• Unit 4 Electricity and Magnetism

• 4.1 Simple Phenomena of magnetism

• What is magnet?
• Magnets are able to attract objects made
from magnetic materials such as iron, steel,
nickel and cobalt.

• Magnets cannot attract objects made from

materials such as plastic, wood, paper or
rubber. These are non-magnetic materials.
North and south poles
A magnet has two poles; a north pole (N pole) and a south pole (S
pole). A magnet can be used as a compass.
The force between magnetic poles decreases as their separation
increases.
 Magnetic materials such as iron that
magnetize easily but readily lose their
magnetism (are easily demagnetized)
are said to be soft. Those such as steel
that are harder to magnetize than iron
but stay magnetized are hard. Both types
have their uses; very hard ones are used
to make permanent magnets.

Temporary magnets made of soft iron, lose their magnetism easily

Permanent magnets made of steel, retain their magnetism
Magnetic and non-magnetic
materials
Magnetic materials such as iron, steel, nickel and cobalt are attracted by a
magnet and can be magnetized temporarily or permanently.
Non-magnetic materials such as aluminium and wood are not attracted by a
magnet and cannot be magnetized.

Key definitions
Magnetic materials :materials that can be magnetized by a magnet; in their
unmagnetised state they are attracted by a magnet.

Non-magnetic materials :materials that cannot be magnetized and are not

attracted by a magnet.
• Magnetic fields
• The space surrounding a magnet where it produces a magnetic force is
called a magnetic field.

Direction of a magnetic
field at a point ;the
direction of
the force on the N pole
of a magnet at that point
Strength and interaction of magnetic fields

A magnetic field is stronger in

regions where the field lines are
close together than where they
are further apart.
The force between two magnets
is a result of the interaction of
their magnetic fields.
Magnetization and demagnetization
A ferromagnetic material can be magnetized by placing it inside a solenoid and
gradually increasing the direct current (d.c.). This increases the magnetic field
strength in the solenoid and the material becomes magnetized.
Solenoids can be used to magnetize and demagnetize magnetic materials;
dropping or heating a magnet also causes demagnetization.
‘Stroking’ a magnetic material several times in the same direction with one pole
of a magnet will also cause it to become magnetized.
Methods of Demagnetization
1. By rough handling(Hammering , dropping)
2. By heating
3. By induction
4. 4.By passing electricity
• Electromagnets
An electromagnet is formed from a coil of wire(solenoid) through which an
electrical current is passed that allows the strength of the magnet to be varied.
The magnetism of an electromagnet is temporary and can be switched on and
off, unlike that of a permanent magnet. It has a core of soft iron which
is magnetized only when there is current in the surrounding coil.
The strength of an electromagnet increases if
(i) the current in the coil increases
(ii) the number of turns on the coil increases
(iii) the poles are moved closer together.
4.2 Electrical quantities
4.2.1 Electric charge
Electrostatic phenomena
-There are two types of charge: positive and negative.
● An object that has equal numbers of positive and negative charges is
neutral.
● If electrons are transferred from one object to another, each object will
become charged.
● A positive charge will repel another positive charge.
● A negative charge will repel another negative charge.
● Positive charges attract negative charges.
like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
Positive and negative charges
•When a strip of polythene is rubbed with a cloth it becomes charged. the
(polythene rod has gained electrons, giving it a negative charge
•the cloth has lost electrons, giving it a positive charge)
If it is hung up and another rubbed polythene strip is brought near, repulsion
occurs. Attraction occurs when a rubbed strip of cellulose acetate is brought
near.
Units of charge
Charge is measured in coulombs (C) .
The charge on an electron e = 1.6 × 10−19 C.
Electrons, insulators and conductors
-In an insulator all electrons are bound firmly to their atoms.

- In a conductor some electrons can move freely from atom to atom.

-An insulator can be charged by rubbing because the charge produced

cannot move from where the rubbing occurs, i.e. the electric charge is
static.

-Good insulators include plastics such as polythene, cellulose acetate,

Perspex and nylon. All metals and carbon are good conductors.
 Electric fields
When an electric charge is placed near to another electric charge it
experiences a force. The electric force does not require contact between
the two charges so we call it an ‘action-at-a-distance force’(or) non-
contact force.
• The region of space where an electric charge experiences a force due
to other charges is called an electric field.

