placed at a distance greater than the Your notes
focal length from the lens
If the object is placed closer to the lens than the focal length f then a virtual image will be formed and
the converging lens ray diagram will be drawn in the following way:
Object less than f from the Lens

A virtual image formed when the object is placed closer than the focal length

1. Start by drawing a ray going from the top of the object through the centre of the lens. This ray will
continue to travel in a straight line
2. Draw a dashed line continuing this ray upwards
3. Next draw a ray going from the top of the object, travelling parallel to the axis to the lens. When this ray
emerges from the lens it will travel directly through the principal focus f
4. Also, draw a dashed line continuing this ray upwards
5. The image is the line drawn from the axis to the point where the two dashed lines meet
In this case, the image is:
Virtual: the light rays appear to meet when produced backwards
Magnified: the image is larger than the object
Upright: the image is formed on the same side of the principal axis
Real images are formed by converging rays
Virtual images are formed by diverging rays
 Linear Magnification
Your notes
Linear Magnification
The magnification of a lens is equal to the ratios of the image height and the object height

image height
magnification =
object height
This equation can be rearranged with the help of a formula triangle:
Magnification Formula Triangle

Magnification, image height and object height formula triangle

The magnification depends on:
The distance of an object from the lens
The power of the lens
The units for height are unimportant, provided that both the object and image are measured in the
same units
For example, both in cm, or both in mm
Therefore, magnification does not have units as it is a ratio
If the magnification is:
> 1, then the image is magnified
= 1, then the object and image are the same size
< 1, then the image is diminished
Your notes
 Worked example
Your notes
A person sees an image from a magnifying glass.

Calculate the magnification of this image. Clearly show your working on the diagram.
Answer:
Step 1: Measure the height of the object and image from the scale
 Your notes

The object is 10 cm
The image is 20 cm
Step 2: Substitute values into the magnification equation

20
magnification = =2
10
 Uses of Lenses
Your notes
Magnifying Glasses
If the object is placed closer to the lens than the focal length, the emerging rays diverge and a real
image is no longer formed
When viewed from the right-hand side of the lens, the emerging rays appear to come from a point on
the left
This point can be found by extending the rays backwards (creating virtual rays)
A virtual image will be seen at the point where these virtual rays cross
A Lens Close to an Object Forms a Magnified Image

A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from a point

In this case the image is:
Virtual
Enlarged
Upright
Using a lens in this way allows it to be used as a magnifying glass
When using a magnifying glass, the lens should always be held close to the object
Correcting Sight
Converging and diverging lenses are commonly used in glasses to correct defects of sight Your notes
Converging lenses can be used to correct long-sighted vision
Diverging lenses can be used to correct short-sighted vision
Correcting Short-Sightedness
People who are short-sighted have eyes that are 'too large'
This means they cannot see things that are far away, and only see things that are close to them
This is because the eye refracts the light and brings it to a focus before it reaches the retina
In other words, the focus point is in front of the retina at the back of the eye
This can be corrected by using a concave or a diverging lens in front of the eye
This causes the light to focus further back, at the retina
Correcting Long-Sightedness
People who are long-sighted have eyes that are 'too small'
This means they cannot clearly see things that are close, and can only clearly see things that are far
away
This is because the eye refracts the light rays and they are brought to a focus beyond the retina
In other words, the focus point is behind the retina at the back of the eye
This can be corrected by using a convex or converging lens in front of the eye
This causes the light to focus further forward, at the retina
 Dispersion of Light
Your notes
Dispersion of Light
White light is a mixture of all the colours of the spectrum
Each colour has a different wavelength (and frequency), making up a very narrow part of the
electromagnetic spectrum
White light may be separated into all its colours by passing it through a prism
This is done by refraction
Violet light is refracted the most, whilst red light is refracted the least
This splits up the colours to form a spectrum
This process is similar to how a rainbow is created
Dispersion of White Light through a Prism

White light may be separated into all its colours by passing it through a prism
The Visible Spectrum of Light
Visible light is defined as the range of wavelengths which are visible to humans Your notes
Visible light is the only part of the spectrum detectable by the human eye
However, it only takes up 0.0035% of the whole electromagnetic spectrum
In the natural world, many animals, such as birds, bees and certain fish, are able to perceive beyond
visible light and can see infra-red and UV wavelengths of light
The different colours of waves correspond to different wavelengths:
Red has the longest wavelength (and the lowest frequency and energy)
Violet has the shortest wavelength (and the highest frequency and energy)
The Spectrum of Colours of Visible Light

The colours of the visible spectrum: red has the longest wavelength; violet has the shortest
 Examiner Tip
Your notes
To remember the colours of the visible spectrum you could remember either:
The name “Roy G. Biv”
Or the saying “Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain”
 Cambridge O Level Physics Your notes

3.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Contents
Electromagnetic Waves
Uses of Electromagnetic Waves
Dangers of Electromagnetic Waves
 Electromagnetic Waves
Your notes
Electromagnetic Waves
The electromagnetic spectrum is arranged in a specific order based on the wavelengths or
frequencies
The main groupings of the continuous electromagnetic (EM) spectrum in order of increasing frequency
and decreasing wavelength are:
Radio waves
Microwaves
Infrared
Visible (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet)
Ultraviolet
X-rays
Gamma rays
This order is shown in the diagram below from longest wavelength (lowest frequency) to shortest
wavelength (highest frequency)
The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves
 Your notes

Visible light is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: The electromagnetic spectrum
The higher the frequency, the higher the energy of the radiation
Radiation with higher energy is:
Highly ionising
Harmful to cells and tissues causing cancer (e.g. UV, X-rays, Gamma rays)
Radiation with lower energy is:
Useful for communications
Less harmful to humans
 Examiner Tip
Your notes
See if you can make up a mnemonic to help you remember the EM spectrum!
One possibility is:
Raging Martians Invaded Venus Using X-ray Guns
The electromagnetic spectrum is usually given in order of decreasing wavelength and increasing
frequency i.e. from radio waves to gamma waves
Remember:
Radios are big (long wavelength)
Gamma rays are emitted from atoms which are very small (short wavelength)

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are defined as:
Transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the waves to an absorber
All electromagnetic waves share the following properties:
They are all transverse
They can all travel through a vacuum
They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum
The 7 types of electromagnetic waves together form a continuous spectrum

