CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

Nigeria is naturally endowed with vast expanse of forest land, the swamp
forests in the extreme Southern part of the country, the tropical rainforest in the
South- western axis and the wooded savannah in the middle belt. Nigeria ranks
among the countries of the world with abundant forest resources. Mfon, et al
(2019) said forests in Nigeria occupied about 110, 890km2 of the country total
land mass of about 910,770km2 in other words, forest is about 12.18% of
vegetation cover of the country. Park (2018), has stated that at least 60 percent
of all known species of plant, about 90 percent of all the world’s non-human
primates such as monkeys, about 40 percent of all the birds of prey and about
80 percent of all the insects live in the tropical rainforests of the world. In other
words, forest provides us a wide variety of ecosystem services, including
provisioning regulating, cultural, and supportive services. These ecosystem
services not only deliver the basic material needs for survival, but also underlie
other aspects of well-being, including health, security good social relations and
freedom of choice. In the past, timber production was regarded as the dominant
function of forests. However, in recent years this perception has shifted to a
more multifunctional and balanced view. Today, it is understood that forest
biodiversity underpins a wide- ranges of goods and services for human
wellbeing.
Ecologically intact forests stores and purify drinking water, they can mitigate
natural disasters such as drought and floods, they help store carbon and regulate
the climate, they provide food and produce rainfall, and they provide a vast
array of goods for medicinal cultural and spiritual purposes (CBD, 2019).
Similarly, most Nigerians have always depended on the forest for their survival,
economic development, as well as environmental amelioration. The level of

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community nutrition is sometimes linked to fuel wood availability and cost,
others depended directly on forest for their livelihood; among them are a high
number of forest and wood worker (Aliyu et al, 2019) This is a part from
contributing substantially to the National Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In
spite of its importance, the natural forest has continued to diminish rapidly in
the world especially in Africa continent and particularly in Nigeria.
2.1 The Concept of Deforestation
Deforestation results from the removal of trees without sufficient replacement,
which leads to reduction in habitat, biodiversity as well as wood and quality of
life (Mfon et al 2018). Adeofun Kootan and Butte, (2017) said deforestation is
the conversion of forest to an alternative permanent non forested land use such
as agriculture, grazing or urban development. The use of the term
“deforestation” at times is associated with distortion of forestry issues. It is used
to denote activities that use the forest, for instance, felling of wood for fuel,
commercial logging and activities associated with temporary removal of forest
cover such as slash and burn techniques which is a major component of shifting
cultivation agricultural systems or clear cutting. It is equally used to describe
clearing of forest for grazing or ranching (Mfon et al 2018). Also, an activity
such as the establishment of industrial plantation may be considered as
deforestation by some people while others will view it as afforestation.
Accordingly, it is imperative for one to specify what is meant by deforestation
in order to reduce all forms of ambiguity. Therefore, many specific terms such
as forest decline, forest fragmentation and degradation, loss of forest cover and
land use conversions are used (Wikipedia, 2021).
For instance, FAO considers a plantation of trees established primarily for
timber production to be forest and therefore does not classify natural forest
conversion to plantation as deforestation (but still records it as a loss of natural
forests). However, FAO does not consider free plantation that provides non-
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timber products to be forest although they do classify rubber plantations forest
(Chakravarty et al 2020).
According to Mfon et al (2019) there are three major schools of thought
associated with the causes of deforestation. The first is the impoverishment
school which is of the opinion that, the major cause of deforestation is the
increase in the number of poor people; that is small holders are the principal
agents of deforestation. The second school is the neoclassical group which
believes that, deforestation is caused by open access property rights that is,
there are various agents with respect to deforestation. The third school is the
political ecology group which believes that, deforestation is caused by
capitalist entrepreneur.
2.2Deforestation in Nigeria
Trends
History has it that as at the beginning of the 1500 A.D, with the exception of
cities such as Ibadan, Benin and Calabar, all the Southern part of Nigeria was
covered by forests (Akachuku, 2017). However, between the year 1500 and
1960 the rain forests were seriously depleted mainly as a result of demand for
wood by the colonial masters (Mfon et al 2018). The depletion of the forest
within this period reduced the forest into two large blocks with scattered
fragments between 1960 and 1981; continuous degradation of the remaining
blocks persisted. Hence, by the early 90’s very few considerable patches of the
patches of the rain forest were left in some forest reserves and natural parks for
protection. Today, the damage to Nigeria, forests invariably has become
tremendous.