Electric field around a (i) point charge (ii) charged conducting sphere and (iii) uniform electric field
Dangers of static electricity
Sparks occur between electrostatic charges when the electric field is strong
enough. Damage can be reduced by providing an easy path for electrons to
flow safely to and from the Earth.
Uses of static electricity
There are many uses of static electricity in applications
from flue-ash precipitation in coal-burning power stations,
painting and crop spraying
ink-jet printers.
Test yourself
4 Describe the electric field around a negatively charged conducting sphere.

4
Radial field lines are
perpendicular to the
surface of the sphere;
direction is towards the
centre of the sphere
4.2.2 Electric current
An electric current consists of moving electric charges.
An electric current is defined as the charge passing a point per unit time
and can be written in symbols as
I = Q/t
where I is the current when charge Q passes any point in a circuit in time t.
It shows that current is the rate of flow of charge in a circuit.
Effects of a current
Heating and lighting
(1) Heating Effect:
Changing electrical energy into heat energy.
(e.g. electric stove, electric iron, immersion heater)
A metal conductor produces heat energy when a current passes through it .
(2) Chemical Effect:
Changing electrical energy into chemical energy.
(e.g. charging batteries)
When a current flow through the copper sulphate solution with copper plates in it,
some copper is deposited on the plate connected to the negative terminal of the
battery . This is the chemical effect of current.
• Magnetic Effect: Producing magnetism from electrical energy.
• (e.g. electric bell, electric motor,telephone)
• When a current flows through a coils of insulated wire around a soft iron bar, the
bar becomes a magnet .It is the magnetic effect of current.
Worked example
Current flows in an electrical circuit.
a A charge of 2 C passes a point in the circuit in 5 s, calculate the
current flowing past that point.
I = Q/t = 2 C/5 s = 0.4 A
b A current of 3 A flows past another point in the circuit in 10 seconds.
How much charge passes the point in this time?
Q = I × t = 3 A × 10 s = 30 C
Conventional Current: flows from positive to negative.

Electron Current: the flow of free electrons is from negative to positive.

Conventional Current:

higher potential lower potential

(+ve) (-ve)

Electron Current:
 Ammeter and Voltmeter
Ammeter : It is a device which is used to measure the current.
circuit symbol + A -
ammeter

It should always be placed in series in a circuit with the positive terminal on the
ammeter connected to the positive terminal of the supply(battery).
The internal resistance of an ammeter is very small.
The current must enter the ammeter from its positive terminal.
Voltmeter : It is a device which is used to measure the potential difference.
circuit symbol + -
V
voltmeter

A voltmeter is connected in parallel in a circuit, across two points between which the
potential difference is to be measured.

The positive terminal of the voltmeter must be connected to the higher potential point.
The internal resistance of a voltmeter is very large.
Milli-voltmeters and micro-voltmeters are used to measure very small potential
differences.
c Connect the circuit of Figure 4.2.13c. The lamps are
in parallel. Read the ammeter. Also measure and record
the currents at P, Q and R. Comment on your results.

7 In Figure c
a how many paths are there for current to
flow?
b would you expect the current to be
different in different parts of the circuit?
7 a two
b yes
• Direct and alternating current
• Difference
• In a direct current (d.c.) the electrons flow in one direction only.
Graphs for steady and varying d.c.
• In an alternating current (a.c.) the direction of flow reverses regularly, as shown in the
graph in Figure a. The circuit symbol for a.c. is given in Figure b.

a b

The pointer of an ammeter for measuring d.c. is deflected one way by the
direct current.
Alternating current makes the pointer move back and forth about the zero .
Batteries give d.c.; generators can produce either d.c. or a.c.
4.2.3 Electromotive force and potential difference

