Electronics Circuits Module 4

TRANSISTOR AS SWITCH
❖ The transistor operates as a Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) solid state switch.
❖ If the transistor is operated in the saturation region, then it acts as closed switch and
when it is operated in the cut off region then it behaves as an open switch.
❖ When the transistor operating as switch, in the cut off region the current through the transistor is
zero and voltage across it is maximum, and in the saturation region the transistor current is
maximum and voltage across is zero.
❖ Therefore, both the on – state and off – state power loss is zero in the transistor switch.
CUT OFF STATE (OPEN SWITCH)
When transistor operates in the cut off region shows the following characteristics −
• The input is grounded i.e. at zero potential.
• The VBE is less that cut – in voltage 0.7 V.
• Both emitter – base junction and collector – base junction are reverse biased.
• The transistor is fully – off acting as open switch.
• The collector current IC = 0 A and output voltage Vout = VCC.

SATURATION STATE (CLOSED SWITCH)

The transistor operating in the saturation region exhibits following characteristics −
• The input is connected to VCC.
• Base – Emitter voltage is greater than cut – in voltage (0.7 V).
• Both the base – emitter junction and base – collector junction are forward biased.
• The transistor is fully – ON and operates as closed switch.
• The collector current is maximum

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Electronics Circuits Module 4

MULTIVIBRATORS
❖ A multivibrator circuit is nothing but a switching circuit. It generates non-sinusoidal waves
such as square waves, rectangular waves and Saw tooth waves etc.
❖ Multivibrators are used as frequency generators, frequency dividers and generators of time
delays and also as memory elements in computers etc.
❖ According to the definition, A Multivibrator is a two-stage resistance coupled amplifier
with positive feedback from the output of one amplifier to the input of the other.
❖ Two transistors are connected in feedback so that one controls the state of the other.
❖ Hence the ON and OFF states of the whole circuit, and the time periods for which the transistors
are driven into saturation or cut off are controlled by the conditions of the circuit.
1. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
❖ Astable multi vibrator is also known as free running relaxation oscillator
❖ It generates square wave of known period
❖ An astable multivibrator has no stable states.
❖ Once the Multivibrator is ON, it just changes its states on its own after a certain time period
which is determined by the RC time constants.
❖ A dc power supply or Vcc is given to the circuit for its operation.
Construction of Astable-Multivibrator
❖ Two transistors named Q1 and Q2 are connected in feedback to one another.
❖ It consists of two CE amplifier each providing feedback to the other
❖ Transistors are driven either to saturation or cut off
❖ Transistor Q1 forward biased by VCC and R1.Transistor Q2 forward biased by VCC and R2
❖ The output of Q1 is coupled to input of Q2 by C2.The output of Q2 is coupled to input of Q1 by C1
❖ The emitters of both the transistors are connected to the ground.
❖ The collector load resistors RL1 and RL2 and the biasing resistors R1 and R2 are of equal values.
❖ The capacitors C1 and C2 are of equal values.
❖ The following figure shows the circuit diagram for Astable Multivibrator.

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Electronics Circuits Module 4

Operation of Astable Multivibrator

❖ When power is switched ON by closing S, one transistor will start conducting
❖ Suppose Q1 starts conducting Q1 will very rapidly driven to saturation and Q2 to cut off.
❖ Since Q1 is in saturation, whole of VCC drops across RL1.
❖ Hence VC1=0 and point A is at zero potential
❖ Since Q2 in cut off, it conducts no current, there is no drop across RL2. Hence point B is at VCC

❖ Since A is at 0V, C2 starts to charge through R2 towards VCC

❖ When voltage across C2 rises sufficiently, (ie more than 0.7V), it biases Q2 in the forward direction
so that it starts conducting and is soon driven into saturation
❖ VC2 decreases and becomes almost zero when Q2 gets saturated.
❖ The potential of point B decreases from Vcc to almost 0V
❖ Now point B is at 0V. Q1 is reverse biased and cut off.
❖ Voltage at A is increased to Vcc

❖ Now C1 starts charging through R1

❖ When voltage of C1 increases sufficiently, Q1 becomes forward biased and starts conducting.
❖ Q1 is driven into saturation and Q2 to cut off

❖ In this way the whole cycle is repeated

❖ It is seen that the circuit alternates between a state in which Q1 is ON and Q2 is OFF and a state in
which Q1 is OFF and Q2 is ON.
❖ The time in each state depends on RC values.
❖ Voltage waveform at either collector is a square waveform with peak amplitude equals to Vcc
Waveforms
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 are shown in the following figures.