The Speed of Electromagnetic Waves

The speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is
3.0 × 108 m/s
This is approximately the same speed as electromagnetic waves in air
 Uses of Electromagnetic Waves
Your notes
Uses of Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves have a variety of uses and applications
Table of Applications of EM Waves

Wave Use

Communication (radio and TV)

Radio
Astronomy
Heating food (microwave ovens)
Microwave Communication (WiFi, mobile phones, Bluetooth, satellite TV,
satellites)
Remote controls
Fibre optic communications
Thermal imaging (medicine and industry)
Night vision
Infrared
Heating and cooking
Motion sensors (for security alarms)
Electrical heaters
Infrared cameras
Vision
Visible light
Photographs/videos
Security markings (fluorescence)
Ultraviolet Detecting counterfeit bank notes
Sterilising water
Medical (and dental) imaging
Security scanners (at airports etc.)
X-rays
Killing cancerous cells
Engineering applications (detecting cracks in metals)
Sterilising food
Sterilising medical equipment
Gamma rays
Detecting & treating cancerous cells
Engineering applications (detecting cracks in metals)

A summary of the Uses and Dangers of EM Waves

Your notes
 Uses and dangers of the electromagnetic spectrum
Radio Waves & Microwaves Your notes
These two parts of the spectrum share a lot of similarities and applications
Their main uses concern wireless communication – in fact, many things that people often assume
use radio waves actually use microwaves (e.g. WiFi, radar, mobile phones, satellite
communications)
At very high intensities microwaves can also be used to heat things
This is what happens in a microwave oven

Infrared
Infrared is emitted by warm objects and can be detected using special cameras (thermal imaging
cameras). These can be used in industry, in research and also in medicine
Many security cameras are capable of seeing slightly into the infrared part of the spectrum and this can
be used to allow them to see in the dark
Infrared lights are used to illuminate an area without being seen, which is then detected using the
camera
Remote controls also have small infrared LEDs that can send invisible signals to an infrared receiver on a
device such as a TV
Infrared travels down fibre optic cables more efficiently than visible light, and so most fibre optic
communication systems use infrared

Visible
Visible light is the only part of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye can see
The human eye can detect wavelengths from 750 nanometres (red light) up to 380 nanometres (violet
light)

Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet is responsible for giving you a sun tan, which is your body’s way of protecting itself against
the ultraviolet
When certain substances are exposed to ultraviolet, they absorb it and re-emit it as visible light
(making them glow)
This process is known as fluorescence
Fluorescence can be used to secretly mark things using special ink – in fact, most bank notes have
invisible fluorescent markings on them
Fluorescent light bulbs also use this principle to emit visible light

X-rays
The most obvious use of x-rays is in medicine
X-rays are able to pass through most body tissues but are absorbed by the denser parts of the body,
such as bones
 When exposed to x-rays, the bones absorb the x-rays, leaving a shadow which can be seen using a
special x-ray detector or photographic film
Your notes
Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are very dangerous and can be used to kill cells and living tissue
This property can be utilised in both cancer detection and treatment
If these gamma rays are carefully aimed at cancerous tissue, they can be very effective at
destroying the cancerous cells
Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise food and medical equipment by killing off the bacteria
 Dangers of Electromagnetic Waves
Your notes
Dangers of Electromagnetic Waves
As the frequency of electromagnetic (EM) waves increases, so does the energy
Beyond the visible part of the spectrum, the energy becomes large enough to ionise atoms
As a result of this, the danger associated with EM waves increases along with the frequency
The shorter the wavelength, the more ionising the radiation
Although the intensity of a wave also plays a very important role
Ionising Region of Electromagnetic Spectrum

Ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays can all ionise atoms

Because of ionisation, ultraviolet waves, X-rays and gamma rays can have hazardous effects on human
body tissue
The effects depend on the type of radiation and the size of the dose
They can damage cells and cause mutations, making them cancerous
In general, electromagnetic waves become more dangerous the shorter their wavelength
 For example, radio waves have no known harmful effects whilst gamma rays can cause cancer and
are regarded as extremely dangerous
The main risks associated with electromagnetic waves are summarised in the table below: Your notes
Dangers of EM Waves Table

Wave Danger

Radio No known danger

Microwave Possible heat damage to soft tissues and internal organs
Infrared Skin burns
Visible light Eye damage
Eye damage
Ultraviolet Sunburn
Skin cancer
Kills cells
X-rays Mutations
Cancer
Kills cells
Gamma rays Mutations
Cancer
 Cambridge O Level Physics Your notes

3.4 Sound
Contents
Sound Waves
Properties of Sound Waves
Reflection of Sound Waves
Measuring the Speed of Sound
Ultrasound
 Sound Waves
Your notes
Describing Sound
Sound waves are produced by vibrating sources
When a sound wave comes into contact with a solid, those vibrations can be transferred to the solid
For example, sound waves can cause a drinking glass to vibrate
If the glass vibrates too much the movement causes the glass to shatter

Sound waves are longitudinal: the molecules vibrate in the same direction as the energy transfer
Sound waves require a medium to travel through
This means that if there are no molecules, such as in a vacuum, then the sound can’t travel through
it
The range of frequencies a human can hear is 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz

Compression & Rarefaction

Longitudinal waves consist of compression and rarefactions:
A compression is a region of higher density i.e. a place where the molecules are bunched together
A rarefaction is a region of lower density i.e. a place where the molecules are spread out
Compressions and Rarefactions of Air in a Column
 Your notes

Sound is a longitudinal wave consisting of compressions and rarefactions - these are areas where the
pressure of the air varies with the wave
These compressions and rarefactions cause changes in pressure, which vary in time with the wave
Therefore, sound is a type of pressure wave
When the waves hit a solid, the variations in pressure cause the surface of the solid to vibrate in sync
with the sound wave
Compressions and Rarefactions of Sound Reflecting from a Solid
 Your notes

When sound waves hit a solid, the fluctuating pressure causes the solid to vibrate

