Spark plug

A spark plug (sometimes, in British English, a sparking plug,[1] and,

colloquially, a plug) is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition
system to the combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine to ignite the
compressed fuel/air mixture by an electric spark, while containing combustion
pressure within the engine. A spark plug has a metal threaded shell, electrically
isolated from a central electrode by a ceramic insulator. The central electrode,
which may contain a resistor, is connected by a heavily insulated wire to the
output terminal of an ignition coil or magneto. The spark plug's metal shell is
screwed into the engine's cylinder head and thus electrically grounded. The central
electrode protrudes through the porcelain insulator into the combustion chamber,
forming one or more spark gaps between the inner end of the central electrode and
usually one or more protuberances or structures attached to the inner end of the
threaded shell and designated the side, earth, or ground electrode(s).

Spark plugs may also be used for other purposes; in Saab Direct Ignition when
they are not firing, spark plugs are used to measure ionization in the cylinders –
this ionic current measurement is used to replace the ordinary cam phase sensor,
knock sensor and misfire measurement function.[2] Spark plugs may also be used
in other applications such as furnaces wherein a combustible fuel/air mixture must
be ignited. In this case, they are sometimes referred to as flame igniters.
Spark plug with
single side
History electrode

In 1860 Étienne Lenoir used an electric spark plug in his gas

engine, the first internal combustion piston engine. Lenoir is
generally credited with the invention of the spark plug.[3] [4]

Early patents for spark plugs included those by Nikola Tesla (in
U.S. patent 609,250 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US609250)
for an ignition timing system, 1898), Frederick Richard Simms
(GB 24859/1898, 1898) and Robert Bosch (GB 26907/1898).
Only the invention of the first commercially viable high-voltage
spark plug as part of a magneto-based ignition system by Robert
Bosch's engineer Gottlob Honold in 1902 made possible the
development of the spark-ignition engine. Subsequent
An electric spark on the spark plug
manufacturing improvements can be credited to Albert
Champion,[5] to the Lodge brothers, sons of Sir Oliver Lodge,
who developed and manufactured their father's idea[6] and also to Kenelm Lee Guinness, of the Guinness
brewing family, who developed the KLG brand. Helen Blair Bartlett played a vital role in making the
insulator in 1930.[7]

Operation
The function of a spark plug is to produce a spark at the required
time to ignite the combustible mixture. The plug is connected to
the high voltage generated by an ignition coil or magneto. As
current flows from the coil, a voltage develops between the central
and side electrodes. Initially no current can flow because the fuel
and air in the gap is an insulator, but as the voltage rises further it
begins to change the structure of the gases between the electrodes.
Once the voltage exceeds the dielectric strength of the gases, the
gases become ionized. The ionized gas becomes a conductor and
allows current to flow across the gap. Spark plugs usually require
voltage of 12,000–25,000 volts or more to "fire" properly,
although it can go up to 45,000 volts. They supply higher current
during the discharge process, resulting in a hotter and longer- Components of a typical, four stroke
duration spark. cycle, DOHC piston engine.

As the current of electrons surges across the gap, it raises the (E) Exhaust camshaft
temperature of the spark channel to 60,000 K. The intense heat in (I) Intake camshaft
the spark channel causes the ionized gas to expand very quickly, (S) Spark plug
like a small explosion. This is the "click" heard when observing a (V) Valves
spark, similar to lightning and thunder. (P) Piston
(R) Connecting rod
The heat and pressure force the gases to react with each other, and
(C) Crankshaft
at the end of the spark event there should be a small ball of fire in
(W) Water jacket for
the spark gap as the gases burn on their own. The size of this
coolant flow
fireball, or kernel, depends on the exact composition of the
mixture between the electrodes and the level of combustion
chamber turbulence at the time of the spark. A small kernel will make the engine run as though the
ignition timing was delayed, and a large one as though the timing was advanced.

Spark plug construction

A spark plug is composed of a shell, insulator and the central conductor. It passes through the wall of the
combustion chamber and therefore must also seal the combustion chamber against high pressures and
temperatures without deteriorating over long periods of time and extended use.