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Electronics Circuits Module 4

Frequency of Oscillations
The ON time of transistor Q1 or the OFF time of transistor Q2 is given by
t1 = 0.69R1C1
Similarly, the OFF time of transistor Q1 or ON time of transistor Q2 is given by
t2 = 0.69R2C2
Hence, total time period of square wave
t = t1 + t2 = 0.69(R1C1 + R2C2)
As R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, the frequency of square wave will be

Advantages
The advantages of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −
• No external triggering required.
• Circuit design is simple
• Inexpensive
• Can function continuously
Disadvantages
The drawbacks of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −
• Energy absorption is more within the circuit.
• Output signal is of low energy.
• Duty cycle less than or equal to 50% can’t be achieved.
Applications
Astable Multivibrators are used in many applications such as amateur radio equipment, Morse code
generators, timer circuits, analog circuits, and TV systems.
2. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

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Electronics Circuits Module 4

❖ A monostable multivibrator, as the name implies, has only one stable state.
❖ When the transistor conducts, the other remains in non-conducting state.
❖ A stable state is such a state where the transistor remains without being altered, unless
disturbed by some external trigger pulse.
❖ It is also known as One-shot Multivibrator.
❖ The trigger input given will be of very short duration, just to initiate the action.
❖ This triggers the circuit to change its state from Stable state to Quasi-stable or Meta-stable or
Semi-stable state, in which the circuit remains for a short duration.
❖ There will be one output pulse for one trigger pulse.
Output Waveforms
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 along with the trigger input given at the base of
Q1 are shown in the following figures.

• The width of this output pulse depends upon the RC time constant.
• Hence it depends on the values of R1C1. The duration of pulse is given by
T=0.69R1C1
Advantages
• One trigger pulse is enough.
• Circuit design is simple
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages
The major drawback of using a monostable multivibrator is that the time between the applications of
trigger pulse T has to be greater than the RC time constant of the circuit.
Applications
Monostable Multivibrators are used in applications such as television circuits and control system
circuits.

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Electronics Circuits Module 4

3. BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
❖ A Bistable Multivibrator has two stable states.
❖ The circuit stays in any one of the two stable states. It continues in that state, unless an external
trigger pulse is given.
❖ This Multivibrator is also known as Flip-flop.
❖ This circuit is simply called as Binary.
Circuit diagram

❖ The Bistable mutivibrator circuit differs from astable multivibrator in the following aspect.
i) The base resistors are not joined to VCC but to a common source –VBB.
ii) The feedback is coupled through two resistors
❖ C1 & C2 are provided to reduce output distortion.
Working
❖ When a negative trigger pulse is applied to the base of Q1 through C3, the forward bias on Q1
will reduce.
❖ This decreases the collector current and increases collector voltage.
❖ The rising collector voltage is coupled to the base of Q2.BE junction of Q2 is forward biased.
❖ This increases the collector current of Q2 and reduces collector voltage.
❖ The decreasing voltage is applied to the base of Q1 and it further reverse biases BE junction of
Q1.
❖ Thus, Q1 is driven to cut off and Q2 is driven to saturation.
❖ The circuit remain stable at this state until a negative trigger pulse is applied to Q2.

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Electronics Circuits Module 4

Output Waveforms
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 along with the trigger inputs given at the bases of
QW and Q2 are shown in the following figures.