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Table 1: National Parks and their Sizes
S/N Park Size (km2)
1. Gumpti 6,670
2. Kainji lake 5,341
3. Cross River 3,720
4. Old Oyo 2,512
5. Chad Basin 2,258
6. Yankari 2,244.1
7. Kamuku 1,127
8. Okomu 1,127
Adapted from Mfon et al (2018)
These forest reserves and others have over the years been the major theatre of
largescale human activities culminating into serious consequences upon the
Nigeria flora and fauna despite decade of collective effort to combat
deforestation.
The forest resources in Nigeria are under pressures from urbanization,
infrastructure development, residential construction, population growth,
nonadic farming and expansion of agricultural crop cultivation. Evidence of
these pressures is the growth degradation of both community and National
Forest. Eboh et al (2020) said that about 25% of forest cover was lost from
1991 to 2018 with the remaining forest now standing at about 16 to 17%. FAO
(2020) reported that the country loss 55.7% of its total primary forest between
2000 and 2005, and the rate of forest change increased by 31.2% to 3.12% per
annum.
The spread of deforestation is also noticeable near urban countries. The growth
of urban areas bring about appreciable demands for fuel wood, charcoal and
sawn wood and this account for much of the observed decline in forest stock
(Ogundele, 2019) cooking with fuelwood or charcoal has remained the only
alternative to ever increasing cost of fossil fuel in Nigeria (there is persistent
increment in the cost of kerosene, cooking gas and electricity tariff). It is
therefore predicted that the demand for biomass energy in urban areas would
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remain strong and continue to account for much of the spread of deforestation.
Forests in the country are said to contribute substantially to the natural gross
domestic product (GDP) and sustenance of the livelihood of the people. This
probably may be the reason why the trend of deforestation across the country is
on the increase and the GDP from the forestry sector decline. According to
Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) (2017), the national GDP by forestry sector was
high in the early 80’s up till 1987. The early 90’s till today witnesses a drastic
drop in the contributions of forest to the national GDP.
2.3 Factors Responsible for Deforestation in Sub-Saharan Africa
Distinguishing between the agents of deforestation and its causes is very
important in order to understand the major determinants of deforestation
(Chakravarty et al 2020). The agents of deforestation are those slash and burn
farmers, ranchers, loggers, firewood collectors, infra- structure developers and
others who are cutting down the forest. Causes of deforestation are the forces
that motivate the agents to clear the forests. (Chakravarty et al 2020)
Similarly, Pearce and Brown, (2017) identified two main forces that affect
deforestation.
(a) Competition between humans and other species for the remaining ecological

niches on land and in coastal regions. This factor is substantially demonstrated

by the conversion of forest land to other uses such as agriculture, infrastructure,
urban development, industry and others.
(b) Failure in the working of the economic systems to reflect the true value of

the environment. Basically, many of the functions of tropical forest are not
marketed and as such are ignored in decision making. Additionally, decisions to
convert tropical forests are themselves encouraged by fiscal and other
incentives.
This latter factor has been termed indirect cause of deforestation but remained
by far the most important. From Nigeria deforestation situation, though the
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forests contribute substantially to the GDP, but the policies to regulate human
interference with the forests so as to safeguard against depletion of this
important resources have not been seriously pursued. This thus reflects a
government fiscal policy working at cross- purposes with the value of the forest
resources. In addition, most incentives which the government supposed to
provide for the people to serve as alternative to forest resources are not
provided, for examples the high cost of fossil fuels has forced people to utilize
firewood and charcoal as alternative energy, high rate of unemployment has
made people to turn to forest for means of survival and therefore has resulted to
serious forest depletion.
Furthermore, defective forest policies of the government greatly encourage
deforestation, for instance most laudable policies like afforestation
programmes, rainforest management (like enrichment planting, taungya
system), creation of forest reserves, in-situ conservation processes among
others are underfunded and neglected. The resultant effect of this is further
deforestation. Notwithstanding, the above scenarios the following factors have
been noted to contribute substantially to deforestation in the country
i. Expansion of Farming Land