Spark plugs are specified by size, either thread or nut (often referred to as Euro), sealing type (taper or
crush washer), and spark gap. Common thread (nut) sizes in Europe are 10 mm (16 mm), 14 mm (21 mm;
sometimes, 16 mm), and 18 mm (24 mm, sometimes, 21 mm). In the United States, common thread (nut)
sizes are 10mm (16mm), 12mm (14mm, 16mm or 17.5mm), 14mm (16mm, 20.63mm) and 18mm
(20.63mm).[8]

Parts of the plug

Terminal
The top of the spark plug contains a terminal to connect to the ignition system. Over of the years
variations in the terminal configuration have been introduced by manufacturers. The exact terminal
construction varies depending on the use of the spark plug. Most passenger car spark plug wires snap
onto the terminal of the plug, but some wires have eyelet connectors which are fastened onto the plug
under a nut. The standard solid non-removable nut SAE configuration is common for many cars and
trucks. Plugs which are used for these applications often have the end of the terminal serve a double
purpose as the nut on a thin threaded shaft so that they can be used for either type of connection. This
type of spark plug has a removable nut or knurl, which enables its users to attach them to two different
kinds of spark plug boots. Some spark plugs have a bare thread, which is a common type for motorcycles
and ATVs. Finally, in very recent years, a cup-style terminal has been introduced, which allows for a
longer ceramic insulator in the same confined space.[9]

Insulator
The main part of the insulator is typically made from sintered alumina (Al2O3),[10][11] a very hard
ceramic material with high dielectric strength, printed with the manufacturer's name and identifying
marks, then glazed to improve resistance to surface spark tracking. Its major functions are to provide
mechanical support and electrical insulation for the central electrode, while also providing an extended
spark path for flashover protection. This extended portion, particularly in engines with deeply recessed
plugs, helps extend the terminal above the cylinder head so as to make it more readily accessible.

A further feature of sintered alumina is its good heat conduction –

reducing the tendency for the insulator to glow with heat and so
light the mixture prematurely.

Ribs
By lengthening the surface between the high voltage terminal and
the grounded metal case of the spark plug, the physical shape of
the ribs functions to improve the electrical insulation and prevent
electrical energy from leaking along the insulator surface from the Dissected modern spark plug
showing the one-piece sintered
terminal to the metal case. The disrupted and longer path makes
alumina insulator. The lower portion
the electricity encounter more resistance along the surface of the is unglazed.
spark plug even in the presence of dirt and moisture. Some spark
plugs are manufactured without ribs; improvements in the
dielectric strength of the insulator make them less important.

Insulator tip
On modern (post 1930s) spark plugs, the tip of the insulator
protruding into the combustion chamber is the same sintered
aluminium oxide (alumina) ceramic as the upper portion, merely
unglazed. It is designed to withstand 650 °C (1,200 °F) and 60 kV.

Older spark plugs, particularly in aircraft, used an insulator made

of stacked layers of mica, compressed by tension in the centre
electrode.
Two spark plugs in comparison
views in multiple angles, one of
With the development of leaded petrol in the 1930s, lead deposits
which is consumed regularly, while
on the mica became a problem and reduced the interval between the other has the insulating ceramic
needing to clean the spark plug. Sintered alumina was developed broken and the central electrode
by Siemens in Germany to counteract this.[12] Sintered alumina is shortened, due to manufacturing
a superior material to mica or porcelain because it is a relatively defects and / or temperature swing
good thermal conductor for a ceramic, it maintains good
mechanical strength and (thermal) shock resistance at higher
temperatures, and this ability to run hot allows it to be run at "self cleaning" temperatures without rapid
degradation. It also allows a simple single piece construction at low cost but high mechanical reliability.
The dimensions of the insulator and the metal conductor core determine the heat range of the plug. Short
insulators are usually "cooler" plugs, while "hotter" plugs are made with a lengthened path to the metal
body, though this also depends on the thermally conductive metal core.

Seals
Because the spark plug also seals the combustion chamber of the engine when installed, seals are required
to ensure there is no leakage from the combustion chamber. The internal seals of modern plugs are made
of compressed glass/metal powder, but old style seals were typically made by the use of a multi-layer
braze. The external seal is usually a crush washer, but some manufacturers use the cheaper method of a
taper interface and simple compression to attempt sealing.

