Precalculus Ser-WPS Office
Precalculus Ser-WPS Office
### 3. **Trigonometry**
This comprehensive toolkit prepares students for calculus by emphasizing function behavior, problem-
solving techniques, and analytical thinking. Each topic interconnects to build the necessary skills for
understanding derivatives, integrals, and beyond.
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- **Special Limits**: Squeeze Theorem, limits involving trigonometric functions (e.g., \(\lim_{x \to 0} \
frac{\sin x}{x} = 1\)).
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- **Derivatives**:
- Definition: \(f'(x) = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(x+h) - f(x)}{h}\).
- Implicit differentiation.
- **Applications**:
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- **Definite Integrals**: Riemann sums, Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Parts 1 and 2).
- **Applications**:
- **Techniques of Integration**:
- Integration by parts.
- Partial fractions.
- Trigonometric substitution.
- Improper integrals.
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- **Vector Calculus**:
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- **Mean Value Theorem**: Guarantees a point where the derivative equals the average rate of
change.
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Calculus equips students to analyze everything from planetary motion to stock markets. Mastery of
these concepts prepares you for advanced mathematics, physics, engineering, economics, and data
science. Let me know if you’d like deeper dives into specific areas!
Limits and infinity are foundational concepts in calculus that describe how functions behave as inputs
approach specific values or grow without bound. Here’s a structured breakdown:
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- **Definition**:
- \(\lim_{x \to a} f(x) = L\) means \(f(x)\) approaches \(L\) as \(x\) approaches \(a\).
- **One-sided limits**: \(\lim_{x \to a^-} f(x)\) (left-hand) and \(\lim_{x \to a^+} f(x)\) (right-hand).
- **Limit Laws**: Sum, product, quotient, and power rules for evaluating limits.
- \(\lim_{x \to \infty} f(x) = L\) or \(\lim_{x \to -\infty} f(x) = L\) (horizontal asymptotes).
- **Infinite Limits**:
- **End Behavior**:
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- \(\frac{0}{0}\), \(\frac{\infty}{\infty}\), \(0 \cdot \infty\), \(\infty - \infty\), \(1^\infty\), \(0^0\), \(\
infty^0\).
- **L’Hôpital’s Rule**:
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### **4. Squeeze (Sandwich) Theorem**
- If \(g(x) \leq f(x) \leq h(x)\) near \(a\) and \(\lim_{x \to a} g(x) = \lim_{x \to a} h(x) = L\), then \(\
lim_{x \to a} f(x) = L\).
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- **Sequences**:
- **Series**:
- Infinite sum \(\sum_{n=1}^\infty a_n\) converges if partial sums approach a finite limit.
- Divergent if partial sums grow without bound (e.g., harmonic series \(\sum \frac{1}{n}\)).
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- **Vertical Asymptotes**: Occur where \(\lim_{x \to a} f(x) = \pm\infty\) (e.g., \(x=0\) for \(f(x) = \
frac{1}{x}\)).
- **Horizontal Asymptotes**: Determined by \(\lim_{x \to \pm\infty} f(x)\) (e.g., \(y=2\) for \(f(x) = \
frac{2x^2 + 1}{x^2 + 3}\)).
- **Oblique (Slant) Asymptotes**: Occur in rational functions where degree of numerator > degree of
denominator.
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- \(\lim_{x \to \infty} e^x = \infty\), \(\lim_{x \to -\infty} e^x = 0\).
- Logarithmic Functions:
- \(\lim_{x \to \infty} \ln x = \infty\), \(\lim_{x \to 0^+} \ln x = -\infty\).
- Trigonometric Limits:
- \(\lim_{x \to 0} \frac{\sin x}{x} = 1\), \(\lim_{x \to \infty} \sin x\) oscillates (no limit).
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- **Integrals**: Improper integrals \(\int_a^\infty f(x) \, dx\) require evaluating \(\lim_{t \to \infty} \
int_a^t f(x) \, dx\).
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- **Indeterminate ≠ Undefined**: \(\frac{0}{0}\) is indeterminate but can often be resolved (e.g., via
factoring or L’Hôpital’s Rule).
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- **Intermediate Value Theorem**: If \(f\) is continuous on \([a, b]\), it takes every value between \
(f(a)\) and \(f(b)\).