About 60% of the clearing of tropical most forests is for agricultural settlement
(Myers 2017). Taking into consideration the fact that more than 80% of the
Nigeria populace are into farming then one can understand the concern of
environmentalists on agricultural induce deforestation in the country. During
agriculture the site is prepared through under brushing and felling leading to
deforestation the slash and burn activity in tropical forests which is utilized
during shitting cultivation has led to the permanent destruction of the rainforest
(Nwoboshi 2018). Mostly all reports indicated shifting agriculture as
responsible for about one half of tropical deforestation and some put it up to
two thirds (Chakravarty et al 2020)
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ii. Urbanization, Industrialization and Infrastructural Development

Clearing the forest is a prequisite for expansion of cities and towns for the
establishment of infrastructures necessary to support growing population
(Sands, 2019), for instance, the 60million hectares of land in Nigeria in 1897
declined to 9.6 million hectares after 100 years this represents a loss of 50
million hectares in 100years (Carty, 2019). The site of Ajaokuta steel plant
claimed 18, 390 hectares of Ajaokuta forest reserve in old Kwara State while
the Federal capital territory claimed approximately 27, 330 hectares of
forest reserves (Carty 2019; Aderounmu, Akarue,and Ette, 2020). The
construction of roads, railways, bridges and airports opens up the land to
development and brings increasing numbers of people to the forest frontier.
Whether supported or not by the governmental programmes, these settlers have
usually colonized the forest by using logging trails of new roads to access the
forest for subsistence land (Amor and Pfaff 2018). The negative consequences
of these developmental projects apart from deforestation also include
destruction of livelihoods of the host communities unfortunately there is no
guarantee that significant benefits or compensation will accrue to them.
iii. Logging and Fuel wood Collection

Sawn timber is imperative in construction activities for residential, recreational

and industrial development. In many cases in Nigeria, trees are felled and sawn
without any commensurate effort to replant them, for instance, Ekinta forest
reserve (104km2) in Cross river state has been transformed from tropical high
forests into grassland as a result of unsustainable logging (Mfon et al 2018).
Depletion of unreserved forests has also resulted in the concentration of logging
activities within protected forest reserved in Nigeria, for instance in 1960
Western Nigerian, the areas outside the forest reserves, amounted to 52% of the
total timber volume output, but five years later, this had fallen to just 16%
(Areola 2017). In Nigeria as in most third world countries, firewood constitutes
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the major source of fuel. This is as a result of the rampant, usual and high cost
of kerosene and cooking gas leading to a lot of pressure on the forests. It
becomes difficult to prevent people from cutting down the forest for firewood
when there are no cheap and available alternatives. The country substantial gas
reserve is under developed and mismanaged. Hence, it flares constantly causing
serious economic and environmental problems.
iv. Bush burning

Fires are a major tool used in clearing the forest for shifting and permanent and
for developing pastures. Fire used responsibly can be available tool in
agricultural and forest management but if abused it can be a significant cause of
deforestation (Rowe Sharma, and Bowder, 2019). The rainforest of Nigeria is
relatively immune to fire than the Savanna in the wet season. However, in the
dry season, the rainforest is very much prone to fire, continuous burning of the
rain forest leads to derived grassland as most the trees including their seedlings
are destroyed. The herdsmen and hunters do set fire to forest in order to have
fresh shoots for their animals and in order to drive out wild animals
respectively. Taking into consideration the fact that it takes years for forest to
reach its climax, therefore, bush burning should be avoided.
v. Overgrazing

Overgrazing is more common in drier areas of the tropics where pastures

degraded by overgrazing are subject to soil erosion. Stripping trees to provide
fodder for grazing animals especially in the dry season can also be a problem. It
is a well-established fact that over grazing leads to a gradual change in
vegetation from derived Savannah to Sudan Savannah as the animals feed on
tree seedling especially in the dry season when there is little grass to sustain
them (NEST, 2018).
Aliyu, Modibbo, Medugu and Ayo (2020) said that most Fulani nomads in
Akwanga area of Nassarawa State practice random grazing where most of the
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grasses are set on fire so that new ones could grow for their cattle to feed on,
making it difficult for other plants to sprout this practice accordingly has led to
the extinction of various plants and thereby introducing foreign species that
further impoverish the soil.
vi. Mining

