Lecture12: The Ten Steps of Scientific Method/ Part 02

7. Selecting a sample
Sampling is an indispensable technique in social science research. Research work cannot be
undertaken without the use of sampling. Studying the total population is not possible and is
impracticable. The practical limitations of cost, time, and other factors that are usually
operative in the situation stand in the way of studying the total population. Sampling has been
introduced to make the research findings economical and accurate.
The primary aim of selecting a sample and the fundamental principle in sampling is that a
relatively minor sample can represent the population under study with an adequate degree of
probability. The accuracy of the findings will largely depend on how the sample has been
selected for research and analysis purposes. For sampling purposes, random / probability or
non-random/nonsampling designs can be employed
8. Data processing and analysis :
The data collected from the survey tool, observation, and interview is raw and of no value
unless and until it is presented in a usable manner. The data collected from the samples is
arranged meaningfully by editing and coding and presented in tabular form for drawing useful
inferences. In this unit, we will learn the various ways by which raw data is converted into
important information.
Processing and analyzing data involves a number of closely related operations, which are
performed to summarize the collected data and organize it so that it answers the research
questions (objectives).
This stage is completed through the following steps:
 Editing: It examines the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions and correct
them when possible. It is also defined as the process relating to the review and adjustment
of collected survey data to control the quality of the collected data.
 Coding facilitates the researcher's reduction of the bulk of information and data to a form
that is easily understandable and can be interpreted quickly, either manually or through
software programming.
 Classification and Tabulation: Classification is arranging data in groups or classes based
on shared characteristics such as descriptive or numerical (Simple Classification or Class
interval Classification). Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying
it in compact form for further analysis. It is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and
rows.
 PRESENTATION OF DATA: The presentation methods depend upon the availability
of resources and the type of results expected from the final presentation. PowerPoint,
Models, Paper Charts, Smart Boards, and Analytical software, e.g., Google Analytics,
can make the presentation compelling and crisp.
Among the presentation methods, we find:
· Bar Charts/Bar Graphs.
· Line Chart
· Pie Charts
· Combo Chart
· Histogram
· Line graph.
· Tables
· Geo Map
· Scorecard
· Scatter Charts
· Bullet Charts
· Area Chart
· Text & Images
 Data Analysis Methods:
 Data analysis methods: Data analysis methods are as follows:
· Qualitative Data Analysis
· Quantitative Data Analysis
· Manual Data Analysis
· Computerized Data Analysis
9. Hypothesis Testing:
After analyzing data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypothesis. Do the facts support
hypotheses, or do they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question that should be
answered while testing hypotheses. Various parametric and non-parametric tests have been
developed for this purpose. Depending upon the nature and object of the research inquiry, the
hypothesis may be tested using one or more such tests. Hypothesis testing will result in either
accepting or rejecting it.
Drawing Conclusions: After analyzing the result, the investigator draws some conclusions.
The investigator wants to make some statement about the research problem, which he or she
can only make when conducting the research. It is during this phase that the hypotheses are
accepted or rejected. At the same time, the study's conclusions are related to the theory or
research findings from which the hypotheses originally came. The original theory may have to
be modified depending on the new findings.
Writing a research report:
Writing the report is the last step of the research process. This report tells the world what you
have done, what you have discovered, and what conclusions you have drawn from your
findings. If you are clear about the whole process, you will also be clear about how you want
to write your report. Your report should be written in an academic style and be divided into
different chapters and sections.
Finally, the researcher has to prepare a report of what has been done by him. Writing
of report must be done with great care, keeping in view the following:
 The layout of the report should be as follows:
· the preliminary pages.
· the main text.
· the end matter.
  In its preliminary pages, the report should carry a title and date followed by
acknowledgments and a foreword. Then, there should be a table of contents followed
by a list of tables, graphs, and charts, if any, given in the report.
 The main text of the report should have the following parts:
· Introduction.
· Summary of findings.
· Main report.
· Conclusion