H

H H
H CH H
H C C C C H
H H
H H

δ+ δ+
H H

O H O
δ− δ+ δ−

H δ+

δ+ δ− δ+ δ−
H Cl H Cl

H
H H Kc = [C]c [D]d
H C
H [A]a [B]b
H C C C H
H H
C
H H H H H H H
H
H C C C C C H
H H H H H

LEVEL 2 CHEMISTRY

CHEMICAL REACTIVITY
NCEA Workbook Answers
 1. Collision Theory and Rate of Reaction

a. A chemical reaction is a process that changes one or more substances (called the reactants)
into new substances (called the products). This involves the breaking of chemical bonds in the
reactants and the formation of new chemical bonds as the products form.

b. If a chemical reaction was occurring in a test tube, you might observe some physical changes
such as: a colour change in the solution; bubbles forming or the solution fizzing; a change in
the temperature of the test tube such as it becoming warmer or cooler; if one or more of the
reactants were solid, you might see them dissolving, or a solid (precipitate) might form in the
solution.

c. A reactant is a substance that you start with before the chemical reaction takes place. It is the
substance that undergoes the reaction and is chemically changed.

d. A product is the outcome of a chemical reaction, the new substance or substances that are
formed from the chemical reaction.

e. i. Reactants: NaOH + HCl; Products: NaCl + H2O

ii. Reactants: CaCO3 + H2SO4; Products: CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

Answers

iii. Reactants: 2NaCO3 + HCl; Products: 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O

iv. The reactants are always on the left-hand side of the arrow and the products are always on
the right-hand side.

f. i. The ‘2’ in H2O means that there are two hydrogen atoms are bound to the oxygen atom. A
subscript number 2 means two of whatever it comes after. In this case, H.

ii. The ‘3’ in CaCO3 means that there are 3 oxygen atoms bound to the carbon to form the
carbonate ion. The ‘2’ in H2SO4 means that there are two hydrogen atoms bound to the sulfate
(SO4) and the ‘4’ in SO4 means that the sulfate has four oxygen atoms bound to the sulfur
atom. The ‘2’ in CO2 means there are two oxygen atoms bound to the carbon; the ‘2’ in H2O
means two hydrogen atoms are bound to the oxygen atom in the molecule.

iii. The ‘2’ at the front of 2NaCO3 means that there are two molecules of NaCO3 present. When
the ‘2’ comes at the front, it means two of whatever atom or molecule follows. Likewise, the
‘2’ in 2NaCl means there are two sodium chloride molecules. The ‘3’ in NaCO3 means three
oxygen atoms are bound to the carbon to form the carbonate ion; the ‘2’ in CO2 means there
are two oxygen atoms bound to the carbon; the ‘2’ in H2O means there are two hydrogen
atoms bonded to the oxygen atom in the molecule.

2 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
 g. i. There is one nitrogen (N) and three hydrogens (H).

ii. There are two ammonia molecules. Altogether, there are two nitrogen atoms (N) and six
hydrogen atoms (H).

iii. There are one sulfur (S) and four oxygen atoms (O).

iv. There are two sulfate molecules. Altogether, there are two sulfur atoms (S) and eight oxygen
atoms (O).

h. A balanced chemical equation is an equation representing a reaction; if it is ‘balanced’ there is

the same number of each type of element on each side of the equation, i.e. on the products’
side and on the reactants’ side. For example, if there are 2HCl on the reactant side, there should
be 2H and 2Cl on the product side as well, although they may be combined with other, new
elements or molecules.

i. i. Yes, this is a balanced chemical equation. On the reactant’s side:

H = 2, Cl = 1, Na = 1, O = 1; on the product’s side: Na = 1, Cl = 1, O = 1, H = 2. So, we can
see that there is the same number of each type of element on each side of the equation.
Therefore it is balanced.

ii. This is not balanced. On the reactants’ side:

Answers
P = 4, O = 11, H = 2; on the products’ side: P = 1, O = 4, H = 3. There are too few of each
element on the products’ side for this to be balanced.
If you cannot remember how to balance chemical equations, make sure to revise this from the
Level 1 Acids and Bases Walkthrough Guide.

j. A solution consists of one substance (the solute) dissolved in a relatively large quantity of
another substance (the solvent). For example, a solution of table salt in water has NaCl (salt)
molecules (the solute) dissolved in water (the solvent). The NaCl molecules are dispersed evenly
throughout the water.

k. A solute is one substance dissolved in another. For example, if we have a solution of table salt in
water like above, the solute is the salt.

l. A solvent is a substance that another is dissolved in. For example, if we have a solution of table
salt in water, the solvent is the water.

m. i. (s) s in brackets (s) means solid. This means the reactant, magnesium (Mg), is in solid
form at the start of the reaction.

(aq) aq in brackets (aq) means aqueous. This means the reactant, hydrochloric acid
(HCl) is a solution of HCl, rather than a solid.

(g) g in brackets (g) means gas. This means that the product, H2, hydrogen, is in
gaseous form, so we know that hydrogen gas is produced.

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 ii. H2O2 H2O2 is the molecular formula for hydrogen peroxide. This is on the left-hand side
of the equation, so it tells us one of our reactants is hydrogen peroxide.

(l) An l in brackets (l) means liquid. This means that the reactant, H2O2, is in liquid
form.

MnO2 MnO2 is the molecular formula for magnesium dioxide. This is placed above the
arrow, which means that the MnO2 is a catalyst for this reaction. Its role is to speed
up the reaction, but it isn’t actually a product or a reactant. Anything placed over
the arrow is a catalyst or condition affecting the reaction.

H2O H2O is the molecular formula for water. This is on the right-hand side of the
equation, so it tells us one of our products is water. Be careful to read the
products and reactants carefully for every reaction. At first glance, this looks like
the reactant H2O2, making it look like no change has taken place, but that’s not
true!

O2(g) O2(g) is the molecular formula for molecular oxygen. The g in brackets (g) tells us
that this is in gaseous form. It is on the right-hand side of the equation, so we can
tell that oxygen gas is produced as a product.

iii. Cu2+ Cu2+ is a single copper ion with a +2 charge.

Cu Cu is a single neutral copper atom.

n. i. (aq) (aq) with aq in brackets means aqueous. This means whatever molecule it is
Answers

placed after is in an aqueous state, i.e. is in a solution.

ii. (g) (g) with g in brackets means gaseous. This means whatever molecule it is placed
after is in a gaseous state, i.e. is a gas.

iii. (s) (s) with s in brackets means solid. This means whatever molecule it is placed after
is in a solid state, i.e. is a solid.

iv. (l) (l) with l in brackets means liquid. This means whatever molecule it is placed after
is in a liquid state, i.e. is a liquid

o. An aqueous substance (aq) is dissolved in solution, i.e. it is a solute dissolved in a solvent, such
as water. A substance that is liquid (l) is not dissolved in a solvent but is in a pure state; it just isn’t
solid or gaseous.

p. The concentration of a solution is the number or amount of solute particles dissolved per volume
of the solvent. For example, there may be 2 mols of solute dissolved per litre of solvent.

q. Mol L−1 (moles per litre)

r. A solution with a low concentration has fewer solute particles dissolved per unit of volume than
the solution with a higher concentration. The solution with a higher concentration has more
solute particles dissolved in the same volume.