Electromotive force e.m.f. -The electrical work done by a source

in moving unit charge around a complete circuit.
Potential difference p.d. -The work done by a unit charge passing
through a component.
Electromotive force is measured in volts (V). The e.m.f. of a car battery is 12 V
and the domestic mains supply in many countries is 240 V.
Like e.m.f, potential difference between two points is measured in volts (V). The
term voltage is sometimes used instead of p.d.
Model of a circuit
Mr Coulomb represents one
such drop. As a drop moves
around the circuit it gives up
all its energy which is
transferred to other energy
stores. Note that electrical
energy, not charge or
current, is used up.
-In general, if W (joules) is the energy transferred (i.e. the work done) when
charge Q (coulombs) moves around a complete circuit,
the e.m.f. E (volts) of the supply is given by
E = W/Q
W=Q×E
-The p.d. between two points in a circuit is 1 volt if 1 joule of energy is
transferred when 1 coulomb passes from one point to the other.
That is, 1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb (1 V = 1 J/C).
In general, if W (joules) is the work done when charge Q (coulombs) passes
between two points, the p.d. V (volts) between the points is given by
V = W/Q
or W = Q × V
Q = I × t and W = I × t × V
Worked example
A lamp is connected to a battery in a circuit and a current flows.
a Calculate the p.d. across the lamp if 6 J of work are done when 2 C of charge
pass through the lamp.
V = W/Q
the p.d. across the lamp,V = W/Q = 6 J/ 2 C = 3 V

b If the p.d. across the lamp is increased to 5 V calculate the energy transferred to
the lamp when a current of 2 A flows in the lamp for 5 seconds.
Q = I × t = 2 A × 5 s = 10 C

V = W/Q

W = Q × V = 10 C × 5 V = 50 J
Worked example
The scales of an analogue voltmeter are shown in Figure.
a What are the two ranges available when
using the voltmeter?
The lower scale reads 0–5 V and the
upper scale reads 0–10 V.
b What do the small divisions between the
numbers 3 and 4 represent?
0.1 V
c Which scale would you use to measure a
voltage of 4.6 V?
The lower scale 0–5 V will give a more
accurate reading.
d When the voltmeter reads 4.0 V where
should you position your eye to make the
reading?
Above the 4 to reduce parallax error.
practice
1 Use the scales of the voltmeter shown in
Figure 4.2.20.
a What do the small divisions between the
numbers 6 and 8 represent?
0.2V

b Which scale would you use to measure

a voltage of 5.4 V?
Upper scale

c When making the reading for 4.0 V an

observer’s eye is over the 0 V mark.
Explain why the value obtained by
this observer is higher than 4.0 V.
parallax error introduced
Test yourself
12 a Define electromotive force.

12 a Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the electrical work done by a source in

moving a unit charge around a complete circuit.

b Define potential difference.

b Potential difference (p.d.) is the work done by a unit charge passing

through a component.
13 The p.d. across the lamp in Figure 4.2.22 is
12 V. How many joules of electrical energy are
transferred into light and heat when
a a charge of 1 C passes through it
b a charge of 5 C passes through it
c a current of 2 A flows in it for 10 s?

13 a. W = Q V = 1 C × 12 V = 12 J
b. W = Q V = 5 C × 12 V = 60 J
c. W = Q V = I t V = 2 A × 10 s × 12 V = 240 J
• AC is easy to be transferred over longer distances – even between
two cities – without much energy loss. DC cannot be transferred
over a very long distance. It loses electric power.

• The AC is sinusoidal, that's why its sign changes in every half

cycle. DC remains in one domain only. One of the advantages of ac
current is that it can be used to recharge the rechargeable
battery but one big disadvantage is that its shock is attractive
which can even cause death
• 4.2.4 Resistance
The ease of passage of electrons depends on the nature of the material.
This effect is measured by resistance.
Electrons move more easily through some conductors than others when a p.d.
is applied. The opposition of a conductor to current is called its resistance.
A good conductor has a low resistance and a poor conductor has a high
resistance.
• The ohm (Ohm’s Law)
• If the current in a conductor is I when the voltage across it is V, as
shown in Figure, its resistance R is defined by
𝑉
•R=
𝐼
• If V is in volts and I in amperes, then R is in ohms (symbol Ω)( the
Greek letter omega).
For example, if I = 2 A
when V = 12 V, then R = 12 V/2 A, that is, R = 6 Ω.

The ohm is the resistance of a conductor in which

the current is 1 ampere when a voltage of 1 volt
is applied across it.

Alternatively, if R and I are known, V can be found

from
V = IR
Also, when V and R are known, I can be calculated
from

𝑽
I=
𝑹
Worked example
a If a p.d. of 4.5 V is applied across a lamp, the current flowing through the lamp is 1.5 A.
Calculate the resistance of the lamp.
𝑉
R=
𝐼
R = 4.5/1.5
R=3Ω

b A current of 0.5 A flows through a resistance of 5 Ω. Calculate the p.d. across the lamp.

