WORKING OF AC GENERATOR AND DC MOTOR

A PROJECT REPORT IN PHYSICS (042) SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE COMPLETION OF SSCE 2023-2024

BY
NAME: SANJAY THANDEESWARAN
ROLL NO:
CLASS & SECTION: XII-B2

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF:

MS. SOUNDARYAA CHANDRAMOULI
PGT PHYSICS

SHRISHTI VIDYASHRAM SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

BRAMMAPURAM ,VELLORE .

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 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that SANJAY THANDEESWARAN has successfully carried out the

project titled WORKING OF AC GENERATOR AND DC MOTOR in partial fulfilment of

his/her

Investigatory project in Physics during the year 2023-2024 .

Internal Examiner:

External Examiner: Principal:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who supported me throughout this
project. Their guidance, encouragement, and expertise have been invaluable in helping me
complete this work successfully.

Firstly, I would like to thank Ms. Soundaryaa Chandramouli, my physics mentor, for their
constant support, insights, and advice. Their guidance has been essential at every stage of this
project, from planning to execution.

I am also grateful to Shrishti Vidyashram Senior Secondary School for providing the necessary
resources and environment that facilitated my work.

Furthermore, I extend my appreciation to my friends and family, especially for their

encouragement and understanding during this journey.

I would like to thank God for His grace, guidance, and strength throughout this project.

Thank you all for your invaluable support.

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 INDEX

S.No Topic Page No.

1 INTRODUCTION 5

2 GENERATORS 6

3 MOTORS 12

4 THE DIFFERENCE 20

5 SIGNIFICANCE AND APPLICATIONS 21

6 BIBLIOGRAPHY 24

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 INTRODUCTION

In today’s electricity generation, life without current almost traps the time in the world. When
the current goes out, a special machine called generator helps us by creating electricity.
Therefore a generator can be defined as a device that converts motion-based power or fuel-based
power into electric power for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy
include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, wind
turbines and even hand cranks. The first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was
invented in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday. Generators provide nearly all the power
for electrical grids. In addition to electricity- and motion-based designs, photovoltaic and fuel
cell powered generators use solar power and hydrogen-based fuels, respectively, to generate
electrical output.

The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor,
and motors and generators are very similar. Many motors can generate electricity from
mechanical energy.
An electric motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most
electric motors operate through the interaction between the motor's magnetic field and electric
current in a wire winding to generate force in the form of torque applied on the motor's shaft.
An electric generator is mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates in reverse,
converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electric motors can be powered by direct
current sources, such as from batteries or rectifiers, or by alternating current sources, such as a
power grid, inverters or electrical generators.
Electric motors may be classified by considerations such as power source type, construction,
application and type of motion output. They can be brushed or brushless, single-phase, two-
phase, or three-phase, axial or radial flux, and may be air-cooled or liquid-cooled. We shall see
how they work, their history, their difference and their practical day to day significances.

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 GENERATORS

There are many types of generators like Faraday’s disk generator, Direct current generators,
alternating current generators, self-exciting direct current generators. Out of all these generators,
Alternating current generators are most efficient as they produce high magnitude of current with
minimal energy losses.

Faraday’s disk generator:

Faraday built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk; a type of homopolar
generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a
small DC voltage.

This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions of the disk
that were not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly
underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the
influence of the magnetic field. This counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires
and induced waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this
problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the disc perimeter to maintain a steady
field effect in one current-flow direction.

Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single current path
through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could
produce higher, more useful voltages. Since the output voltage is proportional to the number of
turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number
of turns. Wire windings became a basic feature of all subsequent generator designs.

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Direct current generators:

A coil of wire rotating in a magnetic field produces a current which changes direction with each
180° rotation, an alternating current (AC). However many early uses of electricity required direct
current (DC). In the first practical electric generators, called dynamos, the AC was converted
into DC with a commutator, a set of rotating switch contacts on the armature shaft. The
commutator reversed the connection of the armature winding to the circuit every 180° rotation of
the shaft, creating a pulsing DC current. One of the first dynamos was built by Hippolyte Pixii in
1832.

The dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry. The
Woolrich Electrical Generator of 1844, now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum, is the
earliest electrical generator used in an industrial process. It was used by the firm of Elkingtons
for commercial electroplating.

The modern dynamo, fit for use in industrial applications, was invented independently by Sir
Charles Wheatstone, Werner von Siemens and Samuel Alfred Varley. Varley took out a patent
on 24 December 1866, while Siemens and Wheatstone both announced their discoveries on 17
January 1867 by delivering papers at the Royal Society.