Examiner Tip
When describing compressions and rarefactions, make sure to use the correct terms. It is best to refer
to them as regions of high and low densities of particles instead of the particles are more 'bunched up'
or 'far apart', as this is too vague and not very scientific!
Investigating Sound in a Vacuum
Sound Waves in a Vacuum Your notes
Sound waves are longitudinal waves
All longitudinal waves require a medium through which to travel
A vacuum is a region of space that does not contain air (or any other matter)
This means that, in a vacuum, there is no medium for sound waves
So sound waves cannot travel in a vacuum
Using a Bell Jar
This can be easily demonstrated using a piece of equipment called a bell jar
This is a glass container from which air can be pumped out, creating a vacuum (or nearly a vacuum)
A sound-emitting object is used, such as a battery-operated ringing bell or alarm
This is placed in a bell jar, which still contains air
The ringing bell can be heard despite the bell jar's glass walls
However, as the air begins being pumped out, the volume of the sound heard starts decreasing
When the air is completely removed from the bell jar, the ringing bell cannot be heard at all
Sound in a Bell Jar Demonstration

In the absence of air, sound waves are unable to travel and leave the bell jar
 Examiner Tip
Your notes
It is very difficult to make a perfect vacuum. This means that you may well still hear a very faint ringing in
this experiment, even when as much air as possible is removed from the jar.
 Properties of Sound Waves
Your notes
Pitch & Loudness
The frequency of a sound wave is related to its pitch
Sounds with a high pitch have a high frequency (or short wavelength)
Sounds with a low pitch have a low frequency (or long wavelength)
Sounds with a large amplitude have a high volume
Sounds with a small amplitude have a low volumeThe amplitude of a sound wave is related to its
volume
Graphs of Different Amplitudes & Frequencies

The amplitude of a wave determines the volume of the sound and the frequency determines the pitch
Different Sound Sources
An oscilloscope is a device that can be used to study a rapidly changing signal, such as: Your notes
A sound wave
An alternating current
Oscilloscope

Oscilloscopes have lots of dials and buttons, but their main purpose is to display and measure changing
signals like sound waves and alternating current
When a microphone is connected to an oscilloscope, the (longitudinal) sound wave is displayed as
though it were a transverse wave on the screen
The time base (like the 'x-axis') is used to measure the time period of the wave
A Soundwave Depicted as a Transverse Wave on an Oscilloscope
 Your notes

A sound wave is displayed as though it were a transverse wave on the screen of the oscilloscope. The
time base can be used to measure a full time period of the wave cycle
The height of the wave (measured from the centre of the screen) is related to the amplitude of the
sound
The number of entire waves that appear on the screen is related to the frequency of the wave
If the frequency of the sound wave increases, more waves are displayed on screen
 Reflection of Sound Waves
Your notes
Echoes
Sound waves reflect off hard surfaces
The reflection of a sound wave is called an echo
Echo sounding can be used to measure depth or to detect objects underwater
A sound wave can be transmitted from the surface of the water
The sound wave is reflected off the bottom of the ocean
The time it takes for the sound wave to return is used to calculate the depth of the water
This is the distance to the ocean floor plus the distance for the wave to return
The distance the wave travels is twice the depth of the ocean
Ship using Radar

Echo sounding is used to determine water depth

Investigating the Reflection of Sound Waves
Using Echoes to Measure the Speed of Sound Your notes

Measuring the speed of sound using echoes

1. A person stands about 50 m away from a wall (or cliff) using a trundle wheel to measure this distance
2. The person claps two wooden blocks together and listens for the echo
3. A second person has a stopwatch and starts timing when they hear one of the claps and stops timing
when they hear the echo
4. The process is then repeated 20 times and an average time calculated
5. The distance travelled by the sound between each clap and echo will be (2 × 50) m
6. The speed of sound can be calculated from this distance and the time using the equation:
2 × distance to wall
speed of sound =
time taken
2d
v=
t
 Measuring the Speed of Sound
Your notes
Measuring the Speed of Sound
There are several experiments that can be carried out to determine the speed of sound
Three methods are described below
The apparatus for each experiment is given in bold

Method 1: Measuring Sound Between Two Points

Measuring the Speed of Sound Using a Loud Noise

Measuring the speed of sound directly between two points

1. Two people stand a distance of around 100 m apart
2. The distance between them is measured using a trundle wheel
3. One person has two wooden blocks, which they bang together above their head
4. The second person has a stopwatch which they start when they see the first person banging the blocks
together and stops when they hear the sound
5. This is then repeated several times and an average value is taken for the time
6. The speed of sound can then be calculated using the equation:
distance travelled
speed of sound =
time taken
Method 2: Using an Oscilloscope
Measuring the Speed of Sound Using Microphones Your notes

Measuring the speed of sound using an oscilloscope

1. Two microphones are connected to an oscilloscope and placed about 5 m apart using a tape measure
to measure the distance
2. The oscilloscope is set up so that it triggers when the first microphone detects a sound, and the time
base is adjusted so that the sound arriving at both microphones can be seen on the screen
3. Two wooden blocks are used to make a large clap next to the first microphone
4. The oscilloscope is then used to determine the time at which the clap reaches each microphone and
the time difference between them
5. This is repeated several times and an average time difference calculated
6. The speed can then be calculated using the equation:
distance between microphones
speed of sound =
time between peaks
Measuring Wave Speed in Water
Ripples on water surfaces are used to model transverse waves
The speed of these water waves can be measured
Ripples on Water
 Your notes

Creating ripples in water

1. Choose a calm flat water surface such as a lake or a swimming pool
2. Two people stand a few metres apart using a tape measure to measure this distance
3. One person counts down from three and then disturbs the water surface (using their hand, for example)
to create a ripple
4. The second person then starts a stopwatch to time how long it takes for the first ripple to get to them
5. The experiment is then repeated 10 times and an average value for the time is calculated
6. The average time and distance can then be used to calculate the wave speed using the equation:
distance moved
average speed =
time taken
 Examiner Tip
Your notes
When you are answering questions about methods to measure waves, the question could ask you to
comment on the accuracy of the measurements
In the case of measuring the speed of sound:
Method 2 is the most accurate because the timing is done automatically
Method 1 is the least accurate because the time interval is very short
Whilst this may not be too important when giving a method, you should be able to explain why each
method is accurate or inaccurate and suggest ways of making them better (for example, use greater
distances)
For example, if a manual stopwatch is being used there could be variation in the time measured
which can be up to 0.2 seconds due to a person's reaction time
The time interval could be as little as 0.3 seconds for sound travelling in air
This means that the variation due to the stopwatch readings has a big influence on the results and
they may not be reliable

Speed of Sound in Air

Sound waves travel at a speed of about 340 m/s in air at room temperature
The higher the air temperature, the greater the speed of sound
The speed of sound in air varies from 330 – 350 m/s

