M AY 2 0 1 8

Student Goal Setting: An Evidence-Based Practice

Student Goal Setting Table 1. Four Tiers of Evidence

The act of goal setting is a desired competency area for students Strong Evidence
associated with the “learning-to-learn” skills students need to engage At least one experimental study that shows
in deeper learning (William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, 2013). a statistically significant and positive effect
The act of goal setting, therefore, is a practice that educators can without being overridden by other statistically
use to help fuel students’ learning-to-learn skills, such as a sense negative evidence. Study must have a large,
multisite sample with overlap in both setting
of agency, intrinsic motivation, and capacity to manage their own
and population.
learning. As an educational practice, teachers interested in promoting
learning-to-learn skills ask students to engage in goal setting within Moderate Evidence

group advisories, during one-to-one advising sessions, and as an At least one quasi-experimental study that
integral component of the students’ personalized learning plans. shows a statistically significant and positive
effect without being overridden by other
statistically negative evidence. Must have a
Expanding State and Local Lists of large, multisite sample with overlap in either

Evidence-Based Practices population or setting.

Promising Evidence
Schools that are interested in promoting student agency, intrinsic
At least one correlational study with
motivation, and other self-management skills may want to consider
statistical controls that shows a significant
the evidence base for the array of strategies and structures associated and positive effect without being overridden
with a focus on these intrapersonal skills. The Elementary and by other statistically negative evidence.
Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965 (2015) (ESEA Section
Demonstrates a Rationale
8101(21)(A))1 allows states to take a lead role in identifying suitable
evidence-based practices. As outlined in Table 1, the U.S. Department Strategies that are based on a well-specified
theory or logic model informed by research
of Education has established four levels to denote the strength of
or evaluation that suggests a likelihood of
the evidence base for a particular intervention, educational strategy, producing positive benefits for students.
or practice (U.S. Department of Education, 2016).
ESSA evidence standards: https://
www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/essa/
guidanceuseseinvestment.pdf.
1
All references to ESEA in this document refer to the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act of 1965 as amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015.

This document was created by the Midwest Comprehensive Center. This document contains resources that are provided for the reader’s
convenience. These materials may contain the views and recommendations of various subject matter experts as well as hypertext links,
research citations and websites to information created and maintained by other public and private organizations. The U.S. Department
of Education does not control or guarantee the accuracy, relevance, timeliness, or completeness of any outside information included in
these materials. The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the positions or policies of the U.S. Department of Education.
No official endorsement by the U.S. Department of Education of any product, commodity, service, enterprise, curriculum, or program of
instruction mentioned in this document is intended or should be inferred.
3964_05/18
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This resource focuses on one practice area—student goal setting. This

resource includes a brief summary of the research, highlights promising
goal-setting practices, and provides the results of a research evidence
review2 that indicates that there is promising (Tier III) evidence for the
practice of student goal setting (U.S. Department of Education, 2018).

Student Goal Setting

The practice of goal setting is believed to increase students’ goal-setting
skills and also increase students’ self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation
to further their learning. In his synthesis of goal-setting research,
Schunk (2003) explains that students use goals to direct their actions,
assess their progress, and drive their own learning over time (Schunk,
2003). Locke and Latham (1990) explain that a key premise for goal
theory is that that the nature of the goals that students set influences
their performance, with higher goals being positively associated with
higher task performance. Furthermore, goal theory suggests that the
link between goal setting and task performance is mediated by a cycle
of self-regulated learning. As explained by Schunk (1990, p. 71),

as learners work on tasks, they observe their own performances and

evaluate their own goal progress. Self-efficacy and goal setting are
affected by self-observation, self-judgment, and self-reaction. When
students perceive satisfactory goal progress, they feel capable of
improving their skills; goal attainment, coupled with high self-efficacy,
leads students to set new challenging goals.

What Is the Research Evidence for Goal Setting?