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The "dynamo-electric machine" employed self-powering electromagnetic field coils rather than
permanent magnets to create the stator field. Wheatstone's design was similar to Siemens', with
the difference that in the Siemens design the stator electromagnets were in series with the rotor,
but in Wheatstone's design they were in parallel. The use of electromagnets rather than
permanent magnets greatly increased the power output of a dynamo and enabled high power
generation for the first time. This invention led directly to the first major industrial uses of
electricity. For example, in the 1870s Siemens used electromagnetic dynamos to power electric
arc furnaces for the production of metals and other materials.

The dynamo machine that was developed consisted of a stationary structure, which provides the
magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that field. On larger machines
the constant magnetic field is provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called
field coils.

Large power generation dynamos are now rarely seen due to the now nearly universal use of
alternating current for power distribution. Before the adoption of AC, very large direct-current
dynamos were the only means of power generation and distribution. AC has come to dominate
due to the ability of AC to be easily transformed to and from very high voltages to permit low
losses over large distances.

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Alternating Current Generator:

Through a series of discoveries, the dynamo was succeeded by many later inventions, especially
the AC alternator, which was capable of generating alternating current. It is commonly known to
be the Synchronous Generators. The synchronous machines are directly connected to the grid
and need to be properly synchronized during startup. Moreover, they are excited with special
control to enhance the stability of the power system.

Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from Michael Faraday's
original discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current. Faraday himself built an early
alternator. His machine was a "rotating rectangle", whose operation was heteropolar: each active
conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was in opposite
directions.

Large two-phase alternating current generators were built by a British electrician, J. E. H.

Gordon, in 1882. The first public demonstration of an "alternator system" was given by William
Stanley Jr., an employee of Westinghouse Electric in 1886.

Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti established Ferranti, Thompson and Ince in 1882, to market his
Ferranti-Thompson Alternator, invented with the help of renowned physicist Lord Kelvin. His
early alternators produced frequencies between 100 and 300 Hz. Ferranti went on to design the
Deptford Power Station for the London Electric Supply Corporation in 1887 using an alternating
current system. On its completion in 1891, it was the first truly modern power station, supplying
high-voltage AC power that was then "stepped down" for consumer use on each street. This
basic system remains in use today around the world. After 1891, polyphase alternators were
introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases. Later alternators were designed for
varying alternating-current frequencies between sixteen and about one hundred hertz, for use
with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric motors.

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Self-exciting DC Generator:

As the requirements for larger scale power generation increased, a new limitation rose: the
magnetic fields available from permanent magnets. Diverting a small amount of the power
generated by the generator to an electromagnetic field coil allowed the generator to produce
substantially more power. This concept was dubbed self-excitation.

The field coils are connected in series or parallel with the armature winding. When the generator
first starts to turn, the small amount of remanent magnetism present in the iron core provides a
magnetic field to get it started, generating a small current in the armature. This flows through the
field coils, creating a larger magnetic field which generates a larger armature current. This
"bootstrap" process continues until the magnetic field in the core levels off due to saturation and
the generator reaches a steady state power output.

Very large power station generators often utilize a separate smaller generator to excite the field
coils of the larger. In the event of a severe widespread power outage where islanding of power
stations has occurred, the stations may need to perform a black start to excite the fields of their
largest generators, in order to restore customer power service.

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Variable-speed constant-frequency generators:

This is a type of alternating current generator. These types of Grid-connected generators deliver
power at a constant frequency. For generators of the synchronous or induction type, the primer
mover speed turning the generator shaft must be at a particular speed (or narrow range of speed)
to deliver power at the required utility frequency. Mechanical speed-regulating devices may
waste a significant fraction of the input energy to maintain a required fixed frequency.

Where it is impractical or undesired to tightly regulate the speed of the prime mover, doubly fed
electric machines may be used as generators. With the assistance of power electronic devices,
these can regulate the output frequency to a desired value over a wider range of generator shaft
speeds. Alternatively, a standard generator can be used with no attempt to regulate frequency,
and the resulting power converted to the desired output frequency with a rectifier and converter
combination. Allowing a wider range of prime mover speeds can improve the overall energy
production of an installation, at the cost of more complex generators and controls. For example,
where a wind turbine operating at fixed frequency might be required to spill energy at high wind
speeds, a variable speed system can allow recovery of energy contained during periods of high
wind speed.