Speed of Sound in Materials

Sound travels at different speeds in different mediums:
Sound travels fastest in solids
Sound travels slowest in gases
Some typical speeds of sound in solids, liquids and gases are:
Solids ≈ 5000 m/s
Liquids ≈ 1500 m/s
Gases ≈ 350 m/s
 Ultrasound
Your notes
Ultrasound
Humans can hear sounds between about 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz in frequency (although this range
decreases with age)
Infrasound & Ultrasound

Humans can hear sounds between 20 and 20 000 Hz

Ultrasound is the name given to sound waves with a frequency greater than 20 000 Hz
Uses of Ultrasound
When ultrasound reaches a boundary between two media, some of the waves are partially reflected Your notes
The remainder of the waves continue through the material and are transmitted
Ultrasound transducers are able to:
Emit ultrasound
Receive ultrasound
The time taken for the reflections to reach a detector can be used to determine how far away a
boundary is
This is because ultrasound travels at different speeds through different media
This is by using the speed, distance, time equation
distance moved
average speed =
time taken
Where:
v = speed in metres per second (m/s)
s = distance in metres (m)
t = time in seconds (s)
This allows ultrasound waves to be used for both medical and industrial imaging

Ultrasound in Medicine
In medicine, ultrasound can be used:
To construct images of a foetus in the womb
To generate 2D images of organs and other internal structures (as long as they are not surrounded
by bone)
As a medical treatment such as removing kidney stones
An ultrasound detector is made up of a transducer that produces and detects a beam of ultrasound
waves into the body
The ultrasound waves are reflected back to the transducer by boundaries between tissues in the path
of the beam
For example, the boundary between fluid and soft tissue or tissue and bone
When these echoes hit the transducer, they generate electrical signals that are sent to the ultrasound
scanner
Using the speed of sound and the time of each echo’s return, the detector calculates the distance
from the transducer to the tissue boundary
By taking a series of ultrasound measurements, sweeping across an area, the time measurements may
be used to build up an image
Unlike many other medical imaging techniques, ultrasound is non-invasive and is believed to be
harmless
Foetal Imaging Using Ultrasound
 Your notes

Ultrasound can be used to construct an image of a foetus in the womb

Ultrasound in Industry
In industry, ultrasound can be used to:
Check for cracks inside metal objects
Generate images beneath surfaces
A crack in a metal block will cause some waves to reflect earlier than the rest, so will show up as pulses
on an oscilloscope trace
Each pulse represents each time the wave crosses a boundary
The speed of the waves is constant, so measuring the time between emission and detection can allow
the distance from the source to be calculated
Cracked Surface Detection Using Ultrasound
 Your notes

Ultrasound is partially reflected at boundaries, so in a bolt with no internal cracks, there should only be
two pulses (at the start and end of the bolt)
 Worked example
Your notes

In the diagram above, a very high-frequency sound wave is used to check for internal cracks in a large
steel bolt. The oscilloscope trace shows that the bolt does have an internal crack. Each division on the
oscilloscope represents a time of 0.000002 s. The speed of sound through steel is 6000 m/s.
Calculate the distance, in cm, from the head of the bolt to the internal crack.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Speed of ultrasound, v = 6000 m/s
Time taken, t = 5 × 0.000002 = 0.00001 s
Step 2: Write down the equation relating speed, distance and time
distance, d = v × t
Step 3: Calculate the distance
d = 6000 × 0.00001 = 0.06 m
Step 4: Convert the distance to cm
d = 6 cm
 Cambridge O Level Physics Your notes

4.1 Simple Magnetism & Magnetic Fields

Contents
Magnetism
Magnets
Magnetic Fields
Plotting Magnetic Fields
 Magnetism
Your notes
Magnetism
Properties of Magnets
The ends of a magnet are called poles
Magnets have two poles: a north and a south
Poles of a Magnet

A magnet has a north and a south pole

Magnets are objects which experience attraction and repulsion
Like poles repel (push each other apart)
For example a north pole will repel a north pole and a south pole will repel a south pole
Unlike poles attract (move towards each other)
For example a north pole will be attracted to a south pole
When two magnets are held close together, there will be a force between the magnets:
Forces Between Magnets
 Opposite poles attract; like poles repel
Magnetic materials: Your notes
Experience a force when placed in a magnetic field
Are attracted to a magnet when unmagnetised
Can be magnetised to form a magnet
Only a magnet can repel another magnet (This can be a useful test for a magnet)
Non-magnetic materials do not experience a force when placed in a magnetic field
Uses of Magnets
Uses of Permanent Magnets Your notes

Permanent magnets are usually (but not always) made from steel
They tend to stay magnetised
Examples of Uses of Permanent Magnets

Permanent magnets are often in found in compasses and children's toys

Permanent magnets have many uses including
Compasses: for thousands of years humans have used compasses for navigation, since the
needle always points north
School lab experiments: the magnets used in school science demonstrations are permanent
magnets
Toys: toy trains and trucks often have magnets which attach the carriages or trailers to the engine
or cab
Fridge magnets: these are made either of flexible magnetic material or by sticking a magnet to the
back of something

Uses of Electromagnets

Electromagnets use electricity to create a magnet from a current-carrying wire

They have the advantage that they can be magnetised and demagnetised, literally at the flick of a
switch
They can be switched on and off
Soft iron is the metal normally used for this
It can easily become a temporary magnet
 Uses of Temporary Magnets
Your notes

Temporary magnets like electromagnets are used in industry and medicine

Electromagnets have many uses including
MRI scanners: in hospitals, an MRI scanner is a large, cylindrical machine using powerful
electromagnets to produce diagnostic images of the organs of the body
Speakers and earphones: the loudspeakers, microphones and earphones used in phones and
laptops use electromagnets to sense or send soundwaves
Recycling: because steel is a magnetic material it can be easily separated from other metals and
materials using electromagnets. Once recovered the steel is re-used and recycled, reducing
mining for iron ore and processing ore into steel
Mag-Lev Trains: the ability of Mag-Lev trains to hover above the rails is due to them being repelled
by large electromagnets on the train and track. This reduces friction and allows speeds of nearly
400 miles per hour
 Magnets
Your notes
Magnets
Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials

Magnetic materials are attracted to a magnet; non-magnetic materials are not

Very few metals in the Periodic Table are magnetic. These include:
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Steel is an alloy which contains iron, so it is also magnetic
Magnetic materials (which are not magnets) will always be attracted to the magnet, regardless of
which pole is held close to it
Magnetism in Magnetic Materials