Nigeria mineral potential is very high. Every day, new mineral resources are
being discovered. Mining sector is very intensive and very lucrative (Sands,
2019). It is a lucrative
activity which promotes development booms which may attract population
growth with consequent deforestation. The swamp forest of Southern Nigeria
was previously protected from destruction or over exploitation due to their
relatively inaccessibility as a result of the swampy nature of the environment.
However, today, these forests are being destroyed as a result of petroleum
exploration, exploitation and spillage (Akachuku, 2016). Mining of several
minerals in Nigeria such as bayrite, tin, coal etc. has led to the destruction of
the forest and scarification of the landscape.
vii. Tourism

National parks and sanctuaries without doubt protect the forest, but uncaptioned
and improper opening of these areas to the public for tourism is damaging.
Unfortunately, the national governments of tropical and sub-tropical countries
Nigeria inclusive adopt tourism for easy way of making money sacrificing
stringent management strategies. Further many companies and resorts who
advertise themselves as eco-tourist establishments are in fact exploiting the
forests for profit. Similarly, most staff of the resorts allowed poachers and
loggers who depleted the forests for stipends.
viii. Corruption and political cause

The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2015) reports identified forest
crime and corruption as one of the main causes of deforestation and warned that
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immediate attention has to be given to illegal activities and corruption in the
world’s forests in many countries (Chakravarty et al 2014). Illegal forest
practices may include the approval of illegal contracts with private enterprises
by forestry officers, illegal sale of harvesting permits, under-declaring volumes
cut in public forest, underpricing of wood in concessions, harvesting of
protected free by commercial corporations, smuggling of forest products across
borders and allowing illegal logging, processing forest raw materials without a
license. (Chakravarty et al 2014). In Nigeria poaching in the forests is corruptly
allowed by forest guards.
Other causes of deforestation as identified by Mfon et al (2014) include
climatic agents (sunlight, water, wind) and biotic agents (microbes, animals and
plants).
2.4 Effects of Deforestation on Nigerian Economy
2.4.1 Decreased biodiversity and habitat loss
Forest especially those in the tropics serve as storehouses of biodiversity and
consequently deforestation, fragmentation and degradation destroy the
biodiversity as a whole and habitat for migratory species including the
endangered ones. Tropical forests support about two thirds of all known species
and contain 65% of the worlds 10,000 endangered species (Myers and
Mihermeier, 2020). In Nigeria, many trees, shrubs, herbs and assorted animals
have been depleted while some are endangered. Mfon et al (2018) reported that
several plant species have been over exploited especially those with edible
seeds, nuts and kernels are now endangered. Most primates such as guenons,
mangabeys, drills, chimpanzees and gorillas are now endangered (Akachuku,
2016). In fact, the lowland gorilla which is endemic to the Cross River National
Park at Mbe Mountain is seriously endangered through hunting and habitat
destruction. Numerous elephants that were found in our ecosystems have
disappeared while the number of other mammals such as hippopotamus,
10
manatees and leopards has decreased tremendously. Reptiles such as crocodiles,
monitor lizards, alligators, royal python and boar constrictor are very few. Also,
several species of amphibians, fruit bats, fishes, snails, birds etc. are threatened,
endangered or extinct. (Mfon et al 2018).
2.4.2 Climate change
Forests play significant role in sequaration of carbon dioxide one of the
greenhouse gases that cause global warning and global climate change but
when forest are depleted lot of process resulting into global warming resulted.
Deforestation disrupts normal weather pattern creating hotter and driver
weather thus increasing drought and desertification, crop failures, melting of
the polar ice caps, coastal flooding and displacement of major vegetation
regimes. In the dry forest zones, land degradation has become an increasingly
serious problem resulting in extreme cases of desertification. Degradation is the
consequences of extremes in climatic variation and unsustainable land use
practices including over cutting of forest cover (Chakravarty et al 2020). The
baseline scenario in Nigeria shows that at the current deforestation rate of 1.3%,
emissions of greenhouse gases are expected to increase from 9.5 MtC/year in