There have been several decades of research on goal setting with A review of several studies of
goal setting suggests that the
many of these studies taking place between 1960 and the late 1990s
practice is associated with positive
in work place settings (Latham & Locke, 2007; Tubbs, 1986). Across academic benefits across a wide
the years, numerous studies have also been conducted with K–12 and range of academic subject areas.
college students. The results of these studies suggest that goal setting
may be associated with multiple, positive benefits, for a range of ages
and abilities, across academic subject areas and in varying geographic
locations in the United States and abroad.

A review of several studies of goal setting suggests that the practice is

associated with positive academic benefits for students across a wide

2
A review of selected research studies on student goal setting was conducted by the REL
Midwest and approved by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) in January 2018. The
results of this review suggest that there is promising evidence for student goal setting. A
summary of the results of this review is provided in Appendix A.
3 S T U D E N T G O A L S E T T I N G : A N E V I D E N C E - B A S E D P R A C T I C E A S S O C I AT E D W I T H D E E P E R L E A R N I N G

range of academic subject areas, including reading (Schunk & Rice, Mastery versus Performance
1989; 1991), writing (Schunk & Swartz, 1993), foreign language Goals? Two Differing Goal
study (Moeller, Theiler, & Wu, 2012), social studies (Zimmerman, Orientations
Bandura, & Martinez-Pons, 1992), science (Meece, Blumenfeld, &
Another key factor in the goal-
Hoyle, 1988), and mathematics (Bandura & Schunk, 1981). Research
setting process is an individual’s
on goal setting has also shown links with a range of outcomes
goal orientation. Individuals
associated with the deeper learning intrapersonal domain, such as who are focused on gaining new
self-regulated learning (Ames & Archer, 1988; Pajares, Britner & knowledge and skills (i.e., the
Valiant, 2000), self-efficacy (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Schunk & Rice, intrinsic reward of enhanced
1989), intrinsic motivation (Murayama & Elliott, 2009), and cognitive learning or skill) are said to
engagement (Meece et al., 1988). For example, a large, correlational possess a “mastery” goal
orientation. In contrast, individuals
study of high school-aged students conducted in Japan (Murayama
who are focused on the completion
& Elliot, 2009) examined the joint influence of goal orientation and of tasks and anticipation of
classroom goal focus on students’ intrinsic motivation and self-concept extrinsic rewards, recognition,
in mathematics. This study found that, in classrooms where teachers or status are said to possess a
emphasized a mastery goal orientation, students were more likely to “performance” goal orientation
adopt a personal mastery goal orientation. Students in these classrooms (Dweck & Leggett, 1988).

were also more likely to have higher intrinsic motivation. Conversely,

in classrooms where students reported that teachers emphasized
a performance goal orientation, students showed lower intrinsic
motivation as well as lower self-concept. One five-year, correlational
study of comprehensive high school students in 23 high schools3
(Moeller et al., 2012) examined the relationship between participation
in regular goal setting and second language performance. Although
this study had a nonexperimental design, its descriptive findings offer a The Joint Influence of
research rationale for how students’ participation in a systematic goal- Goal Orientation and Classroom
setting practice might lead to incremental growth in goal-setting ability, Goal Focus
and subsequently to gains in academic performance over time.
A large correlational study of
Research on student goal setting suggests that this practice is high-school aged students in
associated with positive outcomes for students of differing ability levels, Japan (Murayama & Elliot, 2009)
found that in classrooms where
from those who are academically advanced (Ames & Archer, 1988) to
teachers emphasized a mastery
those who struggle academically (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Morisano, goal orientation, students were
Hirsh, Peterson, Pihl, & Shore, 2010) to those students with identified more likely to have higher intrinsic
learning disabilities (Schunk, 1985; Tollefson, Tracy, Johnsen, Farmer, motivation.
& Buenning, 1984). Studies have also found positive benefits from goal
setting for students of varying grades and ages. For example, a small
study of elementary-aged students with low math proficiency showed
that students had enhanced academic performance as well as increased
intrinsic interest and self-efficacy when given proximal goals to pursue
(Bandura & Schunk, 1981). Similarly, a study of struggling college

3
This study did not meet criteria for a strong correlational study because it did not include
statistical controls such as prior grades or achievement.
4 S T U D E N T G O A L S E T T I N G : A N E V I D E N C E - B A S E D P R A C T I C E A S S O C I AT E D W I T H D E E P E R L E A R N I N G

students (Morisano et al., 2010) found that students who participated

in a 4-month goal-setting intervention showed reduced academic
anxiety and improved grades.