V = IR = 0.5 A × 5 Ω = 2.5 V
Resistors
Conductors intended to have resistance are called resistors (Figure 4.2.24a) and
are made either from wires of special alloys or from carbon. Those used in radio
and television sets have values from a few ohms up to millions of ohms (Figure
4.2.24b).
Two types of resistor
(i) fixed resistor and (ii) variable resistor.
circuit symbol:
(i) fixed resistor

(ii) variable resistor.

Variable resistors are used in electronics ( potentiometers) as volume and other
controls. Variable resistors that
take larger currents, are useful in laboratory experiments.
These consist of a coil of constantan wire (an alloy of
60% copper, 40% nickel) wound on a tube with a
sliding contact on a metal bar above the tube.

There are two ways of using such a variable resistor.

It may be used as a rheostat for changing the
current in a circuit. This variable resistor can also
act as a potential divider for changing the p.d.
applied to a device.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m1niKTqd180&t=69s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a-f2qM14CJE
Resistance of a metal wire
The resistance of a metallic wire
(i) increases as its length increases
(ii) increases as its cross-sectional area decreases
(iii) depends on the material.
A long thin wire has more resistance than a short thick one of the same material.
Silver is the best conductor, but copper, the next best, is cheaper and is used for
connecting wires and for domestic electric cables.
Resistivity
Experiments show that the resistance R of a wire of a given material is
(i) directly proportional to its length l, i.e. R ∝ l
(ii) inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area A, i.e. R ∝ 1/A (doubling A
𝑙
halves R). R=ρ
𝐴
Key definition
Resistance of a metallic wire directly proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area.
Worked example
A copper wire has a diameter of 0.50 mm, a length of 1 km and a resistance of 84 Ω.
a Calculate the resistance of a wire of the same material and diameter with a length of
500 m.
𝑙
Let R1 = 84 Ω,length l1 = 1.0 km = 1000 m, length l2 = 500 m and R2 =? (R=ρ )
𝐴
R ∝ l/A and A is constant ,
𝑅2 𝐼2
=
𝑅1 𝐼1
𝐼2 500
𝑅2 = × 𝑅1 =84 x =42Ω
𝐼1 1000
The resistance is halved when the length of the wire is halved.
b.Calculate the resistance of a wire of the same material with a diameter of 1.0
mm and a length of 1 km.
Let R1 = 84 Ω, diameter d1 = 0.50 mm, diameter d2 = 1.0 mm and R2 the
required resistance.
If r is the radius of the wire, the cross-sectional area.
A = r2 = (d/2)2 = ( /4) d2
𝐴1 𝑑12 (0.5)2
= = =0.25
𝐴2 𝑑22 (1.0)2
R ∝ 𝑙/A and l is constant.
𝑅2 𝐴1
=
𝑅1 𝐴2
𝐴1
𝑅2 = × 𝑅1 =84 x0.25 =21Ω
𝐴2
I–V graphs
Metallic conductors
Metals and some alloys give I–V graphs that are
a straight line through the origin, as in Figure
a.
Ohm’s law, stated as follows:
The current in a metallic conductor is directly
proportional to the p.d. across its ends if the
temperature and other conditions are constant.
They are called ohmic or linear conductors and
since I α V, it follows that V/I = a constant
Filament lamp
A filament lamp is a non-ohmic conductor at
high temperatures. For a filament lamp the I–V
graph curve flattens as V and I increase (Figure
c). That is, the resistance (V/I) increases as I
increases and makes the filament hotter.
Semiconductor diodes can be defined as diodes that are
made up of semiconducting materials.
(Silicon ,Germanium)
Semiconductor diode
The typical I–V graph in Figure b shows
that current passes when the p.d. is applied in
one direction but is almost zero when the p.d.
is applied in the opposite direction.
It conducts in one direction only and is a
non-ohmic conductor.
Thermistors are a type of semiconductor that react like a resistor sensitive to
temperature .
Variation of resistance with temperature(Thermistor)
A thermistor is a resistor
whose resistance is dependent on temperature.
The term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”.
In general, an increase of temperature increases
the resistance of metals, as for the filament
lamp in Figure c, but it decreases the
resistance of semiconductors.
• The resistance of semiconductor ,thermistors decreases if their
• temperature rises, i.e. their I–V graph bends
• upwards, as in Figure d.
• If a resistor and a thermistor are connected as
• a potential divider (Figure 4.2.30), the p.d. across
• the resistor increases as the temperature of the
• thermistor increases.
Variation of resistance with light intensity
The resistance of some semiconducting materials
decreases when the intensity of light falling on
them increases.
This property is made use in
light-dependent resistors (LDRs)
The I–V graph for an LDR is similar to that shown
in Figure 4.2.29d for a thermistor. Both thermistors
and LDRs are non-ohmic conductors.
4.2.5 Electrical working
Power in electric circuits
In many circuits it is important to know the rate at which the electric current transfers
energy from the source to the circuit components.
power was defined by the equation
work done energy transferred
power = =
time taken time taken