1990 to about 15.5 MtC/year in 2030. (Federal Ministry of Environment, 2010).
Though, most of the activities leading to global climate change have been
attributed mostly to the developed nations of the world. Evidences of the
scourge have been noticed in Nigeria, these are reflected in extreme weather
conditions inform of irregular rain, high temperature, and incursion of desert
like conditions into the country from the Sahara Desert, among others.
2.4.3 Loss of Water and Soil Resources
Deforestation also disrupts the global water cycle. Deforested area
cannot hold as much water hence, a drier climate is created. The following
water resources elements are said to be affected by deforestation; drinking
water, fisheries and aquatic habitats, flood/drought control and damage to crops
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and irrigation systems from erosion and turbidity (Bruijnzeel et al., 2019).
Forests serve as natural filter by filtering runoff and at the same time regulate
water flow to check flooding. Deforestation on the other hand results into
downstream flooding, which may lead to disaster. A number of flooding
incidences have been recorded in Nigeria, especially in the Northern, South
western and the Eastern parts, these incidences have resulted to loss of
properties and life. The long term effect of deforestation on the soil resource
can be severe. Clearing the vegetative cover for slash and burn farming exposes
the soil to the intensity of the tropical sun and torrential rains. rainfall runs-off
soil that have been hardened by exposure much faster than before, the most
fertile top layer of soil that can support forest regeneration is therefore greatly
reduced and this may persists for so many years since rapidly eroded soil is not
replaced within a human generation.
2.4.5 Social Consequences
Deforestation, in other words, is an expression of social injustice (Colchester
and Lohmann, 2021). The most immediate social impact of deforestation occurs
at the local level with the loss of ecological services provided by the forests.
Forests afford humans valuable services such as erosion prevention, flood
control, water treatment, fisheries protection and pollination functions that are
particularly important to the world’s poorest people who rely on natural
resources for their everyday survival. (Chakravarty et al 2020).
By destroying the forests these services disappeared. Attempt by the
government to replace traditional life styles, customs and religious beliefs
associated with forest resources with developmental projects are always resisted
by the native land owners. This often leads to social and land conflicts
especially where government refuse to pay compensation or suggest
resettlement. For instance, the conflict generated on the proposed site of Ekiti
state international airport between the government and the host communities
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comes to mind.
2.5 Impacts of Deforestation on Global Warming and Agriculture
Deforestation is a primary contributor to climate change. Land use changes,
especially in the form of deforestation, are the second largest anthropogenic
source of atmospheric carbon dioxide emissions, after fossil fuel combustion.
Greenhouse gases are emitted during combustion of forest biomass and
decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon. Global models and
national greenhouse gas inventories give similar results for deforestation
emissions. Although deforestation and peatland degradation are only about 10%
of global carbon dioxide emissions (As of 2019), growing forests are also a
carbon sink with additional potential to mitigate the effects of climate change.
Some of the effects of climate change, such as more wildfires, may increase
deforestation. Deforestation comes in many forms: wildfire, agricultural
clearcutting, livestock ranching, and logging for timber, among others. The vast
majority of agricultural activity resulting in deforestation is subsidized by
government tax revenue. Forests cover 31% of the land area on Earth and
annually 75,700 square kilometers (18.7 million acres) of the forest is lost.
Mass deforestation continues to threaten tropical forests, their biodiversity and
the ecosystem services they provide. The main area of concern of deforestation
is in tropical rain forests since they are home to the majority of the planet's
biodiversity.
Deforestation has significant impacts on both global warming and agriculture:
4.5.1 Global Warming
Carbon Emissions: Trees act as carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide (CO2)
from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. When trees are cut down or burned
during deforestation, the stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere as
CO2, contributing to the greenhouse effect and global warming.