4 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
2. Collision Theory

a. Collision theory states that a chemical reaction occurs when particles collide with each other under
the correct conditions. If the particles do not collide, or collide without the correct conditions, the
reaction can’t occur.

b. Collision theory states that for a reaction to occur, particles must:

• Collide.
• In the correct orientation.
• With sufficient energy (to overcome the activation energy barrier).

c. The activation energy (Ea) is the minimum amount of energy that a reactant molecule requires to
be able to react when it collides with another reactant particle. In other words, it is the minimum
amount of energy required by the reactants for the specific reaction to occur. It varies for each
reaction.

i. In order to react, particles must collide, and when they collide, they must also have enough
energy to react. This means that they must have enough energy to meet the activation energy
requirements for the reaction. Otherwise, the reaction will not occur and the collision will be
said to be unsuccessful.

d. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a particular reaction but isn’t itself used up. For example,

Answers
platinum (Pt) can sometimes be a catalyst. For reactions where it is a catalyst, adding it makes the
reaction occur more quickly. However, there is still the same amount of platinum present at the
end, i.e., it doesn’t get converted into anything else. Catalysts speed up reactions by lowering the
activation energy of the reaction.

i. Transition state

Ea
Activation Energy
Ea(catalyst) with no catalyst present
Activation Energy
with catalyst present
Energy

Reactants

ERxn

Products

Time
No catalyst
Catalyst

e. The reaction rate is how many individual reactions are occurring each second; this relates to
how quickly the overall reaction for the solution or substance progresses. For example, a high
reaction rate might convert 5 mols of the reactant to products per second, but a slower reaction
might convert just 2 mols of the reactant to products per second.

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 f. Concentration of reactants
A higher concentration of reactants increases the rate of reaction since there are more reactant
particles per unit of volume. More reactant particles mean that particles are more likely to bump
into each other (collide) and therefore have a reaction.

Surface area for a reactant that is solid

More surface area increases the rate of reaction since there are more reactant particles exposed
on the surface of the solid. Those in the centre of the solid can’t be accessed/collided with and
react as they are shielded from the solution by the outer layers of the solid. Therefore, only those
on the surface can react. So, if more are on the surface, there can be more reactions in the same
time period and a faster reaction rate.

Temperature
Increasing the temperature increases the reaction rate. The temperature is increased by applying
heat energy to the solution; this is transferred to the particles in the solution. This increases
the kinetic energy of the particles so they move faster, and therefore collide and react more
often in the same time period than they would at a cooler temperature. It also means more of
the reactant particles have sufficient energy to meet the activation energy requirements of the
reaction so more collisions are successful.

Catalyst
Adding a catalyst increases the reaction rate because a catalyst allows the reaction to proceed
with lower activation energy, the minimum amount of energy a reactant particle needs to
successfully react if it does collide with another reactant. If it collides but does not have enough
energy, it will bounce off and not react. Lowering the activation energy means more reactant
Answers

particles meet this energy threshold, so more successful collisions take place, leading to more
reactions in the same period of time, and therefore a faster reaction rate.

Stirring
Stirring a solution causes the reactant particles to move around more quickly and therefore
collide more frequently in the same period of time. This increases the number of reactions per
time period, and therefore increases the rate of reaction.

g. The reaction between CaCO3 and HCl is the reaction of a metal carbonate and an acid, which
produces a salt, water, and carbon dioxide gas (CO2). The CO2 gas rises through the solution,
forming bubbles/fizzing.

Powdered CaCO3 has more surface area than solid chips. This means more CaCO3 reactant
particles are immediately exposed to the solution of HCl and so more collisions occur in a shorter
period of time. This means the rate of reaction is faster and CO2 gas is produced more rapidly,
so the bubbling is more vigorous.

6 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
 h.
High concentration

Total mass / volume of product

or high pressure

Low concentration
or low pressure

Time from start of reaction

i. At the beginning of the reaction, both the high HCl concentration and low HCl concentration
solutions have zero products formed, so both lines start at 0 and rise as products are produced.
At first, both rise steeply as there are lots of reactant molecules available to collide and react.
This is shown by the steep gradient of the lines initially. Many products are formed quickly and
the reaction rate is high. However, over time, the reactants are used up and there are fewer and
fewer reactant molecules to collide with each other, so fewer reactions occur and the rate of
reaction slows down. This is shown by the lines becoming less steep. The solution with a higher
HCl concentration rises more steeply initially, showing a faster reaction rate. This is because this
solution has more HCl particles in the same volume, so the particles are more likely to collide
with the NaOH particles. Therefore more reactions occur in the same amount of time. However,
both solutions plateau at the same point because both have the same concentration of NaOH,

Answers
the second reactant, and once this is used up, no further reactions can take place. This means
both solutions will produce the same mass of product at the end, but the higher HCl solution will
produce this mass sooner.

j.
Reaction at a
Total mass / volume of product

high temperature

Reaction at a low
temperature

Time from start of reaction

i. At the beginning of the reaction, both reactions have zero products formed, so both lines start
at 0. The lines rise as products are produced. At first, they both rise steeply as there are lots of
reactant molecules available to collide and react, so many products are formed quickly. The
reaction rate is high. However, over time, the reactants are used up and there are fewer and
fewer reactant molecules to collide with each other, so fewer reactions occur and the rate of
reaction slows down. In the solution with a higher temperature, the line rises more steeply
initially, showing a faster reaction rate. This is because the particles in this solution have been
given more

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 heat energy; this causes them to have more kinetic energy, move faster, and therefore collide
more often. As a result, more collisions occur in the same amount of time compared with the
lower temperature solution, so the reaction rate is faster. Also, in the higher temperature solution,
more particles will have enough energy to meet the activation energy, which is the minimum
amount of energy needed for them to react if they do collide. Therefore, more of the reactions
will be successful.

However, both solutions plateau at the same point because both have the same concentrations
of reactants, and once these are used up, no further reactions can take place. This means both
solutions will produce the same mass of product at the end, but the warmer solution will produce
this product sooner.

k.
Reaction at a
Total mass / volume of product

high temperature

Reaction at a low
temperature

Time from start of reaction

Answers

l. At the beginning of the reaction, both reactions have zero products formed, so both lines start
at 0. The lines rise as products are produced. At first, they both rise steeply as there are lots of
reactant molecules available to collide and react, so many products are formed quickly. The
reaction rate is high. However, over time, the reactants are used up and there are fewer and
fewer reactant molecules to collide with each other, so fewer reactions occur, and the rate of
reaction slows down. In the solution with powdered CaCO3, the line rises more steeply initially,
showing a faster reaction rate. This is because when powdered, there is more surface area and
more particles exposed to the solution are able to react. As a result, more collisions occur in the
same amount of time compared with the solution with the solid chips, and so the reaction rate is
faster. In the solution with the solid chips, the particles on the inside of the chip are shielded by
the outer layers of particles and not exposed to the solution, so they cannot react until those on
the outside have. This slows down the rate of reaction. However, both solutions plateau at the
same point because both have the same concentrations of reactants, and once these are used
up, no further reactions can take place. This means both solutions will produce the same mass of
product at the end, but the solution with the powder will produce this mass sooner.

m. At first, at time 0 on the graph, there are only reactant molecules and no product molecules
because the reaction has not started yet. As the reaction begins, the reactant molecules react
to form the products. The reactants are converted into the products (used up) so the number
of reactant molecules decreases, but the number of product molecules begins to increase. We
can see that as the reactant molecules decrease, the product molecules increase by the same
amount, which indicates that this is a 1:1 relationship, i.e., one reactant molecule is needed to
make each product molecule. At first, the number of reactant molecules decreases rapidly, as

8 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
 there are many reactant molecules present to collide with each other; therefore collisions occur
more often and the reaction proceeds quickly. At time = 10 seconds, there are more slightly
more products than reactants, and from around this point, the number of reactant molecules
decreases more slowly and the number of product particles also increases more slowly. This
is because there are now fewer reactant particles present in the solution, so they collide less
frequently, and therefore react less frequently. Therefore, products are produced less frequently.
At time = 20, 30, 40 and 50s, the reaction continues, albeit at a slower and slower rate as the
reactant molecules are used up. At time = 60s, all reactant molecules are used up and there
are zero left; all have been converted into products. At this point, the number of products and
reactants is constant. The reaction stops and is said to have gone to completion.

n. At first, the lines showing the decrease of reactants and increase of products are very steep, with
a high gradient, indicating that the reaction is occurring quickly, there is a high rate of reaction.
Over time, the lines become less steep, indicating that the rate of reaction is slowing down. By
60s, the lines become horizontal and flat with a constant gradient of zero. This indicates that the
reaction has stopped.