Metal case/shell
The metal case/shell (or the jacket, as many people call it) of the spark plug withstands the torque of
tightening the plug, serves to remove heat from the insulator and pass it on to the cylinder head, and acts
as the ground for the sparks passing through the central electrode to the side electrode. Spark plug threads
are cold rolled to prevent thermal cycle fatigue. It's important to install spark plugs with the correct
"reach," or thread length. Spark plugs can vary in reach from 0.095 to 2.649 cm (0.0375 to 1.043 in), such
for automotive and small engine applications.[13] Also, a marine spark plug's shell is double-dipped, zinc-
chromate coated metal.[14]

Central electrode
The central electrode is connected to the terminal through an internal wire and commonly a ceramic
series resistance to reduce emission of RF noise from the sparking. Non-resistor spark plugs, commonly
sold without an "R" in the plug type part number, lack this element to reduce electro-magnetic
interference with radios and other sensitive equipment. The tip can be made of a combination of copper,
nickel-iron, chromium, or noble metals.
In the late 1970s, the development of engines reached a stage
where the heat range of conventional spark plugs with solid nickel
alloy centre electrodes was unable to cope with their demands. A
plug that was cold enough to cope with the demands of high speed
driving would not be able to burn off the carbon deposits caused
by stop–start urban conditions, and would foul in these conditions,
making the engine misfire. Similarly, a plug that was hot enough
to run smoothly in town could melt when called upon to cope with
extended high speed running on motorways. The answer to this
problem, devised by the spark plug manufacturers, was to use a
different material and design for the centre electrode that would be
able to carry the heat of combustion away from the tip more Central and lateral electrodes
effectively than a solid nickel alloy could. Copper was the material
chosen for the task and a method for manufacturing the copper-
cored centre electrode was created by Floform.

The central electrode is usually the one designed to eject the electrons (the cathode, i.e. negative
polarity[15] relative to the engine block) because it is normally the hottest part of the plug; it is easier to
emit electrons from a hot surface, because of the same physical laws that increase emissions of vapor
from hot surfaces (see thermionic emission).[16] In addition, electrons are emitted where the electrical
field strength is greatest; this is from wherever the radius of curvature of the surface is smallest, from a
sharp point or edge rather than a flat surface (see corona discharge).[16] Using the colder, blunter side
electrode as negative requires up to 45 percent higher voltage,[16] so few ignition systems aside from
wasted spark are designed this way.[17] Waste spark systems place a greater strain upon spark plugs since
they alternately fire electrons in both directions (from the ground electrode to the central electrode, not
just from the central electrode to the ground electrode). As a result, vehicles with such a system should
have precious metals on both electrodes, not just on the central electrode, in order to increase service
replacement intervals since they wear down the metal more quickly in both directions, not just one.[18]

It would be easiest to pull electrons from a pointed electrode but a pointed electrode would erode after
only a few seconds. Instead, the electrons emit from the sharp edges of the end of the electrode; as these
edges erode, the spark becomes weaker and less reliable.

At one time it was common to remove the spark plugs, clean deposits off the ends either manually or with
specialized sandblasting equipment and file the end of the electrode to restore the sharp edges, but this
practice has become less frequent for three reasons:

1. cleaning with tools such as a wire brush leaves traces of metal on the insulator which can
provide a weak conduction path and thus weaken the spark (increasing emissions).
2. plugs are so cheap relative to labor cost, economics dictate replacement, particularly with
modern long-life plugs.
3. iridium and platinum plugs that have longer lifetimes than copper have become more
common.
The development of noble metal high temperature electrodes (using metals such as yttrium, iridium,
tungsten, palladium, or ruthenium, as well as the relatively high value platinum, silver or gold) allows the
use of a smaller center wire, which has sharper edges but will not melt or corrode away. These materials
are used because of their high melting points and durability, not because of their electrical conductivity
(which is irrelevant in series with the plug resistor or wires). The smaller electrode also absorbs less heat
from the spark and initial flame energy.