Another key factor in the goal-setting process is an individual’s goal

orientation. Individuals who are focused on gaining new knowledge
and skills (i.e., the intrinsic reward of enhanced learning or skill) are
said to possess a “mastery” goal orientation. In contrast, individuals
who are focused on the completion of tasks and anticipation of extrinsic
rewards, recognition, or status are said to possess a “performance”
goal orientation (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Two correlational studies
of middle and high school-aged students examined the association
between goal orientation, student academic engagement, and outcomes.
One study (Ames & Archer, 1988) focused on high-achieving students
Promising Evidence for the
in Grades 8–11. This study found that students were more likely to
Practice of Student Goal Setting
prefer challenging tasks, adopt more effective learning strategies, and
possess a growth mindset when they had teachers who emphasized A recent review of selected
a mastery goal focus in the classroom—even when controlling for research sources (REL Midwest
students’ perceived ability. Another study of young secondary students Educational Laboratory, 2018)
indicates that student goal setting
examined the association between mastery goal orientation and
shows “promising evidence”
engagement among 275 fifth- and sixth-grade students. This study
(Tier III) as an intervention for
found that students who possessed a mastery goal orientation had contributing to positive student
higher levels of cognitive engagement in academic tasks even when outcomes.
controlling for students’ academic ability levels (Meece et al., 1988).

As summarized above, numerous studies have been conducted on

goal setting. However, few of these studies satisfy both the rigorous
criteria associated with moderate and strong evidence-based practices
as established by the U.S. Department of Education (2016) in its recent
nonregulatory guidance for assessing evidence-based practices in
accordance with ESEA standards, or include samples of students from
U.S. secondary schools. A recent review of selected research sources (REL
Midwest Educational Laboratory, 2018) indicates that student goal setting “By themselves, goals do not
shows “promising evidence” (Tier III) as an intervention for contributing to automatically enhance learning and
positive student outcomes. Appendix A provides a brief description of the motivation.”
evidence review process, criteria, and highlights one featured study that (Schunk, 2003, p. 162)

meets the desired criteria.

Promising Goal-Setting Practices

Although numerous studies link goal setting with positive outcomes,
research also suggests that positive outcomes can vary depending on
the nature and types of goals set as well as the overall goal orientation
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of the learner (Latham & Locke, 2007). For example, Chase et al.
(2013) found that undergraduate student GPAs increased significantly
Goal setting in isolation cannot
after engaging in a short intervention that combined goal setting with be assumed to produce positive
an exploration of personal values, but those students who engaged only outcomes for students. Like
in academic goal setting without considering their personal values did most instructional practices and
not show the same benefit. Similarly, a study of fourth-grade students interventions, the outcomes
(Schunk, 1996) found that the act of self-evaluation, when combined associated with student goal
setting will vary depending on how
with goal setting, significantly enhanced outcomes for students.
educators design and implement
their goal-setting strategies.
GOAL CHARACTERISTICS AND GOAL-SETTING CONDITIONS
ASSOCIATED WITH POSITIVE OUTCOMES
In his review of the research literature on goal setting, Schunk (2003)
outlines a number of characteristics of effective goals and associated
strategies and conditions that have been found to enhance the positive
benefits of goal setting for students. Other researchers have identified
additional promising conditions and strategies that may enhance goal-
setting benefits for students, including

„ Setting goals that are “optimally challenging”—not too challenging

and not too easy (Griffee & Templin, 1997; Schunk, 2003)

„ Establishing goals that are proximal rather than distal in time frame
(Bandura & Schunk, 1981)

„ Articulating specific, rather than general, goals (Locke & Latham, 1990)