3. Equilibrium

a. When a reaction has gone to completion, all of the reactants have reacted to produce the
products. The reaction has stopped because all or one or more of the reactants has been used up.

Answers
b. A reversible chemical reaction is one where, once the products have formed, they can be converted
back into reactants. For example, the reaction is A + B C, if the reaction is reversible, this
means C can be converted back into A and B.

c. This means that N2 and 3H2 react together to form 2NH3, however, since the reaction is reversible,
2NH3 can also react to break back down into N2 and 3H2.

d. The forward reaction is the initial reaction and the one that the chemical equation shows reading
from left to right. In the above example, this is N2 + 3H2 2NH3. The reverse or back reaction is
the one going in the opposite direction, which takes the product 2NH3 and converts it back into
the original reactants, N2 + 3H2. This can be written like this: N2 + 3H2 2NH3 with the arrow
reversed to show the reaction is going in the other direction.

e. Some examples include reactions where one of the products can escape, such as CO2 gas leaving
a solution as bubbles; this means the reverse reaction can’t occur because the product is no
longer present to react and be converted back. These reactions may still be reversible in a closed
environment where the products can’t escape, such as a reaction occurring with a lid on the test
tube so CO2 can’t escape.

Some other examples are combustion reactions, many precipitation reactions, and reactions
between very strong acids and bases that completely dissociate in water.

Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved. 9
 f. Many chemical reactions are reversible. A lot of these are organic reactions, such as a weak organic
acid dissociating in water and other reactions involving weaker acids and bases, the formation of
esters from alcohol and carboxylic acids, etc.

Others include industrial processes such as the formation of ammonia from nitrogen and
hydrogen gas, the formation of sulfur dioxide from sulfur and oxygen gas, etc.

g. When the reaction begins, there are only reactants and no products, so the concentration of
reactants is high and the concentration of products is zero. As the forward reaction occurs,
products are made from the reactants so the concentration of reactants decreases while the
concentration of products increases. Since the reaction is reversible, after some products have
formed they begin to react with each other to reform the reactants, and the reverse reaction starts.
This causes some of the products to turn back into reactants. Both forward and reverse reactions
continue simultaneously, so they now oppose each other. Eventually, a point is reached where
the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate so that for every one forward reaction,
one reverse reaction occurs, and the concentrations of products and reactants stop changing and
become constant. This is shown on the graph where the lines plateau and become horizontal;
this shows the concentrations are no longer changing. At this point, the reaction is said to have
reached equilibrium.

h. Equilibrium is reached for a reversible reaction when the rates of forward and reverse reactions
become equal so that the concentrations of products and reactants become constant.

i. Equilibrium is said to be dynamic because both forward and reverse reactions continue in the
Answers

solution; there is still ongoing activity in the solution at equilibrium.

j. The concentrations of the products and reactants become constant and stop changing. In terms
of physical observations, this may be the point when the colour or temperature stops changing
or no more solid will dissolve for a chemical reaction.

k. Once equilibrium is reached, for every forward reaction that produces products, a reverse reaction
occurs that converts them back. At this point, the forward and reverse reactions directly oppose
each other so even though both are continuing, the concentrations of products and reactants no
longer change.

l. The position in equilibrium for a reversible reaction is the relative proportions of reactants and
products at equilibrium. For example, one reversible reaction might have a higher concentration
of products than reactants when equilibrium is reached, or vice versa.

m. In the first graph, at equilibrium, the concentration of products is higher than the concentration
of reactants. In the second graph, at equilibrium, the concentration of reactants is higher than the
concentration of products.

10 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
 n.

Concentration
Equilibrium

Time
Products
Reactants

o. A closed system is one where none of the products can escape. For example, if the reaction
takes place in a closed test tube, or if all of the products and reactants are dissolved in solution
(and none is a gas that might escape by fizzing/bubbling). An open system is one where the
products can escape. For example, an open test tube where any gases produced can escape
to the atmosphere. For equilibrium to occur, the products and reactants need to be in a closed
system.

4. Equilibrium Expressions

a. i. [C]c [D]d
Kc =
[A]a [B]b

Answers
ii. The square brackets indicate the concentration of that particular reactant or product in mol
per litre, at equilibrium. For example, [C] means the concentration of the reactant C, in mol
per litre, when the reaction has reached equilibrium.

b. i. On the top; in the numerator of the fraction.

ii. On the bottom; in the denominator of the fraction.

c. i. No. Leave these out of the Kc expression. The concentration of solids does not change during
the reaction, so we do not include them in the Kc.

ii. Yes, include these in the Kc expression.

iii. Yes, include these in the Kc expression.

iv. No. Leave these out of the Kc expression. The concentration of solvents does not change
during the reaction, so we do not include them in the Kc.

[NH3]2
d. i. Kc =
[N2] × [H2]3

Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved. 11
 [CO] × [H2]3
ii. Kc =
[CH4] × [H2O]

[HCN]2
iii. Kc =
[H2] × [N2]

Remember not to include products and reactants that are solids in the Kc expression.

[Cl−] × [H3O+]
iv. Kc =
[HCl]

Remember not to include solvents like H2O in the Kc expression.

[H+] × [CH3COO−]
v. Kc =
[CH3COOH]

[C]3 × [D]3
vi. Kc =
[A] × [B]2

[C2D2]
vii. Kc =
[A] × [B]

[C]3 × [D]
viii. Kc =
[B]2

Remember not to include products and reactants that are solids in the Kc expression.
Answers

e. An equilibrium constant (Kc) is a measurement of the ratio between the concentrations of the
products and concentrations of the reactants for a reversible reaction, at equilibrium when
equilibrium has been reached.

f. The equilibrium constant actually does not have units because it is a ratio.

g. If Kc is very large, e.g. greater than 1000, then this means that the reaction is close to going to
completion. This means the reaction produced a very large amount of products compared to
reactants. Remember that the concentration of products goes on top in the Kc expression, so
if the concentration of products is very large, this number is very large, and the Kc is also large.
If the Kc is very small, e.g. 0.0001, then this means the reaction didn’t produce very many products
at all. Since product concentrations go on the top for Kc, if there are few products but many
reactants left, then this means we divide a relatively small number by a larger number for the Kc,
so we get a small Kc of less than 1.

If the Kc is exactly 1, this means that the concentrations of products and reactants were the same
as equilibrium.

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 h. i. Reaction: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

[SO3]
Kc =
[SO2] × [O2]
(0.200)2
=
(0.150)2 × 0.150

= 11.85

The Kc is larger than 1. This means there are more products than reactants at equilibrium.
However, it is not above 1000 so is not significantly product favoured.

ii. Reaction: CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO−(aq) + H+(aq)

[H+] × [CH3COO−]
Kc =
[CH3COOH]
0.05 × 0.05
=
0.100

= 0.025

The Kc is small. This means there are fewer products than reactants at equilibrium.