Polonium spark plugs were marketed by Firestone from 1940 to 1953. While the amount of radiation
from the plugs was minuscule and not a threat to the consumer, the benefits of such plugs quickly
diminished after approximately a month because of polonium's short half-life, and because buildup on the
conductors would block the radiation that improved engine performance. The premise behind the
polonium spark plug, as well as Alfred Matthew Hubbard's prototype radium plug that preceded it, was
that the radiation would improve ionization of the fuel in the cylinder and thus allow the plug to fire more
quickly and efficiently.[19][20]

Side (ground, earth) electrode

The side electrode (also known as the "ground strap") is made from high nickel steel and is welded or hot
forged to the side of the metal shell. The side electrode also runs very hot, especially on projected nose
plugs. Some designs have provided a copper core to this electrode, so as to increase heat conduction.
Multiple side electrodes may also be used, so that they don't overlap the central electrode. The ground
electrode can also have small pads of platinum or even iridium added to them in order to increase service
life.[21]

Spark plug gap

Spark plugs are typically designed to have a spark gap which can be
adjusted by the technician installing the spark plug, by bending the
ground electrode slightly. The same plug may be specified for several
different engines, requiring a different gap for each. Spark plugs in
automobiles generally have a gap between 0.6 and 1.8 mm (0.024 and
0.071 in). The gap may require adjustment from the out-of-the-box
gap.

A spark plug gap gauge is a disc with a sloping edge, or with round
wires of precise diameters, and is used to measure the gap. Use of a
feeler gauge with flat blades instead of round wires, as is used on Gap gauge: A disk with a tapered
distributor points or valve lash, will give erroneous results, due to the edge; the edge is thicker going
shape of spark plug electrodes. The simplest gauges are a collection counter-clockwise, and a spark
plug will be hooked along the
of keys of various thicknesses which match the desired gaps and the
edge to check the gap.
gap is adjusted until the key fits snugly. With current engine
technology, universally incorporating solid state ignition systems and
computerized fuel injection, the gaps used are larger on average than in the era of carburetors and breaker
point distributors, to the extent that spark plug gauges from that era cannot always measure the required
gaps of current cars.[22] Vehicles using compressed natural gas generally require narrower gaps than
vehicles using gasoline.[23]

The gap adjustment (also called "spark plug gapping") can be crucial to proper engine operation. A
narrow gap may give too small and weak a spark to effectively ignite the fuel-air mixture, but the plug
will almost always fire on each cycle. A gap that is too wide might prevent a spark from firing at all or
may misfire at high speeds, but will usually have a spark that is strong for a clean burn. A spark which
intermittently fails to ignite the fuel-air mixture may not be noticeable directly, but will show up as a
reduction in the engine's power and fuel efficiency. Gap adjustment is not recommended for iridium and
platinum spark plugs, because there is a risk of damaging a metal disk welded to the electrode.[24]

Variations on the basic design

Over the years variations on the basic spark plug design have attempted to provide
either better ignition, longer life, or both. Such variations include the use of two,
three, or four equally spaced ground electrodes surrounding the central electrode.
Other variations include using a recessed central electrode surrounded by the spark
plug thread, which effectively becomes the ground electrode (see "surface-
discharge spark plug", below). Also there is the use of a V-shaped notch in the tip of
the ground electrode. Multiple ground electrodes generally provide longer life, as
when the spark gap widens due to electric discharge wear, the spark moves to
another closer ground electrode. The disadvantage of multiple ground electrodes is
that a shielding effect can occur in the engine combustion chamber inhibiting the
flame face as the fuel air mixture burns. This can result in a less efficient burn and
increased fuel consumption. They also are difficult or nearly impossible to adjust to
another uniform gap size.