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 MOTORS

The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by English
scientist William Sturgeon in 1832. Electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial processes
were no longer limited by power transmission using line shafts, belts, compressed air or
hydraulic pressure. Instead, every machine could be equipped with its own power source,
providing easy control at the point of use, and improving power transmission efficiency. Electric
motors applied in agriculture eliminated human and animal muscle power from such tasks as
handling grain or pumping water. Household uses (like in washing machines, dishwashers, fans,
air conditioners and refrigerators (replacing ice boxes) of electric motors reduced heavy labour in
the home and made higher standards of convenience, comfort and safety possible. Today,
electric motors consume more than half of the electric energy produced in the US.

COMPONENTS OF A TYPICAL MOTOR:

Rotor:
The rotor is the moving part that delivers the mechanical power. The rotor typically holds
conductors that carry currents, on which the magnetic field of the stator exerts force to turn the
shaft

Stator:
The stator surrounds the rotor, and usually holds field magnets, which are
either electromagnets or permanent magnets. These create a magnetic field that passes through
the rotor armature, exerting force on the rotor windings.

Gap:
An air gap between the stator and rotor allows it to turn. The width of the gap has a significant
effect on the motor's electrical characteristics. It is generally made as small as possible, as a large
gap weakens performance.

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Armature:
The armature consists of wire windings on a ferromagnetic core. Electric current passing through
the wire causes the magnetic field to exert a force (Lorentz force) on it, turning the rotor.
Windings are coiled wires, wrapped around a laminated, soft, iron, ferromagnetic core so as to
form magnetic poles when energized with current.

Commutator:
A commutator is a rotary electrical switch that supplies current to the rotor. It periodically
reverses the flow of current in the rotor windings as the shaft rotates. It consists of a cylinder
composed of multiple metal contact segments on the armature. Two or more electrical
contacts called brushes made of a soft conductive material like carbon press against the
commutator.

Shaft:

The motor shaft extends outside of the motor, where it satisfies the load. Because the forces of
the load are exerted beyond the outermost bearing, the load is said to be overhung.[

Bearing:
The rotor is supported by bearings, which allow the rotor to turn on its axis by transferring the
force of axial and radial loads from the shaft to the motor housing

TYPES OF MOTOR:

Electrically excited DC motor:

A commutated DC motor has a set of rotating windings wound on an armature mounted on a

rotating shaft. The shaft also carries the commutator. Thus, every brushed DC motor has AC
flowing through its windings. Current flows through one or more pairs of brushes that touch the
commutator; the brushes connect an external source of electric power to the rotating armature.

The rotating armature consists of one or more wire coils wound around a laminated,
magnetically "soft" ferromagnetic core. Current from the brushes flows through the commutator
and one winding of the armature, making it a temporary magnet (an electromagnet). The
magnetic field produced interacts with a stationary magnetic field produced by either PMs or
another winding (a field coil), as part of the motor frame. The force between the two magnetic
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fields rotates the shaft. The commutator switches power to the coils as the rotor turns, keeping
the poles from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor
keeps turning as long as power is applied.

Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to
maintain contact with the commutator, creating friction. The brushes create sparks while
crossing the insulating gaps between commutator sections. Depending on the commutator
design, the brushes may create short circuits between adjacent sections—and hence coil ends.
Furthermore, the rotor coils' inductance causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit
opens, increasing the sparking. This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine, as too-
rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per unit
area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the motor's output. Crossing the
gaps also generates electrical noise; sparking generates RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and
require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance or
replacement. The commutator assembly on a large motor is a costly element, requiring precision
assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into
the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the rotor.

While most commutators are cylindrical, some are flat, segmented discs mounted on an
insulator.

Large brushes create a large contact area, which maximizes motor output, while small brushes
have low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor can run without excessive sparking.
(Small brushes are desirable for their lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can be used to make
brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed, despite greater friction losses (lower efficiency)
and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brush design entails a trade-
off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear.

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BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

The BLDC motor's characteristic trapezoidal counter-electromotive force (CEMF) waveform is

derived partly from the stator windings being evenly distributed, and partly from the placement
of the rotor's permanent magnets. Also known as electronically commutated DC or inside-out
DC motors, the stator windings of trapezoidal BLDC motors can be single-phase, two-phase or
three-phase and use Hall effect sensors mounted on their windings for rotor position sensing and
low cost closed-loop commutator control.