Magnetic materials are attracted to both poles of a magnet

To test whether a material is a magnet it should be brought close to a known magnet
If it can be repelled by the known magnet then the material itself is a magnet
If it can only be attracted and not repelled then it is a magnetic material

Types of Magnets
 There are two types of magnets
Permanent magnets
Induced magnets Your notes
Permanent Magnets
Permanent magnets are made out of permanent magnetic materials, for example steel
A permanent magnet will produce its own magnetic field
It will not lose its magnetism

Temporary (Induced) Magnets

When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the material can temporarily be turned into a
magnet
This is called induced magnetism
Some objects such as paperclips or needles (which are made from steel) can be magnetised and
will remain magnetic for a while
Other objects, such as electromagnets or transformers (which are made from iron) will be
demagnetised as soon as the cause of the induced magnetism is removed
When magnetism is induced on a material:
One end of the material will become a north pole
The other end will become a south pole
Magnetic materials will always be attracted to a permanent magnet
This means that the end of the material closest to the magnet will have the opposite pole to magnets
pole closest to the material
Magnetic Induction in Magnetic Materials
 Your notes

Magnetic poles are induced in a magnetic material; the induced pole is always the opposite pole to the
pole of the permanent magnet
When the magnetic material is removed from the magnetic field it will lose most/all of its magnetism
quickly
 Worked example
Your notes
The diagram below shows a magnet held close to a piece of metal that is suspended by a light cotton
thread. The piece of metal is attracted towards the magnet.

Which of the following rows in the table gives the correct type of pole at X and the correct material of
the suspended piece of metal?

Type of pole at X Material of suspended piece of metal

A North Nickel
B South Nickel
C North Aluminium
D South Aluminium

Answer: A
X must be a north pole
The piece of metal is being attracted towards the magnet
The law of magnetism states that opposite poles attract
The material of the suspended piece of metal is nickel
Nickel is a magnetic material (It will experience a force when it is placed in a magnetic field, in
this case it is attracted towards the magnet)
B is incorrect because X cannot also be a south pole (and hence is a north pole)
If the pole at X was a south pole then the piece of metal would be repelled from the magnet
because the law of magnetism states that like poles repel
C and D are incorrect because aluminium is not a magnetic material
A non-magnetic material would be unaffected by the magnetic field produced by the
magnet.
 Magnetic Fields
Your notes
Magnetic Fields
All magnets are surrounded by a magnetic field
A magnetic field is defined as:
The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet or on a magnetic
material (such as iron, steel, cobalt and nickel)
Two bar magnets can be used to produce a uniform magnetic field
Point opposite poles (north and south) of the two magnets a few centimetres apart
A uniform magnetic field will be produced in the gaps between opposite poles
Note: Outside that gap, the field will not be uniform
Magnetic Field Between Two Poles

A uniform field is created when two opposite poles are held close together. Magnetic fields are always
directed from North to South
A uniform magnetic field is one that has the same strength and direction at all points
To show that the magnetic field has the same strength at all points there must be equal spacing
between all magnetic field lines
To show that the magnetic field is acting in the same direction at all points there must be an arrow
on each magnetic field line going from the north pole to the south pole
The magnetic field lines are the same distance apart between the gaps of the poles to indicate that
the field strength is the same at every point between the poles
This field can be determined by using plotting compasses that will point from north to south or by using
iron filings

Magnetic Field Lines

Magnetic field lines are used to represent the strength and direction of a magnetic field
The direction of the magnetic field is shown using arrows
There are some rules which must be followed when drawing magnetic field lines. Magnetic field lines:
Always go from north to south (indicated by an arrow midway along the line)
 Must never touch or cross other field lines

Magnetic Field Around a Bar Magnet Your notes

The magnetic field is strongest at the poles
This is where the magnetic field lines are closest together
The magnetic field becomes weaker as the distance from the magnet increases
This is because the magnetic field lines are getting further apart
Magnetic Field Around a Bar Magnet

The magnetic field around a bar magnet loops outward from the north pole to the south pole
Magnetic Field Strength
Your notes
The strength of the magnetic field is shown by the spacing of the magnetic field lines
If the magnetic field lines are close together then the magnetic field will be strong
If the magnetic field lines are far apart then the magnetic field will be weak

Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields

Two bar magnets can repel or attract

The field lines will look slightly different for each:

Magnetic Fields Showing Attraction and Repulsion

Magnetic field lines for attracting and repelling bar magnets

 Therefore, the magnetic field lines around different configurations of two bar magnets would look like:
Magnetic Field Patterns for Different Orientations of Bar Magnets Your notes

Magnetic field lines between two bar magnets

Examiner Tip
If you are asked to draw the magnetic field around a bar magnet remember to indicate both the
direction of the magnetic field and the strength of the magnetic field.You can do this by:
Adding arrows pointing away from the north pole and towards the south pole
Making sure the magnetic field lines are further apart as the distance from the magnet increases
 Plotting Magnetic Fields
Your notes
Plotting Magnetic Field Lines
In your examination you might be asked to describe a method of plotting the magnetic field around a
bar magnet
There are two principle ways of doing this:
Using Iron Filings
Place a piece of paper on top of the magnet
Gently sprinkle iron filings on top of the paper
Now carefully tap the paper to allow the iron filings to settle on the field lines
Magnetic Field Shown Using Iron Filings

Iron filings can be used to plot a magnetic field

Place the magnet on top of a piece of paper
Draw a dot at one end of the magnet (near its corner)
Place a plotting compass next to the dot, so that one end of the needle of the compass points towards
the dot
Use a pencil to draw a new dot at the other side of the compass needle
Now move the compass so that it points towards the new dot, and repeat the above process
Keep repeating until you have a chain of dots going from one end of the magnet to the other. Then
remove the compass, and link the dots using a smooth curve – the magnetic field line
The direction of the field line is the same as the direction of the plotting compass Your notes
You can now repeat the whole process several times to create several other magnetic field lines
Magnetic Field Shown Using Plotting Compasses

Compasses can be used to plot the magnetic field around a bar magnet
 Cambridge O Level Physics Your notes

4.2 Electrical Quantities

Contents
Electrical Charge
Demonstrating Electric Charges
Electric Fields
Investigating Conductors & Insulators
Electrical Current
Electromotive Force & Potential Difference
Resistance
Resistance of a Wire
 Electrical Charge
Your notes
Positive & Negative Charges
Objects can be given one of two types of electric charge:
Positive
Negative
When two charged objects are brought close together, there will be a force between those objects
Forces Acting on Point Charges