𝑾 𝑬
P= =
𝒕 𝒕
where W is in joules (J), t in seconds (s) and P is in J/s or watts (W).
W = Pt = I × t × V
P = IV
For example if a lamp on a 240 V supply has a
current of 0.25 A in it, its power
P = IV = 240 V × 0.25 A = 60 W

Larger units of power are the

kilowatt (kW) and the megawatt (MW) where
1 kW = 1000 W and 1 MW = 1 000 000 W
In units
watts = amperes × volts

P = V × I = IR × I = I 2R
Worked example
A lamp of resistance 12 Ω has a current of 0.5 A flowing
through it.
a Calculate the p.d. across the lamp.
p.d. V = IR = 0.5 A × 12 Ω = 6 V
b What is the power of the lamp?
P = IV = 0.5 A × 6 V = 3 W = 3 J/s
c How much energy is transferred to the lamp in 6 s?
P = E/t , E = Pt = 3 J/s × 6 s = 18 J
practice
1 A lamp has a resistance of 12 Ω and a current of 1.0 A passing through it.
a Calculate the p.d. across the lamp.
b Calculate the power of the lamp.
c How much energy is transferred to the lamp in 10 s?

1 a. p.d. V = IR = 1.0 A × 12 Ω = 12 V
b .P = IV = 1.0 A × 12 V = 12 W = 12 J/s
c .P = E/t , E = Pt = 12 J/s × 10 s = 120 J
• 2 A small electric motor attached to a 12 V supply has a current of 0.3 A
passing through it.
• a Calculate the power of the motor in watts.
• b Give the power of the motor in joules/second.
• c How much energy is transferred to the motor in 1 minute?

• 2 a P = IV = 0.3 A × 12 V = 3.6 W
• b 3.6 J/s
• c P = E/t , E = Pt = 3.6 J/s × 60 s = 216 J
 𝑃0
Efficiency = x100%
𝑃𝑖
Joulemeter
Instead of using an ammeter and a voltmeter to measure the electrical energy
transferred to an appliance, a joulemeter can be used to measure it directly in
joules.
Paying for electricity
Electricity supply companies charge for the amount of energy they supply. A
joule is a very small amount of energy and a larger unit, the kilowatt-hour
(kWh), is used.

Key definition
Kilowatt-hour (kWh) the electrical energy used by a 1 kW appliance in 1 hour
1 kW h = 1000 J/s × 3600 s = 3 600 000 J = 3.6 MJ
1 kWh = 1unit
3 kW electric fire working for 2 hours uses 6 kWh of electrical energy –
usually called 6 ‘units’.
Electricity meters, which are joulemeters, are marked in kWh.
Note that the current required by a 6.4 kW cooker is
given by
I = P/V =6400W/230V =28A
This is too large a current to draw from the ring main of
a house and so a separate circuit must be used.
Worked example
If the price of 1 kWh (1 unit) of electricity is 10 cents, how much will it cost
to use a 3000 W electric heater for 3 hours?
3000 W = 3 kW
Electrical energy ,E = Pt = 3 kW × 3 h = 9 kWh
Cost of using the heater = 9 kWh × 10 cents = 90 cents
4.3 Electric Circuit
4.3.1 Circuit diagrams and components
Thermistors, light dependent resistors (LDRs), relays, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and
semiconductor diodes.
4.3.2 Series and parallel circuits
Current in a series circuit
In a series circuit, (Figure), the different parts follow one after the other and
there is just one path for the current to follow.
The reading on an ammeter will be the same whether it is placed in the position
shown or at B, C or D.

Fig: Current in a series circuit

Current in a parallel circuit
In a parallel circuit (Figure ) the lamps are side by side and there are
alternative paths for the current. The current splits: some goes through one
lamp and the rest through the other. The current from the source is larger than
the current in each branch.