[NO2]2
i. Kc =
[N2] × [O2]2
[NO2]2

Answers
7.5 × 10−10 =
[0.100] × [0.250]2
[NO2]2
7.5 × 10−10 =
[0.100] × [0.0625]2
[NO2]2
7.5 × 10−10 =
0.00625

7.5 × 10−10 x 0.00625 = [NO2]2

√(7.5 × 10−10 × 0.00625) = [NO2]

2.165molL−1 = [NO2]

[CO] × [H2]3
j. Kc =
[H2O] × [CH4]
0.200 × (0.300)3
4.7 =
0.05 × [CH4]
0.200 × 0.027
4.7 =
0.05 × [CH4]
0.0054
4.7 =
0.05 × [CH4]
0.0054
= 0.05 × [CH4]
4.7
0.0054
= [CH4]
0.05

[CH4] = 0.023molL-1

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 k. Kc = [H3O+] × [OH−] (since H2O is a solvent, we don’t include its concentration)

1 x 10−14 = [0.100] × [OH−]

1 × 10−14
= [OH−]
0.0010

[OH-] = 1.0 × 10−11molL−1

[C2]2
l. Kc =
[B]2 × [A]3
(0.025)2
22 =
(0.100)2 × [A]3
0.000625
22 =
0.012 × [A]3
0.000625
= 0.01 × [A]3
22

2.841 × 10−5 = 0.01 × [A]3

2.841 × 10−5
= [A]3
0.01

[A]3 = 0.00284

√0.00284 = [A]
3
Answers

[A] = 0.142molL−1

m. The pressure inside a container is the force that the particles of gas or liquid inside exert on the
walls of the container as they move around and collide with them. The more particles of gas or
liquid in the container, the higher the pressure, since with more particles, there will be more
frequent collisions with the walls and therefore more force exerted. If there are fewer particles,
the pressure will be less. For equilibrium systems, pressure is important if the chemical reaction
involves substances in a gaseous state.

n. One: add more gaseous particles to the container, e.g add more gas.
Two: shrink the volume of the container, so the same amount of gas is in less volume.

o. When the volume is reduced but the number of gaseous particles inside the container stays the
same, the pressure in the container increases. Reducing the volume of the container means the
gaseous particles have a shorter distance to travel before colliding with the walls of the container,
so they collide more often and therefore exert more force on the container and therefore the
pressure is greater.

p. A chemical reaction that is endothermic absorbs heat energy from the surroundings as it
progresses, therefore cooling the surroundings. The products of the reaction have more energy
than the reactants did at the start.

14 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
 A chemical reaction that is exothermic releases heat energy to the surroundings as it progresses,
therefore heating up the surroundings. The products of the reaction have less energy than the
reactants did at the start.

q. ΔH means a change in enthalpy or change in heat energy. This refers to the change in the heat
energy of the products compared to the reactants. This is an expression of whether the reaction
is endothermic (absorbs energy, with products having more energy than the reactants) or
exothermic (releases energy, with products having less energy than the reactants.) ΔH is followed
by a number, e.g ΔH = 2400Jmol−1, which represents the amount of heat energy lost or gained by
the products. It is sometimes also written ΔrH.

r. If ΔH is negative, e.g. ΔH = −250J, this means heat energy is released and the reaction is exothermic.
If ΔH is positive, e.g. ΔH = 100Jmol−1, this means heat energy is absorbed and the reaction is
endothermic. The ΔH value given refers to the forward reaction unless otherwise indicated.

s. For reversible reactions, if the forward reaction is exothermic, the reverse reaction will be
endothermic and vice versa, they are always the opposite of each other.

t. i. The reaction is exothermic because ΔH is negative.

ii. The reaction is exothermic because ΔH is negative.

iii. The reaction is endothermic because ΔH is positive.

Answers
u. When a change, such as an increase in temperature or decrease in the concentration of a product,
is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system will respond to the change so that the effects
of the change are minimised. In effect, the system will oppose the change. For example, if the
concentration of a reactant is increased when the system is at equilibrium, the forward reaction
will increase to try and use up that extra reactant.

v. Concentration
If the concentration of a product or reactant is reduced or extra product or reactant is added, the
system will act to oppose this change to either use up the extra reactant or product or to replace
the removed reactant or product, by increasing either the forward or reverse reaction.

Pressure
Increasing or decreasing the pressure can affect the equilibrium reaction if some or all reactants
or products involved are gases. This only occurs if there are different numbers of moles of gas on
the products’ and reactants’ sides of the chemical equation. For example, if the reaction is 2A(g) +
B(aq) 3C(g), there are 2 moles of gas on the reactants’ side and 3 moles of gas on the products’
side. If the pressure was increased, the reverse reaction would increase to decrease the number
of moles of gas in the system and therefore reduce the pressure, opposing the change. Likewise,
if the pressure was reduced, the opposite would occur where the system would act to increase
and restore the pressure by increasing the forward reaction and producing more moles of gas
and increasing the pressure.

Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved. 15
 Temperature
Increasing or decreasing the temperature will affect the equilibrium reaction. If the temperature
is increased, whichever reaction is endothermic and absorbs energy will increase to use up the
extra heat energy. If the temperature is decreased, whichever reaction is exothermic and releases
energy will increase to release more heat energy and replace the lost heat energy.

w. i. If the concentration of a reactant is increased when the system is at equilibrium, the forward
reaction will increase to use up the reactant.

ii. If the concentration of a reactant decreases, the reverse reaction will increase to make more
reactant and replace the lost reactant.

iii. If the concentration of a product increases, the reverse reaction will increase to use up the
extra product.

iv. If the concentration of a product is decreased, the forward reaction will increase to replace
the lost product.

v. The reaction that decreases the pressure will increase in rate. This will be the reaction that
results in fewer moles of gas being present. If the reaction does not involve substances in a
gaseous state or there are the same number of moles of gas on the reactants’ and products’
side, then increasing the pressure will have no effect on the equilibrium.

vi. The reaction that increases the pressure will increase in rate. This will be the reaction that
Answers

results in more moles of gas being present. If the reaction does not involve substances in a
gaseous state or there are the same number of moles of gas on the reactants’ and products’
side, then decreasing the pressure will have no effect on the equilibrium.

vii. The reaction which is endothermic and absorbs heat energy will increase to absorb the excess
heat energy.

viii. The reaction which is exothermic and releases heat energy will increase to release more heat
energy and replace that lost.

x. A catalyst will speed up both the forward and reverse reactions. This will cause the equilibrium
to be reached faster, however, it will not alter the concentrations of the products or the reactants
at equilibrium since it acts on both forward and reverse reactions. A catalyst will not change the
position of equilibrium, but make it reach equilibrium faster.

y. i. There are 2mols of gas on each side of the chemical equation and so equal numbers of moles
of gas, which means that there will be no effect from increasing the pressure on the system.

ii. The forward reaction will increase to use up the extra reactant and convert it into the product,
so the concentration of NO2 will increase. However, the Kc value will not change as only
changes in temperature change the Kc value.

16 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
 iii. The ΔH value is negative which tells us that the forward reaction is exothermic and releases
energy. If the temperature is decreased, this forward reaction will increase to release more
heat energy and replace the lost heat energy, which will result in more products being
formed. As a result of the change in temperature, the Kc value will change to become larger
as the concentration of products is now higher and the equilibrium position shifts to favour
the products more.

z. i. If the forward reaction is exothermic, the reverse reaction is the endothermic reaction, so it will
increase to use up the excess heat energy. This will produce more reactants. When equilibrium
is reestablished now, there will be more reactants than in the previous equilibrium. As a result,
[Products]
Kc will decrease because we will be dividing by a bigger number. (Kc = [Reactants] ).

ii. The forward reaction is endothermic and absorbs heat energy, so it will increase to use up
the excess heat energy supplied. This will produce more of the products. When equilibrium is
reestablished now, there will be more products than in the previous equilibrium. As a result,
[Products]
Kc will increase because we will be dividing a larger number. (Kc = [Reactants] ).

iii. The forward reaction is exothermic and so releases heat energy. If the temperature is decreased,
the forward reaction will increase so that more heat energy is released to replace the lost
heat energy. This will cause more products to be formed. When equilibrium is reestablished
now, there will be more products than in the previous equilibrium. As a result, Kc will increase
[Products]
because we will be dividing a larger number. (Kc = [Reactants] ).

iv. The forward reaction is endothermic and so absorbs heat energy. This means that the reverse

Answers
reaction is exothermic and releases heat energy. If the temperature is decreased, the reverse
reaction will increase so that more heat energy is released to ‘replace’ the lost heat energy.
This will cause more reactants to be formed. When equilibrium is reestablished now, there will
be more reactants than in the previous equilibrium. As a result, Kc will decrease because we
[Products]
will be dividing by a bigger number. (Kc = [Reactants] ).

v. The catalyst will speed up the rates of both the forward and reverse reactions so equilibrium
will be reached sooner, however, it will not change the concentrations of the products and
reactants at equilibrium, so it will have no effect on the Kc value.

vi. If the concentration of a product is reduced, the forward reaction will temporarily increase to
create more product to replace the product. However, the original equilibrium will eventually
be re-established once the concentration of the product is restored to what it was. As a result,
the Kc value will not change. This is the same for increasing or decreasing the concentration
of any product or reactant.

vii. Changing the pressure may increase or decrease the forward or reverse reactions if there are
unequal numbers of moles of gas on either side of the chemical equation, otherwise, it will
not affect the reactions. In either case, the equilibrium will eventually be re-established with
the same Kc value.

Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved. 17
 aa. This means that the Kc value has changed. This occurs when the system at equilibrium undergoes
a temperature change and the Kc value will permanently shift. It may shift to be more in favour
of the products (e.g. higher concentration of products at equilibrium) or in favour of the
reactants (e.g. higher concentration of reactants at equilibrium). Only changing the temperature
permanently changes the Kc; changes in concentration of the reactants and products, pressure,
or the addition of a catalyst do not affect the Kc for a reaction at a particular temperature.

5. Acids and Bases

a. Acid + base salt + water

Acid + metal carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide gas
Acid + hydrogen metal carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide gas

b. An acidic substance is one that donates hydrogen ions (H+) to water when it is added to a solution
(is a proton donor). An acid will dissociate in water (break apart) to release hydrogen ions. For
example, when HCl is added to water, it breaks apart and the H+ and Cl− ions separate so that it
has added more H+ ions to the solution.

i. Three examples from L1 Acids and Bases are HCl (hydrochloric acid) H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) and
HNO3 (nitric acid). Common examples of everyday acids are lemon juice and vinegar.

c. A basic substance is one which is a proton acceptor, it removes hydrogen ions (H+) from water
Answers

(accepts and binds to them) when it is added to solution. For example, a base may interact with
hydrogen ions, attracting them and binding to them, or it may release OH− ions into the solution,
and the OH− ions then attract and bind the H+ ions, neutralising them to form water.

i. Examples of bases from Level 1 Acids and Bases include NaOH (sodium hydroxide),
carbonates (and hydrogen carbonates). Examples of basic substances from everyday life
include soap and other cleaning products, baking soda, bleach. At Level 2, amines can also
be used as weak bases.

d. A basic solution has a higher concentration of OH− ions than H+ ion; an acidic solution has a higher
concentration of H+ ions than OH− ions and a neutral solution contain equal concentrations of H+
and OH− ions.

e. Dissociate means to break apart or separate.

f. A proton is a single hydrogen ion (H+) in solution. A hydrogen ion has one proton but no electrons,
hence why it can be referred to as a proton. When acids are added to water and dissociate,
they release protons into the solution. Bases in solution will accept protons, binding to them and
removing them from the solution.

i. The H+ ion binds to H2O molecules in the solution to produce the hydronium ion, H3O+
H+ + H2O H3O+

18 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
 g. The H+ ions released into solution by an acid that has dissociated attach themselves to the water
molecules to form hydronium ions, H3O+.

i. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water. All, or most of the acid molecules
break apart when the acid is dissolved in the water. After the reaction, the solution contains
virtually no intact acid molecules. A weak acid is one that only partially dissociates in water.
Only a few of the acid molecules break apart when dissolved in water, but many don’t. This
means fewer protons are added to the solution. After the reaction, the solution contains
mostly intact acid molecules.

ii. A strong acid is an acid that completely dissociates when added to water, e.g. there are none,
or almost no, intact acid molecules left after the dissolving has taken place. Concentration
refers to the number of moles of a substance dissolved in a solution. A concentrated acid has
many moles dissolved in the volume of liquid, whereas a dilute acid has fewer mols dissolved.

iii. HCl - hydrochloric acid, HNO3 - nitric acid, and H2SO4 - sulfuric acid.

iv. Ethanoic acids, hydrogen carbonates, and other organic acids, the ammonium ion NH4+

h. A strong base is one that completely dissociates in water. All, or most of the base molecules
break apart when the base is dissolved in the water. After the reaction, the solution contains
virtually no intact base molecules. A weak base is one that only partially dissociates in water.
Only a few of the base molecules break apart when dissolved in water, but many don’t. This

Answers
means fewer protons are removed from the solution by the base. After the reaction, the solution
contains mostly intact base molecules.

i. NaOH and other metal hydroxides, KOH, Ca(OH)2

ii. Ammonia, NH3, the acetate ion, CH3COO− and other organic carboxylate ions.

i. An alkali is a base that will dissolve in water (is soluble in water). An alkaline solution is one that
is basic because it has a base dissolved in it.

j. An amphiprotic substance is one that can act as either an acid or as a base. This means that it
could either accept a hydrogen ion (acting as a base) or donate a hydrogen ion (acting as an
acid).

i. HCO3− is an amphiprotic substance because it can act either as a base or as an acid in solution.
This means that it can accept another hydrogen ion (and therefore act as a base) or donate
its hydrogen ion (and therefore act as an acid). If it was to donate its H+, acting as an acid, the
reaction would be:
HCO3− + H2O H3O+ + CO32−

If it were to accept an H+, acting as a base, the reaction would be:

HCO3− + H2O OH− + H2CO3

Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved. 19
 k. When Na2CO3 is added to water, the salt dissociates into its respective ions, 2Na+ and CO32−:
Na2CO3 2Na+ + CO32−

The CO32− carbonate ion produced can interact with hydrogen ions, H+, in solution to form
hydrogen carbonates:
CO32− + H2O HCO3− + OH−
HCO3 + H2O
−
H2CO3 + OH−

As a result, the carbonate ion can accept H+ ions from water, so it is acting as a (weak) base.

l. When a base accepts an H+ ion, it becomes an acid, since it now has an H+ ion that it could donate
back to the solution. When a base accepts an H+ ion and becomes an acid like this, we call it
conjugate acid. For example, SO42− ion can accept an H+ to become HSO4−. SO42− is a base, since
it can accept an H+; HSO4− is its conjugate acid.

m. When an acid donates an H+ ion, it becomes a base, since it could now accept an H+ ion back.
When the acid donates an H+ ion, it becomes a conjugate base. For example, HCl is an acid that
can donate an H+ ion to form Cl−, while Cl− can accept an H+ to form HCl. HCl is an acid and Cl− is
its conjugate base.

i. HCl and Cl−, H2SO4 and HSO4−, HNO3 and NO3−, NH4+ and NH3, CH3COOH and CH3COO−
these all differ by just one proton.

ii. OH− and H2O, CO32− and HCO3−, H2O and H3O+, NH3 and NH4+, these should all differ by just
Answers

one proton.

n. The stronger the acid, the weaker the conjugate base. The stronger the base, the weaker the
conjugate acid.

o. A neutralisation reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base that generates water, a neutral
product, and a salt. The H+ ions from the acid react with OH− ions from the base to make H2O.

p. Acidic and basic solutions have H+ and OH− ions dissolved in the solution and these ions are free
to move in the solution and can conduct the electric charge through the solution.

i. A strong acid or base will generally make a solution that will conduct electricity better. This
is because the strong acid or base will completely dissociate in water and so will produce
higher concentrations of ions, such as H+ and OH− ions, than the weaker acid or base which
only partially dissociates. The greater the concentration of ions in the solution, the more easily
the solution can conduct electricity and the more conductive it will be.

q. When added to water, the sodium carbonate salt first dissociates into its ions, 2Na+ and CO32−.
The CO32− ions can react with water, accepting H+ ions to become hydrogen carbonates and
therefore acting as weak bases according to the following equations:
CO32− + H2O HCO3− + OH−
HCO3 + H2O
−
H2CO3 + OH−

20 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
 However, when the sodium carbonate dissolves in water and dissociates, the charged Na+ ions
are also able to conduct electricity and so add to the overall conductivity, so the conductivity of
the solution is not solely dependent on the concentration of OH−, CO32− or HCO3− ions in the
solution.