Like charges repel; opposite charges attract

Remember:
Opposite charges attract
Like charges repel
Electric charge is measured in units called coulombs (C)

Examiner Tip
Whilst electrostatic forces share many similarities with magnetic forces, they are different phenomena
– take care not to confuse the two!
 Demonstrating Electric Charges
Your notes
Demonstrating Electrostatic Charges
Electrostatic repulsion is caused by the force between charges
When these charges are the same as each other, they repel (push apart)
In simple experiments showing the production of electrostatic charges by friction, insulating solids
such as plastics are given a charge
This is done using friction to transfer electrons from the surface
By removing electrons, which have negative charge, the insulator is left with a positive charge

Method
Demonstrating Electrostatic Charge Using the Cradle Method

A charged rod is held by a length of thread from a clamp stand so that it can rotate freely
Suspend one of the insulating materials using a cradle and a length of string so that the material can
rotate freely
Rub one end of the material using a cloth (in order to give it a charge)
Now take a second piece of insulating material and charge that by rubbing with a cloth
Hold the charged end of the second piece close to the charged end of the first piece:
If the first piece rotates away (is repelled) from the second piece then the materials have the same
charge
If the first piece moved towards (is attracted to) the second piece then they have opposite
charges
Attraction & Repulsion of Charged Rods
 Your notes

If the charged rods have opposite charges, the freely rotating rod will turn toward the second rod. If the
charged rods have like charges, the freely rotating rod will turn away from the second rod

Examiner Tip
Experimental demonstrations, such as the one above, are different from experiments in which you
have to take measurements. In the case of this demonstration your results are your observations.
When describing a demonstration you should state a conclusion – in other words, explain what you
expect to happen and what it means.
 Electric Fields
Your notes
Electric Fields
A charged object creates an electric field around itself
This is similar to the way in which magnets create magnetic fields
This can be shown by electric field lines
Fields lines always point away from positive charges and towards negative charges
Direction of Field Lines for Point Charges

Electric fields are always directed away from positive charges and towards negative charges

The direction of the field lines in an electric field is described as:

The direction of the force on a positive charge at that point
 Your notes

Field lines show the direction that a positive charge would experience if it was at that point
Although the definition of the force direction refers to a positive charge, in demonstrations it is always
electrons (negative charges) which are free to move according to that force
The strength of an electric field depends on the distance from the object creating the field:
The field is strongest close to the charged object - this is shown by the field lines being closer
together
The field becomes weaker further away from the charged object - this is shown by the field lines
becoming further apart
Electric Field Patterns
Objects in an electric field will experience an electrostatic force Your notes
Since force is a vector, the direction of this force depends on whether the charges are the same or
opposite
If the charges are the same (negative and negative or positive and positive), this force will
be repulsive and the second charged object will move away from the charge creating the field
If the charges are the opposite (negative and positive), this force will be attractive and the second
charged object will move toward the charge creating the field
The force is either attractive or repulsive
Force on a Negative Charge Placed in the Electric Field of a Positive Charge

Electric field lines show force direction and force strength

The size of the force depends on the strength of the field at that point
This means that the force becomes:
Stronger as the distance between the two charged objects decreases
Weaker as the distance between the two charged objects increases
The relationship between the strength of the force and the distance applies to both the force of
attraction and force of repulsion
Two negative charges brought close together will have a stronger repulsive force than if they were
far apart

Field Lines Around a Point Charge

The electric field is the region in which another charge will experience a force
 Fields lines always go away from positive charges and towards negative charges – they have the same
direction as the direction of the force on a positively charged particle at a point in that field
Fields Lines For Point Charges Your notes

Electric fields are always directed away from positive charges and towards negative charges
Field Lines Between Two Oppositely Charged Parallel Conducting Plates
The electric field between two parallel plates is a uniform electric field
The field lines are:
Directed from the positive to the negative plate
Parallel
Straight lines
Field Lines for Parallel Plates
 Your notes

The electric field between two parallel plates

Field Lines Around a Charged Conducting Sphere
The field lines around a charge conducting sphere are symmetrical, as with a point charge
This is because the charges on the surface of the sphere will be evenly distributed
The charges are the same, so they repel
The surface is conducting, allowing them to move
 Your notes

This field line pattern can be demonstrated using a Van der Graaff Generator
One method using streamers is shown
Other methods often demonstrated in schools include
Small pieces of paper
Polystyrene beads
Aluminium foil containers
 Investigating Conductors & Insulators
Your notes
Conductors, Insulators & Electrons
The key difference between conductors and insulators is that:
Conductors allow charge carriers to freely move
Insulators do not allow charge carriers to move
The reasons for this are to do with their internal structure
Conductors
A conductor is a material that allows charge (usually electrons) to flow through it easily
Examples of conductors are:
Silver
Copper
Aluminium
Steel
Conductors tend to be metals
Relative Conductivity of Different Materials

Different materials have different properties of conductivity

On the atomic scale, conductors are made up of positively charged metal ions with their outermost
electrons delocalised
This means the electrons are free to move
Metals conduct electricity very well because:
Current is the rate of flow of charged particles
So, the more easily electrons are able to flow, the better the conductor
Metallic Bonding and Delocalised Electrons
 Your notes

The lattice structure of a conductor with positive metal ions and delocalised electrons
Insulators
An insulator is a material that has no free charges, hence does not allow the flow of charge through
them very easily
Examples of insulators are:
Rubber
Plastic
Glass
Wood
Some non-metals, such as wood, allow some charge to pass through them
Although they are not very good at conducting, they do conduct a little in the form of static electricity
For example, two insulators can build up charge on their surfaces. If those surfaces touch, this
would allow that charge to be conducted away
Investigating Electrical Conductors & Insulators
The Gold-leaf Electroscope (GLE) Your notes
To distinguish between conductors and insulators a Gold-leaf electroscope (GLE) can be used
Gold-Leaf Electroscope

The gold-leaf electroscope is a device used to demonstrate charge

The GLE consists of
A metal plate attached to one end of a metal rod
At the other end of the rod a very thin leaf of gold foil is attached
The rod is held by an insulating collar inside a box with glass sides, allowing the gold leaf to both be
seen and protected from draughts
When the GLE is charged, the plate, rod and gold leaf have the same charge (either positive or
negative)
Since the rod and leaf have the same charge, they repel, and the leaf sticks out to the side
When the rod and leaf are discharged (are neutral) the leaf hangs down