Advantages
The advantages of using a Bistable Multivibrator are as follows −
• Stores the previous output unless disturbed.
• Circuit design is simple
Disadvantages
The drawbacks of a Bistable Multivibrator are as follows −
• Two kinds of trigger pulses are required.
• A bit costlier than other Multivibrators.
Applications
Bistable Multivibrators are used in applications such as pulse generation and digital operations like
counting and storing of binary information.
SCHMITT TRIGGER
❖ A Schmitt Trigger is basically a Bistable Circuit whose output states are controlled by the input
signal.
❖ Hence, it can be used as a level detecting circuit.
❖ Even though the circuit looks like a typical Bistable Multivibrator circuit, this circuit is missing the
coupling from collector of Q2 to input of Q1.
❖ Emitters of Q1 and Q2 are connected to each other and grounded through RE. Also, RE acts as a
feedback path.

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Electronics Circuits Module 4

Operation of the Circuit

❖ When VIN is zero, Q1 is cut-off and Q2 is in saturation. As a result, the output voltage VO is LOW. If
VCE(SAT) is assumed to be 0, then the voltage across RE is given by:
𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝑹𝑬
𝑹𝑪𝟐 + 𝑹𝑬
❖ This voltage is also the emitter voltage of Q1. So, for Q1 to conduct, the input voltage VIN must
greater than sum of the emitter voltage and 0.7 V i.e.,
𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝑹𝑬
+ 𝟎. 𝟕
𝑹𝑪𝟐 + 𝑹𝑬
❖ When the VIN is greater than this voltage, Q1 starts conducting and Q2 is cutoff due to regenerative
action.
❖ As a result, the output VO goes HIGH. Now the voltage across the RE changes to a new value and is
given by:
𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝑹𝑬
𝑹𝑪𝟏 + 𝑹𝑬
❖ Transistor Q1 will conduct as long as the input voltage VIN is greater than or equal to the following:
𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝑹𝑬
+ 𝟎. 𝟕
𝑹𝑪𝟏 + 𝑹𝑬
❖ If VIN falls below this value, then Q1 comes out of saturation and the rest of the circuit operates
due to regenerative action of Q1 going to cutoff and Q2 to saturation.
❖ The output states HIGH and LOW are dependent on the input voltage levels given by the
equations:
𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝑹𝑬
+ 𝟎. 𝟕
𝑹𝑪𝟏 + 𝑹𝑬
𝑽𝒄𝒄 𝑹𝑬
+ 𝟎. 𝟕
𝑹𝑪𝟐 + 𝑹𝑬

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Electronics Circuits Module 4

UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR

❖ A relaxation oscillator is a device that produces a non-sinusoidal waveform on its own.
❖ This waveform depends generally upon the charging and discharging time constants of a
capacitor in the circuit.
Construction and Working
❖ The emitter of UJT is connected with a resistor and capacitor as shown.
❖ The RC time constant determines the timings of the output waveform of the relaxation oscillator.
❖ Both the bases are connected with a resistor each.
❖ The dc voltage supply VBB is given.
❖ The following figure shows how to use a UJT as a relaxation oscillator.

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Electronics Circuits Module 4

Working
❖ Initially, the voltage across the capacitor is zero.
Vc=0
❖ The UJT is in OFF condition. The resistor R provides a path for the capacitor C to charge
through the voltage applied.
❖ The capacitor usually starts charging and continues to charge until the maximum voltage VBB.
❖ But in this circuit, when the voltage across capacitor reaches a value, which enables the UJT
to turn ON (the peak voltage) then the capacitor stops to charge and starts discharging
through UJT.
❖ Now, this discharging continues until the minimum voltage which turns the UJT OFF (the
valley voltage).
❖ This process continues and the voltage across the capacitor, when indicated on a graph, the
following waveform is observed.

❖ So, the charge and discharge of capacitor produces the sweep waveform as shown above.
❖ The charging time produces increasing sweep and the discharging time produces decreasing
sweep. The repetition of this cycle, forms a continuous sweep output waveform.
❖ As the output is a non-sinusoidal waveform, this circuit is said to be working as a relaxation
oscillator.
Applications of Relaxation Oscillator
❖ Relaxation oscillators are widely used in function generators, electronic beepers, SMPS,
inverters, blinkers, and voltage-controlled oscillators.

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