Surface-discharge spark plug

A piston engine has a part of the combustion chamber that is always out of reach of
the piston; and this zone is where the conventional spark plug is located. A Wankel Spark plug with
engine has a permanently varying combustion area; and the spark plug is inevitably two side (ground)
swept by the rotor's apex seals. If a spark plug were to protrude into the Wankel's electrodes
combustion chamber it would be hit by the passing apex seal, but if the plug were
recessed to avoid this, mixture access to the spark would be reduced, leading to
misfire or incomplete combustion. So a new type of "surface discharge" plug was developed, presenting
an almost flat face to the combustion chamber. A stubby centre electrode projects only very slightly, and
the entire earthed body of the plug acts as the side electrode. The electrodes thus sit just beyond the reach
of the passing apex seal, while the spark is accessible to the fuel/air mixture. The arc gap remains
constant throughout the entire service life of a surface-gap spark plug, and the spark path will continually
vary (instead of darting from the centre to the side electrode as in a conventional plug). A further
advantage of the surface-gap design is that the side electrode cannot break off and potentially cause
engine damage, though this also doesn't often happen with conventional spark plugs.

Sealing to the cylinder head

Most spark plugs seal to the cylinder head with a single-use hollow or folded metal washer which is
crushed slightly between the flat surface of the head and that of the plug, just above the threads. Some
spark plugs have a tapered seat that uses no washer. The torque for installing these plugs is supposed to
be lower than a washer-sealed plug.[25] Spark plugs with tapered
seats should never be installed in vehicles with heads requiring
washers, and vice versa. Otherwise, a poor seal or incorrect reach
would result because of the threads not properly seating in the
heads.

Tip protrusion
Old spark plug removed from a car,
The length of the threaded portion of the plug should be closely new one ready to install.
matched to the thickness of the head. If a plug extends too far into
the combustion chamber, it may be struck by the piston, damaging
the engine internally. Less dramatically, if the threads of the plug
extend into the combustion chamber, the sharp edges of the
threads act as point sources of heat which may cause pre-ignition;
in addition, deposits which form between the exposed threads may
make it difficult to remove the plugs, even damaging the threads
on aluminium heads in the process of removal.

The protrusion of the tip into the chamber also affects plug
performance, however; the more centrally located the spark gap is, Different spark plug sizes. The left
generally the better the ignition of the air-fuel mixture will be, and right plug are identical in
threading, electrodes, tip protrusion,
although experts believe the process is more complex and
and heat range. The centre plug is a
dependent on combustion chamber shape. On the other hand, if an
compact variant, with smaller hex
engine is "burning oil", the excess oil leaking into the combustion and porcelain portions outside the
chamber tends to foul the plug tip and inhibit the spark; in such head, to be used where space is
cases, a plug with less protrusion than the engine would normally limited. The rightmost plug has a
call for often collects less fouling and performs better, for a longer longer threaded portion, to be used
period. Special "anti-fouling" adapters are sold which fit between in a thicker cylinder head.
the plug and the head to reduce the protrusion of the plug for just
this reason, on older engines with severe oil burning problems;
this will cause the ignition of the fuel-air mixture to be less effective, but in such cases, this is of lesser
significance.

Heat range
The operating temperature of a spark plug is the actual physical temperature at the tip of the spark plug
within the running engine, normally between 500 and 800 °C (932 and 1,472 °F). This is important
because it determines the efficiency of plug self-cleaning and is determined by a number of factors, but
primarily the actual temperature within the combustion chamber. There is no direct relationship between
the actual operating temperature of the spark plug and spark voltage. However, the level of torque
currently being produced by the engine will strongly influence spark plug operating temperature because
the maximal temperature and pressure occur when the engine is operating near peak torque output (torque
and rotational speed directly determine the power output). The temperature of the insulator responds to
the thermal conditions it is exposed to in the combustion chamber, but not vice versa. If the tip of the
spark plug is too hot, it can cause pre-ignition or sometimes
detonation/knocking, and damage may occur. If it is too cold,
electrically conductive deposits may form on the insulator, causing
a loss of spark energy or the actual shorting-out of the spark
current.

A spark plug is said to be "hot" if it is a better heat insulator,

keeping more heat in the tip of the spark plug. A spark plug is said
to be "cold" if it can conduct more heat out of the spark plug tip
and lower the tip's temperature. Whether a spark plug is "hot" or Construction of hot and cold spark
"cold" is known as the heat range of the spark plug. The heat plugs – a longer insulator tip makes
range of a spark plug is typically specified as a number, with some the plug hotter
manufacturers using ascending numbers for hotter plugs, and
others doing the opposite – using ascending numbers for colder
plugs.