To Test Electrical Conductors and insulators

Charge the plate of the GLE so that the gold leaf stands clear of the rod
 Carefully touch the plate of the GLE with the items being tested, for example:
Metals, such as: wire, paperclip, scissor blades
Non-metals, such as: paper, fngers, glass, graphite Your notes
Plastics, such as: plastic ruler, the handles of the scissors, finger in a plastic sandwich bag
Comparisons, such as: wet cloth, dry cloth; fnger and finger in a plastic sandwich bag
Record the observations each time
Leaf falls: material is a good conductor
Leaf remains in place: object is a poor conductor (good insulator)
Leaf falls slowly: material is a poor conductor

Alternative method
An electronic charge detector can be used in place of the Gold-leaf Electroscope

Expected Results
Overall, metals are very good conductors whilst non-metals tend to be good insulators
Conductors & Insulators Summary Table

Conductors Insulators

Metals Plastics

Graphite Glass

Most other non-metals

 Electrical Current
Your notes
Current
The current is the amount of charge passing a point in a circuit every second
(It is helpful to think of current as the charge per second)
Charge, current and time are related by the following equation:
charge = current × time
Q = It
Where:
Q = charge (measured in coulombs, C)
I = current (measured in amps, A)

You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:
Equation Triangle for Current Equation
 Your notes

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation until you feel comfortable doing it on your
own
Measuring Current
Current is measured using an ammeter Your notes
Ammeters should always be connected in series with the part of the circuit you wish to measure the
current through
Ammeters measure the amount of charge passing through them per unit time, so the ammeter has
to be in series so that all the charge flows through it
Simple Circuit Diagram

An ammeter can be used to measure the current around a circuit

Digital or Analogue?
Ammeters can be either
Digital (with an electronic read out)
Analogue (with a needle and scale)
Analogue Ammeters
Typical ranges are 0.1-1.0 A and 1.0-5.0 A for analogue ammeters
Always double check exactly where the marker is before an experiment, if not at zero, you will need
to subtract this from all your measurements. They should be checked for zero errors before using
They are also subject to parallax error
Always read the meter from a position directly perpendicular to the scale
 Your notes

Digital Ammeters
Digital ammeters can measure very small currents, in mA or µA
Digital displays show the measured values as digits and are more accurate than analogue displays
They’re easy to use because they give a specific value and are capable of displaying more precise
values
However digital displays may 'flicker' back and forth between values and a judgement must be
made as to which to write down
Digital ammeters should be checked for zero error
Make sure the reading is zero before starting an experiment, or subtract the “zero” value from the
end results
 Your notes

Digital meter
Electrical Conduction in Metals
In a metal, current is caused by a flow of electrons Your notes
Conduction in Metals

In metals, the current is caused by a flow of free (delocalised) electrons

Conventional Current
Electrons are negatively charged Your notes
This means that the electrons flow from negative to positive
Conventional current, however, is still defined as going from positive to negative
Conventional Current Versus Electron Current

By definition, conventional current always goes from positive to negative (even though electrons go the
other way)
Direct & Alternating Current
An alternating current (a.c.) is one that continuously changes its direction, going back and forth Your notes
around a circuit
A direct current (d.c.) is one that is steady, constantly going the same way around a circuit, from
positive to negative

A.C. and D.C. Current Graphs

Two graphs showing the variation of current with time for alternating current and direct current

Electric cells (batteries) produce direct current (d.c.)

Mains electricity is an alternating current

Examiner Tip
If asked to explain the difference between alternating and direct current, sketch the graphs shown
above: a well-sketched (and labelled) graph can earn you full marks.
 Electromotive Force & Potential Difference
Your notes
Electromotive Force
The electromotive Force (e.m.f.) is the name given to the potential difference of the power source in a
circuit
It is defined as
The electrical work done by a source in moving a unit charge around a complete circuit
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is measured in volts (V)
Electromotive Force in a Circuit

The EMF is the voltage supplied by a power supply: 12 V in the above case
The definition of e.m.f. can also be expressed using an equation
W
E=
Q
Where
E = electromotive force (e.m.f.) (V)
W = energy supplied to the charges from the power source (J)
Q = charge on each charge carrier (C)
Note: in circuits the charge carriers are electrons
This equation should be compared to the definition of potential difference (below) as the two are
closely related
Your notes
Potential Difference
As charge flows around a circuit energy is transferred from the power source to the charge carriers, Your notes
and then to the components
This is what makes components such as bulbs light up
The potential difference between two points in a circuit is related to the amount of energy
transferred between those points in the circuit
Potential difference is defined as
The work done by a unit charge passing through a component
Potential difference is measure in volts (V)
Electromotive Force and Potential Difference in a Circuit

The potential difference is the difference in the electrical potential across each component: 5 volts for
the bulb (on the left) and 7 volts for the resistor (on the right)
The definition of p.d. can also be expressed using an equation
W
V=
Q
Where
V = potential difference (p.d.) (V)
W = energy transferred to the components from the charge carriers (J)
Q = charge on each charge carrier (C)
 In circuits the charge carriers are electrons
This equation should be compared to the definition of e.m.f. as the two are closely related due to
conservation of energy Your notes
Measuring Potential Difference
Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter, which can be either Your notes
Digital (with an electronic read out)
Analogue (with a needle and scale)
Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the component being tested
The potential difference is the difference in electrical potential between two points, therefore the
voltmeter has to be connected to two points in the circuit

Analogue or Digital?
Analogue voltmeters are subject to parallax error
Always read the meter from a position directly perpendicular to the scale
Typical ranges are 0.1-1.0 V and 0-5.0 V for analogue voltmeters although they can vary
Always double check exactly where the marker is before an experiment, if not at zero, you will need
to subtract this from all your measurements
They should be checked for zero errors before using
Analogue and Digital Voltmeters

Voltmeters can be either analogue (with a scale and needle) or digital (with electronic read-out)
Digital voltmeters can measure very small potential differences, in mV or µV
Digital displays show the measured values as digits and are more accurate than analogue displays
They’re easy to use because they give a specific value and are capable of displaying more precise
values
However digital displays may 'flicker' back and forth between values and a judgement must be
made as to which to write down
Digital voltmeters should be checked for zero error
Make sure the reading is zero before starting an experiment, or subtract the “zero” value from the
end results
Position of a Voltmeter in a Circuit
 Your notes