- **Bolzano-Weierstrass**: Every bounded sequence has a convergent subsequence.
- **Comparison Test for Series**: If \(0 \leq a_n \leq b_n\) and \(\sum b_n\) converges, then \(\sum
a_n\) converges.
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|---------------------------|--------------------------------------|---------------------------|
| Horizontal Asymptote | \(f(x) = \frac{3x^2 + 2}{x^2 - 1}\) | \(\lim_{x \to \infty} f(x) = 3\) |
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Understanding limits and infinity is crucial for analyzing functions, series, and real-world models. Let me
know if you’d like to explore specific examples or proofs! 🚀
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- **Definition**:
\[
f'(a) = \lim_{h \to 0} \frac{f(a+h) - f(a)}{h}
\]
- **Interpretation**: Slope of the tangent line to \( f(x) \) at \( x = a \), or the instantaneous rate of
change.
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- **Basic Rules**:
- **Sum/Difference Rule**: \( \frac{d}{dx} [f(x) \pm g(x)] = f'(x) \pm g'(x) \).
- **Product Rule**:
\[
\]
- **Quotient Rule**:
\[
\]
- **Chain Rule**:
\[
\]
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- **Rates of Change**:
- Velocity (\( v(t) = \frac{ds}{dt} \)) and acceleration (\( a(t) = \frac{dv}{dt} \)).
- **Tangent Lines**:
\[
y = f(a) + f'(a)(x - a)
\]
- **Linear Approximation**:
- **Optimization**:
- **Second Derivative Test**: Concavity (\( f''(x) > 0 \) for minima, \( f''(x) < 0 \) for maxima).
- **Related Rates**: Solving for rates of change linked by a relationship (e.g., expanding circle’s radius
and area).
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- **Technique**: Differentiate both sides of an equation with respect to \( x \), then solve for \( \
frac{dy}{dx} \).
\]
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- Measures **concavity**:
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- **Exponential Functions**:
- **Logarithmic Functions**:
- **Trigonometric Functions**:
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- **Key Features**:
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\]
- **Example**:
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### **9. Differentials**
\[
\]
---
\[
\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{\frac{dy}{dt}}{\frac{dx}{dt}}
\]
\[
\]
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- **Mean Value Theorem**: If \( f \) is continuous on \([a, b]\) and differentiable on \((a, b)\), there
exists \( c \in (a, b) \) where:
\[
\]
- **Rolle’s Theorem**: A special case of MVT where \( f(a) = f(b) \implies f'(c) = 0 \).
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|---------------------------|--------------------------------------|----------------------------|
| Related Rates | Expanding circle (\( A = \pi r^2 \)) | \( \frac{dA}{dt} = 2\pi r \frac{dr}{dt} \) |
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Differential calculus is the gateway to understanding motion, change, and optimization in mathematics
and science. Let me know if you’d like to dive deeper into any topic! 🚀
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- **Indefinite Integral**:
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\]
- **Definite Integral**:
\[
\]
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### **2. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus**
- **Part 1**: If \( F(x) = \int_a^x f(t) \, dt \), then \( F'(x) = f(x) \).
\[
\]
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- **Substitution (u-sub)**:
\[
\int f(g(x)) \cdot g'(x) \, dx = \int f(u) \, du \quad \text{where} \quad u = g(x)
\]
- **Integration by Parts**:
\[
\int u \, dv = uv - \int v \, du
\]
\[
\]
- **Trigonometric Integrals**:
- For integrals involving \( \sqrt{a^2 - x^2} \), use \( x = a \sin \theta \).
- **Numerical Integration**:
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\[
\text{Area} = \int_a^b \left[ f(x) - g(x) \right] dx \quad \text{(where } f(x) \geq g(x) \text{)}
\]
- **Volumes of Revolution**:
- **Disk/Washer Method**:
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- **Shell Method**:
\[
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- **Arc Length**:
\[
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- **Surface Area**:
\[
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- **Work**:
- **Average Value**:
\[
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---
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\]
- **Convergence Tests**:
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- **Separable Equations**:
\[
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- **Exponential/Logarithmic Integrals**:
\[
\]
\[
\]
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- **Linearity**:
\[
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- **Symmetry**:
- Even function: \( \int_{-a}^a f(x) \, dx = 2 \int_0^a f(x) \, dx \).