The heat range of a spark plug is affected by the construction of the spark plug: the types of materials
used, the length of insulator and the surface area of the plug exposed within the combustion chamber. For
normal use, the selection of a spark plug heat range is a balance between keeping the tip hot enough at
idle to prevent fouling and cold enough at maximal power to prevent pre-ignition or engine knocking. By
examining "hotter" and "cooler" spark plugs of the same manufacturer side by side, the principle involved
can be very clearly seen; the cooler plugs have a more substantial ceramic insulator filling the gap
between the center electrode and the shell, effectively allowing more heat to be carried off by the shell,
while the hotter plugs have less ceramic material, so that the tip is more isolated from the body of the
plug and retains heat better.

Heat from the combustion chamber escapes through the exhaust gases, the side walls of the cylinder and
the spark plug itself. The heat range of a spark plug has only a minute effect on combustion chamber and
overall engine temperature. A cold plug will not materially cool down an engine's running temperature.
(A too hot plug may, however, indirectly lead to a runaway pre-ignition condition that can increase
engine temperature.) Rather, the main effect of a "hot" or "cold" plug is to affect the temperature of the
tip of the spark plug.

It was common before the modern era of computerized fuel injection to specify at least a couple of
different heat ranges for plugs for an automobile engine; a hotter plug for cars that were mostly driven
slowly around the city, and a colder plug for sustained high-speed highway use. This practice has,
however, largely become obsolete now that cars' fuel/air mixtures and cylinder temperatures are
maintained within a narrow range, for purposes of limiting emissions. Racing engines, however, still
benefit from picking a proper plug heat range. Very old racing engines will sometimes have two sets of
plugs, one just for starting and another to be installed for driving once the engine is warmed up.
Spark plug manufacturers use different numbers to denote heat range of their spark plugs. Some
manufacturers, such as Denso and NGK, have numbers that become higher as they get colder. By
contrast, Champion, Bosch, BRISK, Beru, and ACDelco use a heat range system in which the numbers
become bigger as the plugs get hotter. As a result, heat range numbers need to be translated between the
different manufacturers and cannot be casually interchanged as equals.

Reading spark plugs

The spark plug's firing end will be affected by the internal environment of the combustion chamber. As
the spark plug can be removed for inspection, the effects of combustion on the plug can be examined. An
examination, or "reading" of the characteristic markings on the firing end of the spark plug can indicate
conditions within the running engine. Engine and spark plug manufacturers will publish information
about the characteristic markings in spark plug reading charts.

A light brownish discoloration of the tip of the block indicates proper operation; other conditions may
indicate malfunction. For example, a sandblasted look to the tip of the spark plug means persistent, light
detonation is occurring, often unheard. The damage that is occurring to the tip of the spark plug is also
occurring on the inside of the cylinder. Heavy detonation can cause outright breakage of the spark plug
insulator and internal engine parts before appearing as sandblasted erosion but is easily heard. As another
example, if the plug is too cold, there will be deposits on the nose of the plug. Conversely if the plug is
too hot, the porcelain will be porous looking, almost like sugar. The material which seals the central
electrode to the insulator will boil out. Sometimes the end of the plug will appear glazed, as the deposits
have melted.

An idling engine will have a different impact on the spark plugs than one running at full throttle. Spark
plug readings are only valid for the most recent engine operating conditions and running the engine under
different conditions may erase or obscure characteristic marks previously left on the spark plugs. The
most valuable information is gathered by running the engine at high speed and full load, immediately
cutting the ignition off and stopping without idling or low speed operation and removing the plugs for
reading.

Spark plug reading viewers, which are simply combined flashlight/magnifiers, are available to improve
the reading of the spark plugs.