„ Creating a classroom environment that emphasizes mastery goals

(i.e., focusing on achieving a deep understanding of concepts and
skills) and encouraging students to focus on setting mastery-oriented
goals (Meece, 1991; Murayama & Elliot, 2009)

„ Offering students opportunities to set their own goals (Gaudrea,

2012; Koestner, Leke, Powers, & Chicoine, 2002; Schunk, 1985)

„ Accompanying the act of goal setting with other related steps such
as planning, self-evaluation of performance, regular feedback, and
reflection (Bandura, 1988; Gaa, 1979; Schunk, 1990, 1996; Schunk
& Rice, 1991)

Conclusion
Goal setting in isolation cannot be assumed to produce positive outcomes
for students. Like most instructional practices and interventions, the
outcomes associated with student goal setting will vary depending on
how educators design and implement their goal-setting strategies.
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References
Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students learning strategies and motivational
processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(3), 260–267.

Bandura, A. (1988). Self-regulation of motivation and action through goal systems. In V. Hamilton, G. H. Bower,
& N. H. Frijda (Eds.), Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation (pp. 37–61). Dordrecht, the
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Bandura, A., & Schunk, D. (1981). Cultivating competence, self-efficacy and intrinsic interest through proximal
self-motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41(3), 586–598.

Chase, J., Houmanfar, R., Hayes, S., Ward, T., Vilardaga, J., & Follette, V. (2013). Values are not just goals: Online
ACT-based values training adds to goal setting in improving undergraduate college student performance.
Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 2(Issues 3–4), 79–84.

Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological
Review, 95(2), 256–273.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, 20 U.S.C. § 8101(21) (2015). Retrieved from
https://www2.ed.gov/documents/essa-act-of-1965.pdf. This is the full text of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act of 1965 as amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015.

Gaa, J. (1979). The effects of individual goal-setting conferences on the academic achievement and modification
of locus of control orientation. Psychology in the Schools, 16, 591–597.

Gaudrea, P. (2012). Goal self-concordance moderates the relationship between achievement goals and indicators
of academic adjustment. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(6), 827–832.

Griffee, D. T., & Templin, S. A. (1997). Goal setting affects task performance. Retrieved from ERIC database:
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED413782

Huberman, M., Bitter, C., Anthony, J., & O’Day, J. (2014). The shape of deeper learning: Strategies, structures,
and cultures in deeper learning network high schools. Report 1: Findings from the study of deeper
learning: opportunities and outcomes. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research.

Koestner, R., Lekes, N., Powers, T. A., & Chicoine, E. (2002). Attaining personal goals: Self-concordance plus
implementation intentions equals success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 231–244.

Latham, G., & Locke, E. (2007). New developments and directions for goal setting research. European
Psychologist, 12(4), 290–300.

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
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Meece, J. (1991). The classroom context and students’ motivation goals. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.),
Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 7, pp. 261–285). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Meece, J. L., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Hoyle, R. H. (1988). Students’ goal orientations and cognitive engagement in
classroom activities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 514–523.

Moeller, A., Theiler, J., & Wu, C. (2012). Goal setting and student achievement: A longitudinal study. Modern
Language Journal, 96(2), 153–169. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ975683

Morisano, D., Hirsh, J. B., Peterson, J. B., Pihl, R. O., & Shore, B. M. (2010). Setting, elaborating, and reflecting
on personal goals improves academic performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(2), 255–264.

Murayama, K., & Elliot, A. J. (2009). The joint influence of personal achievement goals and classroom goal
structures on achievement-relevant outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 432–447.

Pajares, F., Britner, S. L., & Valiant, G. (2000). Relation between achievement goals and self-beliefs in middle
school students in writing and science. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(4), 406–422.

Schunk, D. H. (1985). Participation in goal setting: Effects on self-efficacy and skills of learning disabled children.
Journal of Special Education, 19, 307–317.

Schunk, D. H. (1990). Goal setting and self-efficacy during self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 25,
71–86.