Fig ;Currents in a parallel circuit

Current at a junction
Electric current in a circuit cannot be stored.
This means that when circuits join or divide, the total current going into a junction must be
equal to the total current leaving the junction.
Potential difference in a series circuit
The total p.d. across the components in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual
p.d.s
across each component. In Figure
V = V1 + V2 + V3
where V1 is the p.d. across L1, V2 is the p.d.
across L2 and V3 is the p.d. across L3.
For example, if V1 = 1.4 V, V2 = 1.5 V and V3 = 1.6 V, then V =(1.4 + 1.5 + 1.6) = 4.5 V.
Potential difference in a parallel circuit
In the circuit of Figure

V1 = V2
The p.d. across devices in parallel in a circuit are equal.
The p.d. across an arrangement of parallel
resistance is the same as the p.d. across one
branch.
The cells in Figure b are in opposition and the
e.m.f. at X, Y is zero.
If two 1.5 V cells are connected in parallel, as in
Figure c, the e.m.f. at terminals P, Q is still 1.5 V
but the arrangement behaves like a larger cell and
will last longer.
The p.d. at the terminals of a battery decreases
slightly when current is drawn from it. This effect is
due to the internal resistance of the battery which
transfers electrical energy to thermal energy as
current flows through it.
When no current is drawn from a battery it is said
to be an ‘open circuit’ and its terminal p.d.
is a maximum and equal to the
e.m.f. of the battery.
Notes
If W (joules) is the work done when charge Q (coulombs) passes
between two points, the p.d. V (volts) between the points is given by
V = W/Q
The same equation can also be used to calculate the e.m.f. of a
supply.
Resistors in series
The resistors in Figure are in series. The same current I flows through each and the total
voltage V across all three is the sum of the separate voltages across them, i.e.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
But V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3.
Also, if R is the combined resistance,
V = IR
V = V1 + V2 + V3
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Dividing both sides by I,
R = R1 + R2 + R3
4.4 Electrical Safety
Dangers of electricity
There are a number of hazards associated with using the mains
electricity supply.

Key definition
Hazards associated with using mains electricity supply include
damaged insulation, overheated cables, damp conditions, excess current
from overloaded plugs, extension leads, single and multiple sockets.
Electric shock
Electric shock occurs if current flows from an electric circuit through
a person’s body to earth.

This can happen if there is damaged insulation or faulty wiring.

The typical resistance of dry skin is about 10 000 Ω, so if a person

touches a wire carrying electricity at 240 V, an estimate of the current
flowing through them to earth would be
I = V/R = 240/10 000 = 0.024 A = 24 mA.
• For wet skin, the resistance is lowered to about 1000 Ω (since water is
a good conductor of electricity) so the current would increase to
around 240 mA; a lethal current.

A current of 100 mA through the heart is likely to be fatal.

It is the size of the current (not the voltage) and the length of time for
which it acts which determine the strength of an electric shock.
To avoid the risk of getting an electric shock:
(i) switch off the electrical supply to an appliance before starting repairs.

(ii) use plugs that have an earth pin and a cord grip ; a rubber or plastic case
is preferred.

(iii) do not allow appliances or cables to come into contact with water, for
example holding a hairdryer with wet hands in a bathroom can be dangerous;
keep electrical appliances well away from baths and swimming pools.

(iv) do not have long cables trailing across a room, under a carpet that is
walked over regularly or in other situations where the insulation can become
damaged.
In case of an electric shock, take the following action:

1 Switch off the supply if the shocked person is still touching the equipment.

2 Send for qualified medical assistance.

3 If breathing or heartbeat has stopped, commence CPR (cardiopulmonary

resuscitation) by applying chest compressions at the rate of about 100 a
minute until there are signs of chest movement or medical assistance arrives.
Fire risks
To reduce the risk of fire through overheated cables, the maximum current in a
circuit should be limited by taking the following precautions:
(i) Use the correct fuse in an appliance or plug.

(ii) Do not attach too many appliances to a circuit via extension leads or single
and multiple sockets.

(iii) Do not overload circuits by using too many adapters.