Indexing spark plugs

"Indexing" of plugs upon installation involves installing the spark
plug so that the open area of its gap, not shrouded by the ground
electrode, faces the center of the combustion chamber rather than
one of its walls. The theory holds that this will maximize the
exposure of the fuel-air mixture to the spark, also ensuring that Two spark plug viewers
every combustion chamber is even in layout and therefore
resulting in better ignition. Indexing is accomplished by marking
the location of the gap on the outside of the plug, installing it, and noting the direction in which the mark
faces. Then the plug is removed and washers are added to change the orientation of the tightened plug.
This must be done individually for each plug, as the orientation of the gap with respect to the threads of
the shell is random. Some plugs are made with a non-random orientation of the gap and are usually
marked as such by a suffix to the model number; typically these are specified by manufacturers of very
small engines where the spark plug tip and electrodes form a significantly large part of the shape of the
combustion chamber. The Honda Insight has indexed spark plugs from factory, with four different part
numbers available corresponding to the different degrees of indexing to achieve most efficient
combustion and maximal fuel efficiency.

See also
Coso artifact
Glow plug (diesel engine)
Glow plug (model engine)
Hot-tube ignitor
List of auto parts
Ninja rocks

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ISBN 978-0-8376-1686-5, pp 581–585.
12. Air Commodore F. R. Banks (1978). I Kept No Diary. Airlife. p. 113. ISBN 0-9504543-9-7.
13. For examples, see the listing in the plug type chart of the 2015 Champion master spark plug
application catalog, pp. VI
14. "Marine Spark Plug Savvy" (http://marineenginedigest.com/diy/sparkplugsavvy.htm).
MarineEngineDigest.com. 29 April 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2012.
15. V.A.W., Hillier (1991). "74: The ignition system". Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology
(4th ed.). Stanley Thornes. p. 450. ISBN 0-7487-05317.
16. International Harvester, Truck Service Manual TM 5-4210-230-14&P-1 (http://www.liberated
manuals.com/TM-5-4210-230-14-and-P-1.pdf) - Electrical - Ignition Coils and Condensers,
CTS-2013-E p. 5 (PDF page 545)
17. NGK, Wasted Spark Ignition (https://www.ngk.com/glossary/8/spark-plug/W)
18. See p. 824 of the 2015 Champion Master Catalog. http://www.fme-cat.com/catalogs.aspx
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180601144828/http://fme-cat.com/catalogs.aspx)
2018-06-01 at the Wayback Machine
19. "Radioactive spark plugs" (https://www.orau.org/health-physics-museum/collection/consume
r/miscellaneous/spark-plugs.html). Oak Ridge Associated Universities. January 20, 1999.
Retrieved October 7, 2021.
20. Pittman, Cassandra (February 3, 2017). "Polonium" (http://www.utoledo.edu/nsm/ic/element
s/polonium.html). The Instrumentation Center. University of Toledo. Retrieved August 23,
2018.
21. For example, notice the 2015-2016 Champion master catalog from Europe's type chart,
which flips out from the back. In many cases, depending on the design, "platinum" is listed
as the metal type.
22. For example, in the 1967 Champion spark plug catalog, the "Deluxe Gap Tool & Gauges" on
p. 38 is designed to handle gaps from 0.38 to 1.02 mm (0.015 to 0.040 in), which is less
than the gap required by many modern cars. As for older cars before c. 1960, notice the
vintage vehicle section of the 1997 AC Delco Spark Plug Catalog, page 250 to 264. Gaps in
the 1920s for many makes were often 0.64 mm (0.025 in). However, many modern cars
have gaps not much larger, such as those made by Volvo from 1967 to 2014 normally had
gaps of 0.71 to 0.76 mm (0.028 to 0.030 in). See this make's listings in the 2015 Champion
Master Spark Plug Application Catalog, pp. 333 to 339, for which the only exception were
some 4.4 liter engines.
23. For example, the Ford Crown Victoria's 4.6 liter engine required a 1.1 mm (0.044 in) gap
when using CNG, but requires a 1.4 mm (0.054 in) gap when using gas. See the 2015
Champion Master Spark Plug Application Catalog, p. 124; a technical explanation is found
on p. 825.
24. "How to Choose Proper Spark Plugs for Your Engine" (https://vinsonar.com/help/spark-plug-
guide/). VIN Sonar | help - Automotive Guides and Online Tools. 2022-01-27. Retrieved
2022-05-12.
25. For example, notice the torque recommendations on p. 823 of the 2015 Champion Master
Spark Plug Application Catalog.

External links

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