6. pH and pH Calculations

a. The pH scale measures the relative concentration of H+ ions in a solution. The more H+ ions, the
more acidic the solution is, and the lower the pH is. The fewer H+ ions, the more basic the solution
is, and the higher the pH is.

b. A pH of 1−6 is acidic, meaning there is a greater concentration of H+ ions than OH− ions in the
solution. A pH of 7 is neutral, meaning that the concentrations of H+ ions and OH− are equal. A pH
of 7+ is basic, meaning there is a greater concentration of OH− ions than H+ ions.

c. When added to water, a strong acid or base (more or less) completely dissociates into ions, such
as OH− and H+ ions. However, a weak acid or base only partially dissociates in water, meaning it
doesn’t fully break up and produces a lower concentration of H+ or OH− ions. As a result, a strong
acid produces more H+ ions than a weak acid, and a strong base produces more OH− ions than
a weak base. This means that strong acids will tend to have a lower pH than weak acids, while
strong bases will tend to have a higher pH than weak bases.

d. An acidic solution will turn blue litmus paper red, there will be no change with red litmus paper,

Answers
and when a universal indicator is added, the solution will change colour to be red (very acidic, pH
1-2), orange (acidic, pH 3-4), or yellow (slightly acidic, pH 5-6).

A basic solution will turn red litmus paper blue, there will be no change with blue litmus paper,
and when a universal indicator is added, the solution will change colour to be blue-green (slightly
basic, pH 8-9), blue (basic, pH 10-11) or purple (very basic, pH 12+).

e. Since HCl is a strong acid, it dissociates completely in water into H+ and Cl−. If there is 0.100molL−1
of HCl, once it dissociates, we would expect there to be 0.100molL−1 of H+ ions in the solution,
and so the concentration of HCl to H+ ions should be 1:1. This is the case for all strong acids.

f. Since NaOH is a strong base, it dissociates completely in water into Na+ and OH−. If there are
0.500molL−1 of NaOH, once it dissociates, we would expect there to be 0.500molL−1 of OH− ions
in the solution, and so the concentration of NaOH to OH− ions should be 1:1. This is the case for
all strong bases.

g. The ionic product of water, Kw, is the equilibrium constant for water. It gives the relationship
between the concentrations of OH− and H3O+ ions in water when at equilibrium. Kw = 1 × 10−14
and is equivalent to [OH−] × [H3O+]. This can be found by writing a Kc expression for water:
2H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH−(aq).
The Kc (Kw) expression is [H3O+] × [OH−]. The concentration of H2O is not included as it is a solvent.

h. pH = − log[H3O+]

Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved. 21
 i. pH = − log[H3O+]
pH = − log[0.100]
pH = 1

j. We are given the concentration of OH−. We need to know the concentration of H3O+ to find the
pH, but we can use the concentration of OH− to find the concentration of H3O+ for the solution
using Kw, the ionic product:
Kw = 1 × 10−14
Kw = [OH−] × [H3O+]
Kw
[H3O+] =
[OH−]
1 × 10−14
[H3O+] =
[0.100]
[H3O ] = 1 × 10−13
+

pH = − log[H3O+]
pH = − log[1 × 10−13]
pH = 13

k. pH = − log[H3O+]
pH = − log[0.500]
pH = 0.3

l. HCl is a strong acid and so fully dissociates in water. Therefore, 0.100mol of HCl will produce
0.100mol of H3O+ in water. The concentration is mol per litre, so if 0.100mol is dissolved in 1 litre,
it will produce 0.100molL−1 of H3O+
Answers

pH = − log[H3O+]
pH = − log[0.100]
pH = 1

m. H2SO4 is a strong acid and so fully dissociates in water. However, each H2SO4 molecule has two
H+ ions to contribute, so there will be twice the concentration of H3O+ produced as it is H2SO4
originally. Therefore, there will be 0.100 × 2 = 0.200mol of H3O+ produced, and since it is in 1 litre
of water, the concentration of H3O+ will be 0.200molL−1.
pH = − log[H3O+]
pH = − log[0.200]
pH = 0.70

0.500
n. The concentration of NaOH is 2 = 0.250molL−1. Since NaOH is a strong base, it will completely
dissociate in water to produce 0.250molL−1 of OH−.

We need to know the concentration of H3O+ to find the pH, but we can use the concentration of
OH− to find the concentration of H3O+ for the solution using Kw, the ionic product:

Kw = 1 × 10−14
Kw = [OH−] × [H3O+]
Kw
[H3O+] =
[OH−]
1 × 10−14
[H3O+] =
[0.250]

22 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
 [H3O+] = 4 × 10−14
pH = − log[H3O+]
pH = − log[4 × 10−14]
pH = 13.4

o. First, use the pH to calculate the concentration of H3O+ ions. Then, use Kw and the concentration
of H3O+ ions to calculate the concentration of OH- ions
pH = − log[H3O+]
12.8 = − log[H3O+]
10−12 = [H3O+]
[H3O+] = 1.58 × 10−13
Kw = 1 × 10−14
Kw = [OH−] × [H3O+]
1 × 10−14 = [1.58 × 10−13] × [OH−]
1.58 × 10−13
= [OH−]
1 × 10−14
[OH−] = 0.0633molL−1

p. pH = − log[H3O+]
0.7 = − log[H3O+]
10−0.7 = [H3O+]
[H3O+] = 0.200molL−1
Since HNO3 is a strong acid, it dissociates completely, so 0.200mol of HNO3 will produce
0.200molL−1 of H3O+ so we need to dissolve 0.200mol of HNO3 in 1 litre of water to get a pH of
0.7.

Answers

Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved. 23
 Question One: Reaction Rates

a. i. At point A in the reaction, the gradient of the line is steepest. This shows that the volume of
hydrogen gas being produced is increasing over time. Since hydrogen gas is one product of
the reaction, this shows that the rate of reaction is increasing and that the reaction is occurring
quickly. The rate of reaction is high at point A because this is early in the reaction. There is still
a high concentration of the reactants (zinc and sulfuric acid) because they have not all had
an opportunity to react yet. This means there are more reactant particles in the volume of
solution to bump into each other, so they collide more frequently. For a reaction to occur, the
particles must collide, so the more collisions, the more reactions, and the faster the reaction
rate.

However, over time, the reactants begin to be used up as they are converted to H2. At point
B, we see the gradient of the line is becoming less steep and that less H2 is being produced
per second. Since many of the reactant particles have now reacted already, there are fewer of
them in the solution, so they collide less frequently. As a result, there are fewer reactions, and
the reaction rate slows down. By point C, the volume of H2 becomes constant. No more H2 is
produced after this point, which means the reaction has stopped. All of the reactant particles
have reacted to form H2 now and there are none left to collide and react. The flat horizontal
line indicates the reaction has finished.

Notice how we described what the graph was showing us in terms of the gradient, then what
this meant for the reaction rate/number of reactions occurring, and then how this linked to
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the particles in solution and collision theory for each point. We used words like “Since”, “As a
result”, “because” and “this means” to connect together our ideas and sentences. This helps
to show that you understand the links between ideas and makes your answer easier to read,
so you should do this too!

ii. Increasing the temperature for the reaction means that extra heat energy is added to the
solution and to the particles. This means that the particles have more kinetic energy so they
move faster in solution. As a result, the sulphuric acid particles collide more frequently with
the zinc particles. Chemical reactions occur when particles collide and collide with sufficient
energy to meet the activation energy needed for the reaction.

If the particles collide more often, there will be more opportunities for a reaction to occur, more
successful collisions will occur per second, and therefore, the rate of reaction will increase. In
addition, more of the reactant particles will have enough energy to meet the activation energy
requirement, so more of the collisions will be successful and result in a reaction, causing the
reaction rate to increase.

You’ll notice that we came up with two reasons why increasing the temperature increases the
rate of reaction, and wrote about both of them. When answering questions, always stop and
think whether there are any other explanations. If there are two or more reasons why they
are relevant, make sure you include them all. Don’t just settle for one, or you might limit your
marks.