Schunk, D. H. (1996). Goal and self-evaluative influences during children’s cognitive skill learning. American
Educational Research Journal, 33(2), 359–382.

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evaluation. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 19, 159-172.

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instruction. Journal of Reading Behavior, 23, 351–364.

Schunk, D. H., & Swartz, C. W. (1993). Goals and progress feedback: Effects on self-efficacy and writing
achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 337–354.

Tollefson, N., Tracy, D. B., Johnsen, E. P., Farmer, A. W., & Buenning, M. (1984). Goal setting and personal
responsibility training for LD adolescents. Psychology in the Schools, 21, 224–233.
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Tubbs, M. (1986). Goal setting: A meta-analytic examination of the empirical evidence. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 71, 474–483.

U.S. Department of Education. (September 2016). Non-regulatory guidance: Using evidence to strengthen
education investments. Retrieved from
http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/essa/guidanceuseseinvestment.pdf

U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and
Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Midwest. (2018). Using the nonregulatory ESSA
standards to assess the level of evidence in Schunk (1996). Washington, DC: Author.

William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. (2013). Deeper learning competencies. Retrieved from
http://www.hewlett.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Deeper_Learning_Defined__April_2013.pdf

Zeiser, K., Taylor, J., Rickles, J., Garet, M., & Segeritz, M. (2014). Evidence of deeper learning outcomes. Report
#3: Findings from the study of deeper learning: Opportunities and outcomes. Washington, DC: American
Institutes for Research.

Zimmerman, B. J., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Perceptions of efficacy and strategy use in the self-regulation of
learning. In D. H. Schunk and J. L. Meece (Eds.), Student perceptions in the classroom (pp. 185–207).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Appendix A. Evidence Review: Student Goal Setting

To determine the evidence base for student goal setting, in June 2017, the Regional Education Lab (REL)
Midwest conducted a scan of available research studies on goal setting published within peer-reviewed journals
using the search term “student goal setting” to identify sources using ERIC and Google Scholar. Because this
initial scan produced only two sources, an additional search was conducted by the Great Lakes and Midwest
Regional Deeper Learning research staff. This subsequent search maintained the criteria for peer-reviewed
studies but extended the timeline for publications (i.e., earlier than 2002), the location of studies (i.e., not
limited to United States), and employed several additional search terms, including “personal goal setting,”
“self-concordant goals,” “academic goal setting,” “goal orientation,” and “mastery/performance goals.” This
search identified more than a dozen potential studies. However, many of these studies included multiple
interventions, lacked sufficient rigor, were more than 30 years old, or were conducted with populations
substantially different from those found in K–12 secondary settings. Among these many studies four were
selected that showed merit (i.e., that had a primary focus on goal setting, sufficient sample size, and included
student populations generally reflective of secondary student settings). In two cases, the selected studies were
representative of similar studies. These four studies were submitted to the REL Midwest for review by What
Works Clearinghouse-trained reviewers. These reviewers employed an evidence review template based on the
nonregulatory guidance from the U.S. Department of Education (2016). As shown in Table A–1, only one of
the four studies submitted for review met the criteria for Tier III or higher evidence-based practices. The selected
study that met these criteria is described along with the three additional studies reviewed that did not meet the
criteria due to design, geographic location or sample characteristics. See Table A–1.

Table A–1. Evidence Review of Selected Goal-Setting Studies

Study Level of Evidence Study Design Highlights Summary of Study Findings

Schunk, D. H. (1996). Promising evidence • Two small studies each • More positive math
Goal and self-evaluative with approximately 40 performance skill, self-
Note: The small sample
influences during fourth-grade middle efficacy, and persistence
size contributed to a
children’s cognitive class students of for students assigned to
lowered evidence tier for
skill learning. American varying racial/ethnic the “learning goals” (i.e.,
this experimental study.a
Educational Research backgrounds mastery goals) group.
Journal, 33, 359–382
• Experimental design • The two studies showed
that goals that were
• Examined how variations
equivalent in difficulty,
in the nature of goals
proximity, and specificity,
and the practice of self-
but differed in whether
evaluation influenced
they were mastery or
the motivation and
performance-focused
achievement of
goals, were associated
students.
with differing outcomes.
• Self-evaluation enhanced
student learning, regardless
of the goal orientation.
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Study Level of Evidence Study Design Highlights Summary of Study Findings