(iv) Appliances such as heaters use large amounts of power (and hence current),
so do not connect them to a lighting circuit designed for low current use.
Damaged insulation or faulty wiring which leads to a large current flowing to
earth through flammable material can also start a fire.
The factors leading to fire or electric shock can be summarized as follows:
House circuits
Electricity usually comes to our homes by an underground cable
containing two wires, the live (L) and the neutral (N).

The neutral is earthed at the local sub-station and so there is no

p.d. between it and earth.

A third wire, the earth (E) also connects the top socket on the
power points in the home to earth.

The supply in many countries is a.c. and the live wire is

alternately positive and negative.
House circuits
Live, Neutral and Earth wires
Live wire carries electric current to the
appliances.

Neutral wire completes the circuit by

forming a path for the current back to the
mains. It is usually at zero volts.

Earth wire has very low resistance and is

usually connected to the metal casing of the
appliances. It forms a safety outlet for
current in case the appliance becomes live.
Circuits in parallel
Every circuit is connected in parallel with the supply, i.e. across the live and neutral, and
receives the full mains p.d. (for example 230 V).
The advantages of having appliances connected in parallel, rather than in series
(i) The p.d. across each lamp is fixed (at the mains p.d.), so the lamp shines with the same
brightness irrespective of how many other lamps are switched on.
(ii) Each lamp can be turned on and off independently; if one lamp fails, the others can
still be operated. In a staircase circuit, the light is controlled from two places by the two-way
switches.
Fuses
A fuse protects a circuit; it is always placed in the live wire. It is a short
length of wire of material with a low melting temperature, often ‘tinned
copper’, which melts and breaks the circuit when the current in it
exceeds a certain value.
Two reasons for excessive currents are ‘short circuits’ due to worn
insulation on connecting wires and overloaded circuits.
A fuse should ensure that the current-carrying capacity of the wiring is not
exceeded.
Trip switches (circuit breakers)
Trip switches (also known as circuit breakers) (Figure) are
now used instead of fuses in consumer units. They contain
an electromagnet which, when the current exceeds the
rated value of the circuit breaker, becomes strong enough to
separate a pair of contacts and break the circuit.
Circuit breakers operate much faster than fuses and have the
advantage that they can be reset by pressing a button.
Worked example
An electric heater has a power rating of 2 kW.
a If the supply voltage is 240 V, calculate the current in the heater.
Power P = IV
I =P/V =2000W/240V = 8.3A
b Should a 3 A or 13 A fuse or trip switch setting be chosen to protect the
heater?
The fuse/trip switch setting should have a higher rating than the current in the
heater, so a 13 A fuse/trip switch setting should be chosen.
Now put this into practice(Pg 226)
1 An electric heater has a power rating of 1.5 kW.
a If the supply voltage is 240 V, calculate the current in the heater.
b Should a 3 A, 13 A or 30 A fuse be used to protect the heater?
1 a I = P/V = 1500W / 240 V = 6.3 A
b 13 A fuse should be used
2 A television has a power rating of 100 W.
a If the supply voltage is 240 V, calculate the current in the television.
b Should a 3 A, 13 A or 30 A fuse be chosen to protect the television?
2 a I = P/V = 100 W / 240 V = 0.42 A
b 3 A fuse should be used
• 3 An electric cooker has a power rating of 6.4 kW.
• a If the supply voltage is 240 V, calculate the current in the cooker.
• b Should a 3 A, 13 A or 30 A trip switch setting be chosen to protect
the oven?
• 3 a I = P/V = 6400 W / 240 V = 27 A
• b 30 A trip switch setting should be chosen
Earthing
This third wire is a safety precaution to prevent electric shock should an
appliance develop a fault.
Earthing is defined as “the process in which the instantaneous discharge
of the electrical energy takes place by transferring charges directly to the
earth through low resistance wire.”
Earthing is used to protect you from an electric shock.
Double insulation
Appliances such as vacuum cleaners, hairdryers and food mixers are
usually double insulated.
Connection to the supply is by a two-core insulated cable, with no earth
wire, and the appliance is enclosed in a non-conducting plastic case.
There is then no risk of a shock should a fault develop.
Resistors in parallel
The resistors in Figure are in parallel.
The voltage V between the ends of each is the same
and the total current I equals the sum of the
currents in the separate branches, i.e.
I = I1 + I2 + I3
But I1 = V/R1, I2 = V/R2 and I3 = V/R3.
if R is the combined resistance, I = V/R,
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Dividing both sides by V,
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
For the simpler case of two resistors in parallel