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Albedo Effect: Forests have a higher albedo (reflectivity) compared to bare soil
or urban areas. This means that forests reflect more sunlight back into space,
whereas deforested areas absorb more sunlight, leading to localized warming.
Disruption of Carbon Cycle: Deforestation disrupts the natural carbon cycle,
altering the balance between carbon sinks and sources. This disruption can
exacerbate global warming by reducing the Earth's capacity to naturally absorb
and store carbon.
2.5.2 Agriculture
Loss of Biodiversity: Deforestation destroys habitats for numerous plant and
animal species, leading to a loss of biodiversity. This loss can disrupt ecosystem
services vital for agriculture, such as pollination, pest control, and soil fertility.
Soil Degradation: Tree roots help stabilize soil and prevent erosion.
Deforestation increases the risk of soil erosion, which can lead to decreased
agricultural productivity due to loss of topsoil and nutrient runoff.
Changes in Local Climate: Deforestation can alter local climate patterns,
leading to changes in temperature, rainfall, and humidity. These changes can
affect crop yields and the suitability of land for agriculture.
Water Cycle Disruption: Trees play a crucial role in regulating the water cycle
by absorbing water from the soil and releasing it into the atmosphere through
transpiration. Deforestation can disrupt this cycle, leading to changes in
precipitation patterns and water availability for agriculture.
Overall, deforestation contributes to global warming through the release of
stored carbon and disrupts agricultural systems by affecting biodiversity, soil
health, local climate, and water availability. Addressing deforestation is
essential for mitigating climate change and ensuring food security in the long
term.
2.6 Government Policy on the Control of Deforestation
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Over the years, deforestation has posed a consistent threat to biodiversity in
Nigeria. According to the revised statistics by the The Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), between 2000 and 2005, Nigeria
had the highest level of deforestation in the world, as 55.7% of the country’s
primary forests were lost. In 2020, the country lost 97.8 kilohectares of natural
forest, which equated to 59.5 metric ton of CO2 emissions. Substantiating this
grim situation, the Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF) reported that
Nigeria had lost 96% of its original forests because of deforestation.
Due to the alarming rate of deforestation in the country, the Nigerian
government has introduced policies to tackle this problem, such as the national
forest policies of 1988 and 2006. Also, the federal government granted
paramilitary status to the National Parks Service (NPS) to bolster the service’s
actions against poaching and trespasses. However, many of these policies have
not been a resounding success.
That is why in 2021, Nigeria launched the Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) strategy towards reducing the
problem of deforestation in the country with the support of the Forest Carbon
Partnership Facility of the World Bank, the United Nations Programme on
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (UN-REDD)
programme, as well as technical assistance from other bodies such as the FAO;
the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP); and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). The strategy seeks to curb climate change
by bringing an end to the destruction of forests while promoting sustainable
forest management.
With the Nigerian government’s pledge at COP26 to end deforestation by 2030,
it becomes increasingly relevant to assess policies that have worked remarkably
well for countries tackling deforestation. Based on this interest, Costa Rica’s
PES scheme is analysed in this piece.
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By 1987, deforestation had resulted in a loss of nearly half of Costa Rica’s
forest cover. However, due to interventions led by the country’s government,
Costa Rica became the foremost tropical country to tackle deforestation.
How did the country instigate this remarkable turnaround? First, the
government criminalised cutting down trees without prior approval from the
relevant authorities. In addition, the government introduced the Payments for
Environmental Services (PES) Programme to reward local communities for
protecting the forests.
The PES model provides landowners with financial incentives over five or 10-
year contracts when they utilise forest-management and sustainable land-use
techniques. With an investment totalling USD$524 million in the PES, more
than 18,000 families benefited from this programme from 1997 to 2019. Also,
according to the International Institute for Environment and Development, more
than one million hectares of forests have been covered by this scheme since
1997.
In the view of the Environment for Development (EfD), Costa Rica’s success is
partly due to a commitment of the government to get underway with desired
plans and to experiment.
On another note, Costa Rica’s PES scheme maintains a clear institutional
framework that specifies the necessary network of collaboration instrumental to
the scheme’s operation. For Costa Rica, the government centred this framework
around the Ministry of Environment, Energy, and Telecommunications. By
consolidating the necessary authority under a single ministry, the government
addressed the possibility of different units working without synergy.
According to FONAFIFO, CONAFOR and the Ministry of Environment, the
more complicated the relevant contract and its accompanying regulations are,
the more difficult it is to ensure that the beneficiaries completely understand
and agree to the contractual rights and duties. Costa Rica recognised this
16
perspective and made it necessary for the PES programme participants to work
with a regente forestal (forest agent), a private technical professional hired to
handle the programme’s paperwork and execute the project. In addition to
these, as an aspect of the monitoring plan, the regente must also prepare project
status reports.
Furthermore, the PES programme provides clear and enforceable sanctions for
