Course Objectives

The course aims to introduce students to:

• Fundamental structural concepts

• Building stability principles
• Construction vocabulary and basic knowledge
• Constructive processes and materials
• Ability to design and justify technical choices in future projects

Structural Fundamentals

What is a Structure?

• An ensemble of elements ensuring building stability

• Must transport applied loads without rupture or deformation
• Transmits loads from top levels to foundations

Structure Transmission Pathway

• Loads flow from highest level (terrace) to lowest level (foundation)

Structure Components

• Superstructure: Receives and transmits building loads

• Infrastructure: Transfers superstructure loads to ground
• Resists ground forces

Structure Requirements

1. Equilibrium
2. Safety
3. Rigidity
4. Resistance
5. Economy
6. Durability

Structure Classifications

• Reinforced Concrete
• Mixed
 • Wood
• Metallic

Loads and Actions

Types of Actions

1. Permanent Loads (G)

a. Constant intensity
b. Includes:
i. Structural element weights
ii. Incorporated element weights
iii. Ceiling
iv. Coatings
v. Finishes
2. Variable Loads (Q)
a. Fluctuating intensity
b. Examples:
i. Exploitation loads
ii. Usage-specific loads
3. Accidental Loads (FA)
a. Rare, brief duration events
b. Examples:
i. Earthquakes
ii. Impacts
iii. Storms
iv. Explosions

Load Calculation Method

$P = \gamma \times V$

• P: Weight
• γ: Volumetric weight
• V: Volume

Typical Surcharge Values

Element Surcharge (KN/m²)

Acrotère 1.0

Inaccessible
1.0
Terrace

Residential Floor 1.5

Office Floor 2.5

Stairs 2.5

Balconies 3.5

Limit States

Limit Ultimate State (ELU)

• Involves safety of goods and people

• Characterized by:
o Loss of static equilibrium
o Shape instability
o Loss of resistance

Limit Service State (ELS)

• Ensures acceptable usage conditions

• Prevents:
o Excessive deformations
o Excessive concrete compression
o Excessive cracking

Limit State Combinations

1. Ultimate Limit State (ELU):$Nu = 1.35G + 1.5Q$

2. Service Limit State (ELS):$Nser = G + Q$
Structural Reinforcement Techniques
• Techniques include:
o Concrete jacketing
o Metal profile reinforcement
o Composite material reinforcement

Influence Surface Analysis

• Determines load distribution across structural elements
• Considers:
o Column positioning
o Beam configurations
o Cantilever scenarios

Diagnostic and Repair of Structural Issues

Crack Diagnosis

1. Superficial Cracks
a. Repair: Cement mortar or resin
2. Structural Cracks
a. Requires comprehensive structural assessment

Repair Strategies

• Soil-related risks
• Load-related risks
• Structure reinforcement
• Load reduction

Key Considerations
• Protect steel reinforcement
• Limit concrete cracking
• Ensure proper concrete cover
• Manage thermal expansion
• Control structural deformations
 Foundations in Construction: Comprehensive
Study Notes
I. Perfect Structure Characteristics (Section 1)
Key Structural Requirements

• Stability: Ensuring structural integrity

• Rigidity: Resistance to deformation
• Durability: Long-term performance
• Economy: Cost-effective design
• Comfort: Functional and user-friendly

II. Foundation Basics (Section I-1)

Foundation Definition

• Interface between building structure and ground

• Critical for transmitting building loads to the ground
• Ensures perfect building support and stability

Foundation Composition (Section I-4)

Three Primary Components:

1. Footing (Semelle)
a. Distributes loads across soil surface
b. Determines load distribution pattern
2. Shaft (Fut)
a. Connects footing to upper structure
b. Transmits structural loads
3. Blinding Concrete (Béton de propreté)
a. Placed at excavation bottom before foundation
b. Provides stable, uniform surface
c. Helps distribute loads evenly
d. Reduces settlement risks
e. Protects foundational elements
III. Foundation Types (Section I-5)
Classification by Depth