Murayama, K., & Elliot, Reviewers noted • 1,578 students in • Statistically significant
A. (2009). The joint that this study was Grades 7–12 positive relationship
influence of personal a well-designed and between students adopting
• 47 mathematics
achievement goals and well-implemented mastery focused goals and
classrooms from 11
classroom goal structures correlational study with higher intrinsic motivation.
schools in Japan
on achievement-relevant statistical controls for This relationship was
outcomes. Journal of selection bias. • Correlational study with consistent regardless of
Educational Psychology, statistical controls for the goal orientation of their
Reviewers noted that
101(2), 432–447 selection bias teachers.
this study would have
met the standards for • Study explores the • For students with
Promising Evidence relationship between performance-oriented
if the study had been student achievement goals, their level of intrinsic
conducted in the United goals, mathematics motivation was found to
States.b classroom goal vary depending on the
structures, and goal orientation of their
students’ intrinsic teachers
motivation and self-
• In classrooms where
concept.
teachers emphasized a
mastery goal orientation,
students were more likely
to adopt personal mastery
goals. Students in these
classrooms were also
more likely to have higher
intrinsic motivation.
• Conversely, in classrooms
with a performance goal
orientation, students
showed both lower intrinsic
motivation as well as lower
self-concept.
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Study Level of Evidence Study Design Highlights Summary of Study Findings

Morisano, D., Hirsh, J. B., Reviewers noted that • Explores the extent • Goal-setting group showed
Peterson, J. B., Pihl, R. O, the sample for this to which an online higher GPA, subsequent
& Shore, B. M. (2010). experimental study was goal-setting program course load, and reduced
Setting, elaborating, and undergraduate students, influences academic stress and anxiety than the
reflecting on personal outside the age or achievement for control group.
goals improves academic grade range specified academically struggling
performance. Journal of for this review (i.e., students
Applied Psychology, 95(2), K–12). Moreover, the
• 85 college students
255–264. sample was drawn from
identified as having
a Canadian university,
prior academic
a setting not relevant
difficulties
to secondary school
settings in the United • Experimental design
States. This study was
• Students randomly
not formally reviewed.
assigned to goal-setting
intervention or control
and had equivalent GPA
and demographics at
baseline
• Postassessment
conducted 4 months
following the initial goal-
setting intervention
Moeller, A., Theiler, This study did not • 1,273 students Grades • Study reports that
J., & Wu, C. (2012). include statistical 9–12 students gained increasing
Goal setting and controls for selection capacity in key goal-setting
• 23 high schools
student achievement: bias in the modeling of skills over time.
A longitudinal study. relationships between • Examined relationship
• Study reports that students
Modern Language Journal, goal-setting capacity and between goal-setting
showed growth over time in
96(2), 153–169. language proficiency. ability and second
their capacity to set goals,
language performance
Reviewers concluded plan, and reflect on goals.
that this study did not • Correlational design This growth was positively
meet the standards for without statistical associated with growth
Promising Evidence. controls for selection over time in language
bias proficiency, independent
of the quality of the
• 5-year longitudinal
classroom teacher.
study

a
The Regional Deeper Learning Initiative identified three additional studies that used a similar design, had a similar sample
size, and were conducted during a similar time frame as Schunk, 1996. These included: Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Schunk &
Swartz, 1993; and Schunk, 1985. Full citations for these three studies are provided in the Reference section.
b
The Regional Deeper Learning Initiative identified two additional U.S. studies that employed a similar correlational design with
controls to examine the association of goal orientation and student outcomes. However, both of these studies were conducted
30 years ago and had a smaller sample than Murayama & Elliot, 2009. These two studies include: Ames & Archer, 1988; and,
Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988. Full citations are provided in the Reference section.