situations wherein the participants do not comply with the regulations. The
government implements the contractual sanctions to inspire compliance with
the programme in addition to a fraud deterrence function. Specifically, the
Procedures Manual for the PES programme supports the idea that if a project
does not comply with the contract, the Forest Law, and other regulatory
requirements (including the Procedures Manual which is enacted by the
National Forest Finance Fund (FONAFIFO) and the National System of
Conservation Areas (SINAC), these institutions are authorised to launch
the relevant administrative and legal action, even to recover already-disbursed
resources.
2.7 Challenges Facing Policies Against Deforestation in Nigeria
According to the Federal Ministry of Environment Abuja, the weak institutional
ability to effectively execute sustainable forest management policies and
practices contributes to Nigeria’s forest resources decline. Also, most of the
states in the country lack the forest resource data needed to construct or update
forest management plans. In the same vein, The New Humanitarian reported the
government’s dire challenge to address the underlying factors facilitating
deforestation in Nigeria, such as weak regulations and an absence of policy
support.
However, despite the challenges identified above, it is essential to point out that
the government has taken some decisive actions over the years towards tackling
deforestation. In 2009, Nigeria started networking with the United Nations
17
REDD Programme (UN-REDD), maintaining similar goals as Costa Rica’s PES
model. By 2010, Nigeria became a partner and established a commitment to
help mitigate climate change by fostering enhanced levels of forest
conservation and the sustainable livelihood of communities.
2.8 Importance of Promoting Afforestation and Greening the Environment
Afforestation is the process of transforming barren land into a forest. It refers to
planting trees in areas where there has been no tree cover before or not for
many years. One of the most significant reasons why afforestation is essential is
because it battles climate change.
Planting trees are one of the best ways to reduce the amount of carbon in the
air. They capture CO2 emissions and with the help of photosynthesis, they
create clean oxygen for humans to breathe. A popular area for afforestation is a
location that has seen desertification a process where a region turns into a
desert.
This process can help breathe life into the area and create a new ecosystem.
Afforestation can aid in increasing soil quality, prevent erosion, create new
wildlife habitats, protect nearby areas from intense winds and floods.
Benefits of Afforestation
1. Battles Global Warming and Climate Change
The most significant benefit of afforestation is that it fights against climate
change and global warming. Trees absorb carbon and play a crucial role in
reducing the greenhouse effect. The planting of new forests helps in capturing
more carbon emissions from the air. In other words, trees act as carbon sinks
and create a more sustainable environment.
A new study has shown converting agricultural lands to a forest can increase
summer rainfall by 7.6% and could offset the increased dry conditions climate
change causes. With all the advantages afforestation brings, helping to battle
climate change is the biggest.
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2. Prevents Soil Erosion
The process of afforestation is transforming barren lands into flourishing
forests. Soil erosion occurs when the ground is exposed to strong winds,
flowing water and heavy rainfall. With afforestation, trees block excessive
winds and prevent rain from damaging the ground.
In the case of floods, the topsoil could be transported to valuable water sources.
However, afforestation helps with this matter. Tree roots aid in keeping the soil
firmly in place.
3. Protects Areas From Floods and Extreme Winds
In addition to afforestation preventing soil erosion, it protects nearby areas and
communities. The trees can block heavy wind and act as a barrier. As
mentioned, tree roots also help keep the ground secure when there is a flood.
This aids in reducing the likelihood of a landslide occurring, which can cause
massive damage to surrounding communities. While a forest can’t prevent a
flood, it can severely mitigate the damages one can cause to communities and
property.
4. Becomes a New Home for Wildlife
For years, humans have been destroying the homes of animals. This happens
because humans require forest resources or the area for new buildings — real
estate, malls and other structures. When wildlife is driven from their homes, it
significantly affects them in many ways, such as searching for alternative
forests to live in.
This is where afforestation comes in. It provides a new shelter for these critters
to live and thrive in. In addition to its many other benefits, it creates a whole
new ecosystem filled with various animal life.
5. Creates Jobs
One of the benefits afforestation brings is that it creates job opportunities.
Planting a new forest is not easy and requires a lot of workforces to complete.
19
Some tasks needed for building a new forest are digging, providing the plants
with water, sowing seeds and harvesting crops. In addition, sustainable
agroforestry is associated with farming. In most cases, new workers are hired to
fill these positions.
6. Alternative Supply of Wood Products
While commercial plantations are not the best afforestation for saving the
environment, they still offer many benefits. As mentioned, commercial
plantations provide an alternative to cutting down natural forests and can help
conserve them.
This can relieve the pressure on these forests that human activities put on them.
In addition, it offers the chance to grow trees specifically for certain products.
Such activities also create new job opportunities for many people and
surrounding areas.
All buildings, in some way or form, require wood. At the end of the day, the
trees of this afforestation type are still cut down. However, these trees can
provide an alternative supply of forest products and help prevent the
deforestation of natural forests.

20
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