Foundation Type Depth Range Characteristics

Shallow Foundations D ≤ 3m Minimal excavation

Semi-Deep
3m < D ≤ 6m Moderate depth
Foundations

Significant
Deep Foundations D > 6m
excavation

Shallow Foundation Subtypes

1. Isolated Footings
a. Point load transmission
b. Used for individual columns/pillars
c. Dimensions proportional to column section
2. Strip Footings
a. Linear load distribution
b. Used when isolated footings are impractical
c. Supports linear structural elements (walls, multiple columns)
3. Raft Foundation
a. Entire building load distributed across single platform
b. Ideal for:
i. High structural loads
ii. Weak soil conditions
iii. Preventing differential settlement

IV. Foundation Settlement (Section I-2)

Types of Settlement

1. Uniform Settlement
a. Even vertical ground compression
b. Minimal structural impact
c. Potential infrastructure disruption
 2. Differential Settlement
a. Uneven ground compression
b. Risks:
i. Structural deformations
ii. Wall/glass cracking
iii. Door/window misalignment

Causes of Differential Settlement

• Varying soil layers

• Asymmetrical loading
• Different foundation types under same structure

V. Geotechnical Considerations
Geotechnical Report Components

• Project location
• Hydrogeology
• Site topography
• Surface water conditions
• Seismic effects
• Soil recognition
• Laboratory/in-situ testing

Minimum Foundation Depth

• Climate Dependent
o Mild climate: 80 cm
o Mountain regions: 100 cm
• Considerations:
o Soil bearing capacity
o Frost protection
o Drought resistance

VI. Advanced Foundation Techniques

Deep Foundations (Piles)

• Used when good soil is deep (>6m)

• Load transmission methods:
 o Base resistance (Qp)
o Lateral friction (Qs)

Foundation Challenges

• Water infiltration
• Hydrostatic pressure
• Soil variability
• Terrain slope

Recommended Mitigation Strategies

• Comprehensive geotechnical surveys
• Proper drainage systems
• Adaptive foundation design
• Regular structural monitoring
 Earthworks (Terrassements) Study Notes
I. General Overview of Earthworks

Definition and Purpose

• Earthworks: Process of preparing ground by moving significant amounts of earth

• Primarily used in civil construction and road building
• Aims to create a stable foundation and prevent soil-related risks

Key Considerations for Earthwork Projects

• Requires in-depth knowledge of soil types

• Critical factors include:
o Nature of work
o Types of excavations
o Equipment needed
o Project duration
o Cost estimation

Preliminary Site Investigation

Essential Pre-Work Checks:

• Geotechnical soil report

• Mapping of existing underground utilities
• Identifying previous construction foundations
• Assessing potential geological challenges

Types of Earthworks

1. Surface Clearing (Décapage)

• Shallow excavation
• Depth: 0.2 to 0.3 meters

2. General Earthworks

• Large-scale operations
• Depth exceeding 1 meter
 • Involves extensive land movement

II. Soil Improvement Techniques

Objectives of Soil Improvement

• Increase soil-bearing capacity

• Reduce settlement
• Minimize liquefaction risk during seismic events

Improvement Methods

1. Mechanical Compaction

Compaction Techniques:

• Surface Compaction
o Effective up to 3m depth
o Reduces soil voids
o Increases soil density
• Dynamic Compaction
o Uses 12-40 ton weights
o Dropped from 10-40 meters
o Creates high-energy shock waves
o Densifies deep soil layers
• Vibro-Compaction
o Uses vibrating equipment
o Reduces inter-granular forces
o Rearranges soil particles
o Fills voids with granular material

2. Hydro-Mechanical Methods

• Pre-compression technique
o Applies additional load before construction
o Particularly effective for clay-based soils
• Vertical drain installation
o Accelerates soil consolidation
o Reduces water pressure in clay layers
3. Chemical Stabilization

Lime Treatment:

• Recommended for clay-rich soils (>40% clay content)

• Dosage: 1-3% lime
• Improves structural performance

Cement Treatment:

• Used for low-clay soils

• Rapidly develops mechanical strength
• Reduces water content

III. Excavation Types

Classification of Excavations

1. Full Mass Excavation

a. Width ≥ 2m
b. Depth ≤ Width/2
2. Trench Excavation
a. Width ≤ 2m
b. Depth > 1m
3. Shaft Excavation
a. Small surface area
b. Significant depth