BLDC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer disk
drives or video cassette recorders. The spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and
mechanisms within office products, such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have
several advantages over conventional motors:
 They are more efficient than AC fans using shaded-pole motors, running much cooler
than the AC equivalents. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of the fan's
bearings.
 Without a commutator, the life of a BLDC motor can be significantly longer compared to
a brushed DC motor with a commutator. Commutation tends to cause electrical and RF
noise; without a commutator or brushes, a BLDC motor may be used in electrically
sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.
 The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can provide a convenient
tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the

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 tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal as well as provide running
speed feedback.
 The motor can be synchronized to an internal or external clock, providing precise speed
control.
 BLDC motors do not spark, making them better suited to environments with volatile
chemicals and fuels. Sparking also generates ozone, which can accumulate in poorly
ventilated buildings.
 BLDC motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally
used in fans to remove heat.
 They make little noise, which is an advantage in equipment that is affected by vibrations.
 Modern BLDC motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger
BLDC motors rated up to about 100 kW are used in electric vehicles. They also find use
in electric model aircraft.

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UNIVERSAL AC/DC MOTOR:

A commutated, electrically excited, series or parallel wound motor is referred to as a universal

motor because it can be designed to operate on either AC or DC power. A universal motor can
operate well on AC because the current in both the field and the armature coils (and hence the
resultant magnetic fields) synchronously reverse polarity, and hence the resulting mechanical
force occurs in a constant direction of rotation.

Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are often used in sub-kilowatt
applications. Universal motors formed the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in
electric railways. In this application, using AC power on a motor designed to run on DC would
experience efficiency losses due to eddy current heating of their magnetic components,
particularly the motor field pole-pieces that, for DC, would have used solid (un-laminated) iron.
They are now rarely used.

An advantage is that AC power may be used on motors that specifically have high starting torque
and compact design if high running speeds are used. By contrast, maintenance is higher and
lifetimes are shortened. Such motors are used in devices that are not heavily used, and have high
starting-torque demands. Multiple taps on the field coil provide (imprecise) stepped speed
control. Household blenders that advertise many speeds typically combine a field coil with
several taps and a diode that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on
half-wave rectified AC). Universal motors also lend themselves to electronic speed control and,
as such, are a choice for devices such as domestic washing machines. The motor can agitate the
drum (both forwards and in reverse) by switching the field winding with respect to the armature.

Whereas SCIMs cannot turn a shaft faster than allowed by the power line frequency, universal
motors can run at much higher speeds. This makes them useful for appliances such as blenders,
vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high speed and light weight are desirable. They are also
commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills, sanders, circular and jig saws, where the
motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed
10,000 rpm, while miniature grinders may exceed 30,000 rpm.

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Synchronous motor:

A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor. It includes a rotor spinning with coils passing
magnets at the same frequency as the AC and produces a magnetic field to drive it. It has zero
slip under typical operating conditions. By contrast induction motors must slip to produce torque.
One type of synchronous motor is like an induction motor except that the rotor is excited by a
DC field. Slip rings and brushes conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each
other and move at the same speed.

Another type, for low load torque, has flats ground onto a conventional squirrel-cage rotor to
create discrete poles. Yet another, as made by Hammond for its pre-World War II clocks, and in
older Hammond organs, has no rotor windings and discrete poles. It is not self-starting. The
clock requires manual starting by a small knob on the back, while the older Hammond organs
had an auxiliary starting motor connected by a spring-loaded manually operated switch.

Hysteresis synchronous motors typically are (essentially) two-phase motors with a phase-shifting
capacitor for one phase. They start like induction motors, but when slip rate decreases
sufficiently, the rotor (a smooth cylinder) becomes temporarily magnetized. Its distributed poles
make it act like a permanent magnet synchronous motor. The rotor material, like that of a
common nail, stays magnetized, but can be demagnetized with little difficulty. Once running, the
rotor poles stay in place; they do not drift.

Low-power synchronous timing motors (such as those for traditional electric clocks) may have
multi-pole permanent magnet external cup rotors, and use shading coils to provide starting
torque. Telechron clock motors have shaded poles for starting torque, and a two-spoke ring rotor
that performs like a discrete two-pole rotor.
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 THE DIFFERENCE

Property Motor Generator

An electric generator is a
An electric motor is a machine that
machine that converts
Definition converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy to
mechanical energy.
electrical energy.`
Electric motor follows Fleming’s Electric generator follows
Rule
left-hand rule. Fleming’s right-hand rule.

The working principle of a motor

is based on the current-carrying The working principle of the
Principle conductor that experiences a force generator is based on
when it is kept in the magnetic electromagnetic induction.
field.