24 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
 b. i. The platinum in catalytic converters acts as a catalyst for the reaction between carbon
monoxide and oxygen, to create carbon dioxide. For a reaction to occur successfully, particles
must collide at the right orientation and with sufficient energy. A catalyst increases the rate of
reaction without being involved in the reaction by lowering the activation energy required for
it to go ahead. By this, more CO2 is converted in the same amount of time when platinum is
present, as shown by the results in the table above where a high amount of carbon dioxide is
produced in the presence of the catalytic converter.

ii. A high temperature indicates an increase in the kinetic energy of the system. For a reaction to
successfully occur, particles must collide with sufficient energy and at the correct orientation,
so increasing the temperature provides more energy for the particles to collide. This is
demonstrated through the information on the table as at 100°C the amount of carbon dioxide
produced is low, whereas at 200°C it is high. In the higher temperature, it is easier for particles
to overcome the activation energy to react, and therefore the rate of reaction increases

Question Two: Equilibrium

[NH2]2
a. i. Kc =
[N2][H2]3

ii. We are given the Kc value. The Kc is calculated using the concentrations of the products and
reactants when the reaction is at equilibrium. Therefore, if the reaction is at equilibrium, we

Answers
should get this same Kc value if we calculate the Kc expression using the concentrations given
to us. If we do not, we know the reaction isn’t at equilibrium. Using the concentrations given
and the equilibrium expression we wrote earlier:

[NH2]2
Kc =
[N2] × [H2]3
[0.100]2
Kc =
[0.01] × [0.1]3
0.01
Kc =
0.01 × 0.001

Kc = 1000

The reaction is not at equilibrium, because the Kc value for this reaction when it is at equilibrium
at 25℃ is 640 but the value we get using these concentrations is not 640.

iii. A system at equilibrium will act to oppose any change and lessen the impact of the change.
Nitrogen gas is a reactant in this reaction. Therefore, adding more nitrogen gas and increasing
the concentration of nitrogen gas when the system is at equilibrium will cause the forward
reaction to increase in rate to use up the extra nitrogen gas. This will cause more ammonia
gas to be produced.

When the pressure is increased, a system at equilibrium will act to decrease the pressure if
possible by increasing the rate of reaction for the reaction that would result in fewer moles
of gas. In this case, there are 4 moles of gas on the reactant’s side and 2 moles of gas on the
product’s side. Therefore, the forward reaction will increase in rate to convert more of the N2
and H2 into NH2 and therefore reduce the overall moles of gas in the system.

Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved. 25
 [CH3OH]
b. i. Kc =
[CO][H2]2

ii. High pressure means that the equilibrium reaction means the system will try to decrease the
pressure, so it will favour the reaction that produces the fewest moles of gas. There are 3
moles of gas on the reactants side and 1 mole on the products side, so the forward reaction
will be favoured and more methanol is produced from the hydrogen and carbon monoxide.

iii. As methanol is removed, [CH3OH] is decreased, so the equilibrium will work to oppose this
change by shifting towards the forward reaction in order to produce more methanol. This
increases the total amount of methanol produced which is beneficial for manufacturers.

iv. Increasing the temperature will favour the endothermic reaction as the equilibrium acts to
minimise the change by absorbing the added heat energy. Decreasing the temperature will
favour the exothermic reaction as the equilibrium acts to minimise the change by releasing
more heat energy to compensate for the loss. Because the enthalpy change for this reaction
is negative, that means the forward reaction is exothermic and the reverse reaction is
endothermic, so to increase the yield of methanol, the equilibrium should favour the forward
reaction, meaning the reaction should be performed at a low temperature.

[SO3]2
c. i. Kc =
[SO2]2 [O2]

[SO3]2
Answers

ii. Kc =
[SO2]2 × [O2]
[0.35]2
Kc =
[0.15]2 × [0.095]
0.1225
Kc =
0.0225 × 0.095
Kc = 57.3

iii. Increasing the pressure of the vessel will cause the equilibrium to act to oppose the change
by favouring the reaction that produces the fewest moles of gas. There are 3 moles of gas
on the reactants side of the reaction and only 2 moles on the products side, so the forward
reaction will be favoured. This means that more sulfur trioxide will be produced, so there is a
higher concentration of SO3 in the vessel.

Question Three: Acids and Bases

a. i. HSO4− + H2O H3O+ + SO42− (acting as an acid, donating hydrogen to water and increasing
the concentration of H+ in solution).

HSO4− + H2O H2SO4 + OH− (acting as a base, accepting hydrogen from water and
increasing the concentration of OH− in solution).

26 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
 ii. KOH is a strong base. In water, it completely dissociates into a K+ ion and the OH− ion,
according to the following equation:
KOH K+ + OH−
This adds charged OH− ions to the solution. Since the KOH dissociates completely, it adds
a lot of OH− ions to the solution. This means that KOH is basic and has a very high pH of 13.

CH3COOH is a weak acid. In water, it partially dissociates into CH3COO− and H+ ions, according
to the following equation:
CH3COOH + H2O CH3COO− + H3O+
This adds a few H+ ions to the solution, but since the ethanoic acid does not dissociate
completely, it does not add very many H+ ions to the solution. This means that it is only weakly
acidic and has a low (but not very low) pH of 3.44.

Charged particles that are free to move in solution are needed for the solution to conduct
electricity. The greater the number of charged particles, the more readily the solution will
conduct electricity, i.e., the more conductive it is. Since the KOH dissociates completely and
produces a lot of charged ions in the solution, the solution of KOH is very conductive. However,
since the ethanoic acid does not dissociate completely, it produces lower concentrations of
charged ions in the solution, so the solution of ethanoic acid is much less conductive.

b. i. CH3CH2COOH(aq) + H2O(l) CH3CH2COO−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

ii. Propanoic acid is acting as an acid in this reaction because it donates a proton/hydrogen
forming the conjugate base CH3CH2COO−. The water receives the hydrogen and so it is a

Answers
base that forms the conjugate acid H3O+.

c. i. When sodium propanoate dissolves in water it separates into ions.

CH3CH2COONa(s) CH3CH2COO−(aq) + Na+(aq)
The propanoate ions react with the water.
CH3CH2COO−(aq) + H2O(l) CH3CH2COOH(aq) + OH−(aq)
The OH− ions being produced means that the solution is basic.

ii. Sodium propanoate is a salt. In water, it fully dissociates into CH3CH2COO− and Na+ ions.
CH3CH2COONa(s) CH3CH2COO−(aq) + Na+(aq)
This means that there is a high concentration of free-moving charged particles to carry charge
through the solution resulting in high conductivity.

NaOH is a strong base. In water, it fully dissociates into Na+ and OH− ions.
NaOH(s) Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)
The high concentration of free-moving ions in the solution makes it highly conductive.

CH3CH2COOH is a weak acid. In water, it only partially dissociates into CH3CH2COO− and H+
ions.
CH3CH2COOH(s) CH3CH2COO−(aq) + H+(aq)
The lower concentration of free-moving charged particles in the solution means it is not as
conductive.

Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved. 27
 Question One: Reaction Rates

a. According to collision theory, for a reaction to occur, the reactant particles must collide with each
other and they must collide with sufficient energy to meet the activation energy requirements
for the reaction so that the reaction can occur. If they do not collide with enough energy, the
reaction won’t occur. In Experiment 2, the only change from Experiment 1 is that the temperature
is increased. When the temperature is increased, more heat energy is added to the solution and
the particles in the solution. As a result, the reactant particles have more kinetic energy and move
faster. This means they collide more frequently and therefore reactions happen more often. As a
result, more reactions happen per second so the reaction rate is faster. In addition, since they have
greater energy, more of the reactant particles will have sufficient energy to meet the activation
energy requirements and so more of the collisions that do occur will be successful. This causes
the reaction to reach completion sooner and the fizzing to stop sooner in Experiment 2.
In Experiment 3, the only change from Experiment 1 is the addition of copper which causes the
reaction to reach completion sooner. The copper acts as a catalyst which speeds up the rate
of reaction so that reactants are all converted into products sooner and the reaction reaches
completion sooner. The copper, as a catalyst, works to speed up the reaction by lowering the
activation energy of the reaction so that more of the reactant particles have sufficient energy to
react successfully. Therefore there are more successful reactions per second and the reaction rate
is faster than in Experiment 1.

b. The diagram shows the difference in energy between the reactants (a) and the products (c). The
bump is the activation energy (b), Ea, needed for the reaction to occur. The dotted line shows the
Answers

difference in activation energy when the catalyst is added, the activation energy is lower.
Potential Energy

Activation
Energy

Reactant

∆H Products

Reaction Progress

28 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
 c. i. At the beginning of the reaction, the concentration and volume of products like H2 gas is low
and the concentration of the reactants (zinc and sulfuric acid) is high because none or very
few have reacted yet to form the products. However, over time as the reaction proceeds,
the reactants are converted into products, and the concentration and volume of products
increases while the concentration of reactants decreases. This is shown in Section A when
the line rises, which indicates that H2 gas is being produced. Initially, the rate of production
of H2 gas is high and the reaction rate is therefore high, which is shown by the steepness of
the line in section A being greater than the other sections. This is because the concentration
of reactants is still high. A reaction occurs when the reactant particles collide, so when they
have a higher concentration and there are more of them, they are more likely to collide, more
collisions happen per second and so the number of reactions per second (the reaction rate) is
higher. This means the H2 increases rapidly at the start. However, as the reactants are used up,
their concentration decreases and collisions and therefore reactions become less frequent.
As a result, the reaction rate and the production of H2 slow. This is seen in Section B. Finally,
by Section C, all of the reactant particles have been converted into products and so no more
reactions take place, since there is no reactant left to react. As a result, the production of H2
stops and the line plateaus, showing that the volume of H2 is now constant and no longer
increasing.

ii.
4.0
C
3.5

B
Mass produced (g)

3.0

2.5

Answers
2.0

A
1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240

Time (seconds)
Experiment 2
Experiment 2

iii. Experiment 2 and 3 reach completion sooner than Experiment 1 due to the increased
temperature (for Experiment 2) and the presence of a catalyst (Experiment 3). This causes
the reaction rate to be higher in both cases so that more hydrogen is produced in a shorter
amount of time. This increased reaction rate is shown by the lines being steeper than for
Experiment 1. The reaction reaches completion fastest for Experiment 3 due to the catalyst
speeding up the reaction, so this has the steepest line. After 30s, the reaction for Experiment 2
reaches completion and stops fizzing and for Experiment 3, this point is reached at 15s. At this
point, no more hydrogen gas is produced and the volume of hydrogen becomes constant.
The line for Experiment 2, therefore, plateaus after 30s and the line for Experiment 3 plateaus
after 15s. The lines for Experiment 2 and 3 reach the same height as that for Experiment
1 because the concentration of reactants has not changed, so the total concentration of
products produced, and therefore the volume of hydrogen gas produced, also is the same
across the three solutions. All that changes is how quickly this volume of gas is reached.

Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved. 29
 Question Two: Equilibria

[D] × [C]3
a. i. Kc =
[B] × [A]2

[D] × [C]3
ii. Kc =
[B] × [A]2
The Kc value represents the ratio of the concentrations of the products and reactants when
the reaction is at equilibrium. So, if the reaction is at equilibrium, the concentrations of the
products and reactants should produce the Kc value when put into the equilibrium constant
expression above.

[0.100] × [0.050]3
Kc =
[0.100] × [0.250]2
[0.100] × [0.000125]
Kc =
[0.100] × [0.0625]
0.0000125
Kc =
0.00625

Kc = 0.002

This value is less than the Kc value of 0.5 at 600℃ so the reaction is not at equilibrium.

iii. This is a decrease in the temperature that the reaction is performed at. In this equilibrium
Answers

system, the forward reaction is exothermic because it releases heat energy, causing the
solution to warm and the ΔH to be −450kJmol−1. When chemical systems are at equilibrium,
any change to the system will affect the rates of reaction as the system will try to oppose
the change. In this case, decreasing the temperature will cause the forward reaction, which
is exothermic and releases heat energy, to increase, so as to counteract the loss of heat
energy. This will result in a higher concentration of products being formed. Since changes
in temperature permanently alter Kc values, when the equilibrium is reestablished it will be
re-established with the greater concentration of products (favouring the forward reaction/
production of products) and the Kc value will be larger as the concentration of products,
which is the numerator in the Kc expression, will now be larger.

iv. 2A(g) + B(g) 3C(g) + D(g)

There are 3 moles of gas on the reactants’ side and 4 moles of gas on the products’ side.
Since there are different numbers of moles of gas on each side of the chemical equation,
changing the pressure will affect the equilibrium. Decreasing the volume of the container will
increase the pressure inside the container. When the pressure increases, the system will act to
oppose this change by decreasing the pressure if possible. This means that the reaction which
results in fewer moles of gas will be favoured; in this case, this is the reverse reaction, which
converts 4 moles of gas (the products) into 3 moles of gas (the reactants). This means that
when the volume is decreased, the reverse reaction will increase in rate and the concentration
of reactants will increase. The equilibrium will eventually reestablish. The Kc value will not
change because only changes in temperature change the Kc value.

30 Level 2 Chemistry | Chemical Reactivity | © Inspiration Education Limited 2021. All rights reserved.
Question Three: Acids and Bases

a. NH4Cl dissociates into its ions in solution according to the following equation:
NH4Cl NH4+ + Cl−

The ammonium ion, NH4+, can react with water:

NH4+ + H2O H3O+ + NH3

The ammonium ion donates a proton to a water molecule in solution to form the hydronium ion,
H3O+. In this way, it acts as an acid. The NH3 molecule that results is the conjugate base of the NH4+
acid since it could accept an H+ ion (therefore acting as a base) to reform NH4+. The H3O+ ion is the
conjugate acid of water since it could donate a proton (acting as an acid) to reform H2O.

b. CH3COOH is a weak acid, so when it is added to a solution, it only partially dissociates. This means
that it produces a low concentration of H3O+ ions and most of the CH3COOH molecules remain
intact. To be conductive, a solution needs to have free ions to carry the charge in the solution.
Since CH3COOH produces few ions, the solution does not conduct electricity well. When NH4Cl
is added to a solution, it dissociates into its ions NH4+ and Cl-. The NH4+ is only a weak acid, which
only partially dissociates to form a few H3O+ ions and NH3 ions. However, the NH4+ itself and the
Cl− are already charged ions that can carry charge in the solution, and therefore increase the
conductivity of the solution. Therefore, the NH4Cl solution has a greater concentration of ions in
the solution so it conducts electricity better.

Answers
c. pH= −log[H3O+]
10−ph = [H3O+]

For CH3COOH:
10−2.88 = 0.00132molL−1
[H3O+] = 0.00132molL−1

For HCl:
10−1 = 0.100molL−1
[H3O+] = 0.100molL−1

HCl is a strong acid because it fully dissociates in water:

HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl−
As a result, there is a 1:1 ratio between the concentration of the acid in the solution and the
concentration of H3O+ ions.
However, CH3COOH is a weak acid that only partially dissociates in water:
CH3COOH H3O+ + CH3COO−
Therefore, a lower H3O+ concentration is produced for the CH3COOH solution despite it having
the same concentration as the HCl solution. This means that the pH of the CH3COOH solution is
higher than that of the HCl solution.

Both acids will react with the cleaned Mg ribbon; this will be a metal + acid salt + hydrogen
gas reaction. However, the HCl has a higher concentration of H3O+, so it will react faster as there
are more reactant particles to collide with, whereas the CH3COOH solution will react with the Mg
ribbon more slowly because there are fewer H3O+ ions in solution to collide with and react with
the Mg.
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