Excavation Stability Considerations

• Vertical excavation
• Sloped (battered) excavation
• Requires structural support for deep excavations

Critical Excavation Depth Calculation

$H_{critical} = \frac{(\rho+2) \times C}{\gamma}$

• C: Soil cohesion
• γ: Soil volumetric weight
IV. Earthwork Challenges
• Unstable terrain
• Deep excavations
• Urban construction environments
• Water presence during excavation

V. Soil Volume Calculations

Soil Volume Expansion (Foisonnement)

• Initial volume expansion during excavation

• Calculation of volume changes during compaction

Practical Considerations

• Proper layered compaction (20-30 cm layers)

• Volume management during transport and placement

Recommended Safety Practices

• Use appropriate shoring and support systems
• Conduct thorough geotechnical investigations
• Monitor soil conditions continuously
• Implement proper drainage solutions
 Structural Elements of Buildings: Comprehensive Study
Notes

I. Structural Elements Overview

• Definition: Elements that ensure building stability and resistance against various
loads
• Key Components:
o Floors
o Columns
o Beams
o Walls
o Foundations

I-1. Floors (Planchers)

Functions of Floors

Architectural
Structural Aspect Protection
Purpose

- Resistance Air isolation Decorative aspect

- Stability Fire resistance Aesthetic design

- Load Thermal
transmission insulation

Acoustic isolation
Floor Components

1. Bearing Part (Slab)

a. Resists transmitted loads
b. Supports self-weight and additional loads
c. Varies in construction method
2. Covering
a. Placed on bearing part
b. Materials:
i. Tiles
ii. Wooden parquet
iii. Synthetic coverings
c. Provides acoustic and thermal isolation
3. Ceiling
a. Installed under bearing element
b. Can be plaster or prefabricated materials
c. Improves overall isolation and aesthetics

Types of Floors

1. Hollow Core Floors

• Composition:
o Beams
o Hollow cores
o Compression concrete slab
• Characteristics:
o Height varies 9-30 cm
o Width ranges 16-21 cm
o Standardized spacing

2. Reinforced Concrete Floors

• Advantages:
o Versatile designs
o Economic
o Excellent element connectivity
• Construction Methods:
 o Cast entirely on-site
o Semi-prefabricated
o Fully prefabricated

3. Mushroom Floors

• Design:
o Flat slabs on isolated column supports
o Column heads (capitals) expand
• Applications:
o Large open spaces
o Avoiding visible beams
• Dimensions:
o Column spacing: 8-12 m
o Slab thickness: 22-35 cm

4. Composite Floors

• Primarily used in metal structures

• Characteristics:
o Large span capabilities
o Quick execution
o Requires rust protection

5. Cellular (Alveolar) Floors

• Features:
o Prefabricated hollow elements
o Generally prestressed concrete
o Lightweight
o Spans up to 20m

6. Box Floors

• Design:
o Multiple crossed beam systems
o Low spacing (< 1.5m)
o Interior hollow surface
 • Benefits:
o Aesthetic finish
o Acoustic wave reduction
o Optimal for 20m spans

I-2. Beams (Poutres)

Beam Types

1. Dropped Beam
a. Most common
b. Section height greater than slab
c. Visible retaining section
2. Raised Beam
a. Height exceeds slab thickness
b. No visible retaining section
3. Flush Beam
a. Height equal to slab thickness
b. No retaining section

Special Beam Configurations

• Lintels: Small span beams over openings

• Ground Beams: Connecting foundation masses
• Adjustment Beams: Balancing foundation moments

I-3. Columns (Poteaux)

Column Characteristics

• Transmit vertical and horizontal loads

• Materials: Reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, steel, wood
• Typical sections: Square, rectangular, circular
• Resist compression, bending, buckling
I-4. Walls (Murs)

Wall Types

1. Facade Walls
2. Gable Walls
3. Cross Walls
4. Retaining Walls
5. Filling Walls
6. Fence Walls

Shear Walls

• Vertical two-dimensional elements

• High in-plane resistance
• Low out-of-plane resistance

Dimensional Recommendations
$length \geq 4 \times thickness$$thickness \geq min(0.15, \frac{h_e}{2})$