The shaft of an electric motor is The shaft of an electric

Driving driven by a magnetic force which generator is connected to the
force for
shaft is developed between the armature rotor which is driven by a
and field. mechanical force.
In a generator, current is
Current In a motor, current is supplied to
usage produced in the armature
the armature winding.
winding.
In power stations, generators
Ceiling fans, cars, etc. are all
Example are used to generate
examples of motors.
electricity.

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 SIGNIFICANCE AND APPLICATIONS

Most power stations contain one or more generators, or spinning machines converting
mechanical power into three-phase electrical power. The relative motion between a magnetic
field and a conductor creates an electric current. The energy source harnessed to turn the
generator varies widely. Most power stations in the world burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and
natural gas to generate electricity. Cleaner sources include nuclear power, and increasingly use
renewables such as the sun, wind, waves and running water.

Motor vehicles require electrical energy to power their instrumentation, keep the engine itself
operating, and recharge their batteries. Until about the 1960s motor vehicles tended to use DC
generators (dynamos) with electromechanical regulators. Following the historical trend above
and for many of the same reasons, these have now been replaced by alternators with built-in
rectifier circuits.

Bicycles require energy to power running lights and other equipment. There are two common
kinds of generator in use on bicycles: bottle dynamos which engage the bicycle's tire on an as-
needed basis, and hub dynamos which are directly attached to the bicycle's drive train. The name
is conventional as they are small permanent-magnet alternators, not self-excited DC machines as
are dynamos. Some electric bicycles are capable of regenerative braking, where the drive motor
is used as a generator to recover some energy during braking.

Sailing boats may use a water- or wind-powered generator to trickle-charge the batteries. A small
propeller, wind turbine or turbine is connected to a low-power generator to supply currents at
typical wind or cruising speeds.

Recreational vehicles need an extra power supply to power their onboard accessories, including
air conditioning units, and refrigerators. An RV power plug is connected to the electric generator
to obtain a stable power supply.

Electric scooters with regenerative braking have become popular all over the world. Engineers
use kinetic energy recovery systems on the scooter to reduce energy consumption and increase
its range up to 40-60% by simply recovering energy using the magnetic brake, which generates
electric energy for further use. Modern vehicles reach speed up to 25–30 km/h and can run up to
35–40 km.
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An engine-generator is the combination of an electrical generator and an engine (prime mover)
mounted together to form a single piece of self-contained equipment. The engines used are
usually piston engines, but gas turbines can also be used, and there are even hybrid diesel-gas
units, called dual-fuel units. Many different versions of engine-generators are available – ranging
from very small portable petrol powered sets to large turbine installations. The primary
advantage of engine-generators is the ability to independently supply electricity, allowing the
units to serve as backup power sources.

Human powered electric generators are commercially available, and have been the project of
some DIY enthusiasts. Typically operated by means of pedal power, a converted bicycle trainer,
or a foot pump, such generators can be practically used to charge batteries, and in some cases are
designed with an integral inverter. An average "healthy human" can produce a steady 75 watts
(0.1 horsepower) for a full eight hour period, while a "first class athlete" can produce
approximately 298 watts (0.4 horsepower) for a similar period, at the end of which an
undetermined period of rest and recovery will be required. At 298 watts, the average "healthy
human" becomes exhausted within 10 minutes.The net electrical power that can be produced will
be less, due to the efficiency of the generator. Portable radio receivers with a crank are made to
reduce battery purchase requirements, see clockwork radio. During the mid 20th century, pedal
powered radios were used throughout the Australian outback, to provide schooling (School of
the Air), medical and other needs in remote stations and towns.

Electric motors are used across industries for a variety of reasons, primarily because of their
longer lifespan, in comparison with say, fossil fuel engines because they require less
maintenance and they offer a greener alternative.

AC motors can be found in conveyor systems, typically found within factories and warehouses
because they can ensure stable and constant delivery. Another example of their use is within air
conditioning systems. As AC motors are brushless, they are inherently reliable and therefore
require very little maintenance.

A DC motor can handle the movement of heavier loads and will function well in a variety of
conditions, therefore they are found in mission-critical applications, such as train wiper systems
because of their reliability and strength. These types of motors can also be found in smaller
appliances such as vacuum cleaners and like all motors they can be adapted to suit the
requirements of the application.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1) Class XII NCERT Physics textbook

2) Wikipedia- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_generator

3) Byju’s- https://byjus.com/physics/the-electric-motor/

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