Voltmeters are connected in parallel to the component being tested

Examiner Tip
When you are actually building a circuit in class, always save the voltmeter until last.
Make the whole circuit first and check it works.
Only then pick up the voltmeter. Connect two leads to your voltmeter. Now connect the leads so that
they are one on each side of the component you are measuring. This will save you a LOT of time waiting
for your teacher to troubleshoot your circuit!
Calculating Total EMF
When several cells are connected together in series, their combined EMF is equal to the sum of their Your notes
individual EMFs
Total Electromotive Force

The total EMF of these cells is equal to the sum of their individual EMFs

Potential Difference in Series Circuits

In a series circuit, the sum of potential differences across the components is equal to the total EMF of
the power supply
Potential Difference in Series
 Your notes

In a series circuit the components share the EMF of the power supply

Potential Difference in Parallel Circuits

A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached along separate branches of the circuit
Parallel Circuit
 Your notes

Diagram showing two bulbs connected in parallel

The advantages of this kind of circuit are:
The components can be individually controlled, using their own switches
If one component stops working the others will continue to function
In a parallel circuit, the current splits up - some of it going one way and the rest going the other
This means that the current in each branch will be smaller than the current from the power supply
 Resistance
Your notes
Determining Resistance
Determining Resistance
To find the resistance of a component, we can set up a circuit like the one shown below
Circuit Set-up for Determining Resistance

A circuit to determine the resistance of a component includes a power supply, an ammeter connected
in series, and a voltmeter connected in parallel to the component being measured
The power supply should be set to a low voltage to avoid heating the component, typically 1-2 V
Measurements of the potential difference and current should then be taken from the voltmeter and
ammeter respectively
Finally, these readings should be substituted into the resistance equation
 Worked example
Your notes
A charge of 5.0 C passes through a resistor of resistance R Ω at a constant rate in 3.0 s.
The potential difference across the resistor is 2.0 V. Calculate the value of R.
Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Charge, Q = 5.0 C
Time, t = 3.0 s
Potential difference, V = 2.0 V
Step 2: Rearrange the current & charge equation to make current the subject

Q = It
Q
I=
t
Step 3: Substitute the known values to calculate

5.0
I=
3.0
I = 1 . 67 A
Step 4: Substitute the known values into the resistance equation to calculate

V
R=
I
2.0
R=
1 . 67
R = 1.2 Ω
Ohm's Law
Resistance is the opposition to current Your notes
For a given potential difference, the higher the resistance, the lower the current
Therefore resistors are used in circuits to control the current
The unit of resistance is the ohm, represented by the Greek symbol omega Ω
Ohm's Law
The definition of resistance can be given using the equation
V
R=
I
Where
R = resistance (ohms, Ω)
V = potential difference (volts, V)
I = current (amperes, A)
Ohm's Law can be stated in words:
Current is directly proportional to potential difference as long as the temperature remains constant
Equation Triangle for Ohm's Law
 Your notes

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation until you feel confident to do it unaided
Consequences of Ohm's Law
Resistors are used in circuits to control either
The current in branches of the circuit (through certain components)
The potential difference across certain components
This is due to the consequences of Ohm's Law
The current in an electrical conductor decreases as its resistance increases (for a constant p.d.)
The p.d. across an electrical conductor increases as its resistance increases (for a constant
current)
 Resistance of a Wire
Your notes
Proportionality Relationships for Electrical Conductors
The relationship between resistance, length and cross-sectional area can be represented
mathematically
Resistance is directly proportional to length
R∝ L
Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area (width, or thickness)
1
R∝
A

Proportional Relationships Between Resistance, Length & Cross-Sectional Area

Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the wire and indirectly proportional to the cross-
sectional area
Effect of Temperature on Resistance
The resistivity of a thermistor behaves in the opposite way to metals Your notes
This is because it is a type of semiconductor
Semiconductors behave in a different way to metals
The number density of charge carriers (such as electrons) increases with increasing temperature
Therefore, for a thermistor:
An increase in temperature causes a decrease in resistance and resistivity
A decrease in temperature causes an increase in resistance and resistivity
Thermistors are often used in temperature sensing circuits such as thermometers and thermostats
A thermistor is a non-ohmic conductor and sensory resistor whose resistance varies with temperature
Most thermistors are negative temperature coefficient ntc) components.
This means that if the temperature increases, the resistance of the thermistor decreases (and vice
versa)
Resistance-Temperature Graph for a Thermistor

Resistance decreases as temperature increases for a thermistor

Thermistors are temperature sensors and are used in circuits in ovens, fire alarms and digital
thermometers
As the thermistor gets hotter, its resistance decreases
As the thermistor gets cooler, its resistance increases
Effect of Temperature on a Thermistor
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A thermistor has a high resistance at low temperatures and a low resistance at high temperatures
 Worked example
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A thermistor is connected in series with a resistor R and a battery.

The resistance of the thermistor is equal to the resistance of R at room temperature.

Which statement describes the effect when the temperature of the thermistor decreases?
A. The p.d across the thermistor increases
B. The current in R increases
C. The current through the thermistor decreases
D. The p.d across R increases
Answer: A
Step 1: Outline the nature of a thermistor
The resistance of the thermistor increases as the temperature decreases
Step 2: Consider the properties of current in a series circuit
Since the thermistor and resistor R are connected in series, the current I in both of them is the same
Step 3: Consider a relevant equation
Ohm’s law states that V = IR
Since the resistance of the thermistor increases, and I is the same, the potential difference V
across it increases
Step 4: State the conclusion
Therefore, statement A is correct
I-V Graphs for Ohmic Resistors, Filament Lamps & Diodes
As the potential difference (voltage) across a component is increased, the current in the component Your notes
also increases
The precise relationship between voltage and current can be different for different types of
components and is shown by an IV graph:
IV Graphs for a Resistor & a Filament Lamp

The IV graph for a resistor is a straight line through the origin, the resistance for a filament lamp changes
with temperature
The IV graph for a resistor is very simple:
The current is proportional to the potential difference
This is because the resistor has a constant resistance

For a lamp the relationship is more complicated:

The current increases at a proportionally slower rate than the potential difference
This is because:
The current causes the filament in the lamp to heat up
As the filament gets hot, its resistance increases
This opposes the current, causing it to increase at a slower rate
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