1 1 1 𝑅2 𝑅1
= + = +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 𝑅2 +𝑅1
=
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2

Inverting both sides,

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒔
R= =
𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟏 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒔
Combined resistance of two resistors in parallel less than
that of either resistor by itself.
these statements are true in the Worked example below.
Lamps are connected in parallel (Figure 4.3.5)
rather than in series in a lighting circuit.
The advantages are as follows:
(i) The p.d. across each lamp is fixed (at the
supply p.d.), so the lamp shines with the same
brightness irrespective of how many other lamps
are switched on.
(ii) Each lamp can be turned on and off
independently; if one lamp fails, the others can
still be operated.
Worked example
A p.d. of 24 V from a battery is applied to the network of resistors in Figure 4.3.11a.
a What is the combined resistance of the 6 Ω and 12 Ω resistors in parallel?
Let R = resistance of 6 Ω and 12 Ω in parallel.
1 1 1 1 1 3
= + = + =
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 6 12 12
R=4 Ω
b What is the current in the 8 Ω resistor? fig4.3.11b.
Let R = total resistance of circuit = 4 Ω + 8 Ω, R = 12 Ω.
since V = 24 V
V =IR
I =V/R=24/12 =3A
current in 8Ω resistor = 2 A
c What is the voltage across the parallel network?
Let V1 = voltage across parallel network in
Figure 4.3.11a. Then
V1 = I × R = 2 A × 4 Ω = 8 V

d What is the current in the 6 Ω resistor?

Let I1 = current in 6 Ω resistor, then since V1 = 8 V

𝑉1 𝟖 𝟒
I1= = = A
6 𝟔 𝟑
4.5 Electromagnetic Effect
4.5.1 Electromagnetic induction
The effect of producing electricity from magnetism was discovered in 1831
by Faraday and is called electromagnetic induction.
It led to the construction of generators for producing electrical energy in
power stations.
Electromagnetic Induction is
the process through which an
induced e.m.f is produced in a
conductor due to a changing
magnetic field.
Electromagnetic induction experiments
Two ways of investigating electromagnetic induction.
1. Straight wire and U-shaped magnet
❑ First the wire is held at rest between
the poles of the magnet.
❑ It is then moved in each of the six
directions .
❑ Only when it is moving upwards
(direction 1) or downwards (direction
2) is there a deflection on the meter,
indicating an induced current in the
wire.
• 4.5.3 Magnetic effect of a current
Oersted’s discovery
In 1819 Hans Oersted accidentally discovered the magnetic effect of an electric
current. The compass needle moves when the current is switched on.
Reversing the current causes the needle to move in the opposite direction.
Evidently around a wire carrying a current there is a magnetic field.
Arrows on the lines show the direction of the field, i.e. the direction in which
a N pole points.Different field patterns are given by differently shaped
conductors.
1.Field due to a straight wire

❑ If the current direction is known,

the direction of the field can be
predicted by the right-hand
screw rule:
❑ If a right-handed screw moves
forwards in the direction
of the current (conventional), the
direction of rotation of the screw
gives the direction of the
magnetic field.
Variation of magnetic field strength in a
straight wire
▪ The magnetic field strength becomes less
as the distance from the wire increases.
This is shown by the magnetic field lines
becoming further apart.
▪ When the current through the wire is
increased, the strength of the magnetic
field around the wire increases and the
field lines become closer together.
▪ When the direction of the current
changes, the magnetic field acts in the
opposite direction.
2.Field due to a circular coil

▪ The field pattern is shown

in Figure.

▪ At the centre of the coil

the field lines are straight
and at right angles to the
plane of the coil.

▪ The right-hand screw rule

again gives the direction
of the field at any point.
3.Field due to a solenoid
▪ A solenoid is a long cylindrical coil.

▪ It produces a field similar to that of a bar

magnet; (Figure a), end A behaves like a N
pole and end B like a S pole. The polarity can
be found as before by applying the right-hand
screw rule to a short length of one turn of the
solenoid.

▪ Alternatively, the right hand grip rule can

be used. This states that if the fingers of the
right hand grip the solenoid in the direction of
the current (conventional), the thumb points
to the N pole (Figure b).
▪ Figure c shows how to link
the end-on view of the
current direction in the
solenoid to the polarity. A
compass could be used to
plot the magnetic field lines
around the solenoid .