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- **Center of Mass**:
\[
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- **Fluid Pressure**:
\[
\]
- **Probability**:
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\[
\]
- **Substitution Theorem**: Justifies \( u \)-substitution.
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|---------------------------|--------------------------------------|-----------------------------|
| Volume by Disks | Rotate \( y = \sqrt{x} \) around \( x \)-axis | \( V = \pi \int_0^4 x \, dx = 8\pi \)|
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Integral calculus is essential for solving problems involving accumulation, area, volume, and differential
equations. Let me know if you’d like examples or deeper explanations!
Multivariable calculus extends calculus to functions of **multiple variables** (e.g., \( f(x, y) \), \( \
mathbf{F}(x, y, z) \)) and introduces tools to analyze curves, surfaces, and vector fields. Here’s a
structured overview of its core concepts:
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- **Level Sets**: Contour plots (for \( f(x, y) \)) and level surfaces (for \( f(x, y, z) \)).
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- **Clairaut’s Theorem**: If \( f_{xy} \) and \( f_{yx} \) are continuous, then \( f_{xy} = f_{yx} \).
- **Tangent Planes**:
\[
\]
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- **Gradient Vector**:
\[
\]
- Points in the direction of steepest ascent; \( \|\nabla f\| \) is the rate of change.
- **Directional Derivative**:
\[
D_{\mathbf{u}} f = \nabla f \cdot \mathbf{u} \quad \text{(where } \mathbf{u} \text{ is a unit vector)}
\]
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\[
\]
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- **Double Integrals**:
\[
\]
\[
\]
- **Triple Integrals**:
\[
\iiint_E f(x, y, z) \, dV
\]
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- **Line Integrals**:
\[
\oint_C \mathbf{F} \cdot d\mathbf{r} = \iint_D \left( \frac{\partial Q}{\partial x} - \frac{\partial P}{\
partial y} \right) dA
\]
- **Surface Integrals**:
- **Divergence Theorem**: Connects flux through a closed surface to volume integral of divergence.
\[
\iint_{\partial V} \mathbf{F} \cdot \mathbf{n} \, dS = \iiint_V \nabla \cdot \mathbf{F} \, dV
\]
\[
\oint_C \mathbf{F} \cdot d\mathbf{r} = \iint_S (\nabla \times \mathbf{F}) \cdot \mathbf{n} \, dS
\]
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\]
\[
P&Q&R
\end{vmatrix}
\]
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### **8. Applications**
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- **Change of Variables**:
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\]
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### **Summary Table**
|---------------------------|--------------------------------------|------------------------------|
| Gradient | \( f(x, y) = x^2 + y^3 \) | \( \nabla f = \langle 2x, 3y^2 \rangle \)|
| Double Integral | \( \iint_D x y \, dA \), \( D \): unit circle | Convert to polar: \( \int_0^{2\pi} \
int_0^1 r^3 \cos\theta \sin\theta \, dr \, d\theta = 0 \)|
| Line Integral | \( \int_C y \, dx + x \, dy \), \( C \): line from (0,0) to (1,1) | \( \int_0^1 t \, dt + \
int_0^1 t \, dt = 1 \)|
| Divergence | \( \mathbf{F} = \langle x^2, yz, \sin z \rangle \) | \( \nabla \cdot \mathbf{F} = 2x +
z + \cos z \)|
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Multivariable calculus is essential for physics, engineering, machine learning, and more. Let me know if
you’d like examples, proofs, or deeper dives! 🌐
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#### **p-Series**
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- If \( \lim_{n \to \infty} \frac{a_n}{b_n} = L > 0 \), then \( \sum a_n \) and \( \sum b_n \) behave
similarly.
#### **Ratio Test**
- \( L = 1 \): Inconclusive.
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- **Fourier Series**: Decomposing periodic functions into sine/cosine series (advanced topic).
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### **Summary Table**
|-------------------------|---------------------------------------|-------------------------------|
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Understanding these concepts equips you to analyze the behavior of sequences and series, a
cornerstone of calculus and mathematical modeling. Let me know if you’d like further clarification or
examples! 📚