Biology SN2

Lecture 2
EVOLUTION & Descent with
Modification

It Is not the strongest of the species that survives,

nor the most intelligent that survives. It is the one
that is most ADAPTABLE to change.
- C. Darwin
 Darwin: The Origin of Species
2 main ideas

1) Today’s organisms descended from ancestral

species that were different from modern species.
– Evolution explains life’s unity and diversity

2) Natural selection is the mechanism for this evolutionary

change.
– Natural selection results in adaptive evolution
– The basic idea of natural selection is that a population can change
over time if individuals that possess certain heritable traits leave
more offspring.
– Results in an accumulation of inherited characteristics that
increase the ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in
its environment.
 Before Darwin:
Understanding Life
• The Greek philosopher Aristotle
– Viewed species as fixed and unchanging
– Life could be arranged on a scale of increasing complexity
• “scala naturale”

• The Old Testament of the Bible

– Holds that species were individually designed by God

• Carolus Linnaeus
– Was a founder of taxonomy,
• grouping similar species into increasingly greater categories
– Did not attribute resemblances among species to evolutionary
kinship,
• Attributed similarities rather to the pattern of their creation
 Before Darwin: Fossils
• The study of fossils (Paleontology)
helped lay the groundwork for
Darwin’s ideas
• remains or traces of organisms from the past usually
in sedimentary rock;
• in layers (strata)  determines sequence of events
- Fossils show that a succession of organisms have
populated Earth throughout time.
- Cuvier noted that the older the strata, the more
dissimilar the fossils from modern life.
- Instead of evolution; use ‘catastrophism’ theory;
- speculating that boundaries between strata were
due to local floods or droughts that destroyed the
species present.
 Before Darwin: Lamarck
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck proposed a theory that organisms
evolve over time
• Organisms pass traits to offspring through use and disuse
• parts of the body used extensively become stranger & larger, while those
not used deteriorate

ex: change in environment changes behavior  giraffe developed

when a short-necked ancestor stretched its neck to eat leaves on a
tree

• Life force would drive

organisms toward greater
complexity and perfection
over time
• the mechanisms he
proposed unsupported by
evidence
 Before Darwin: Hutton & Lyell
• Hutton (Scottish geologist) proposed a theory of gradualism
– Gradualism: profound change can take place through the cumulative effect of
slow but continuous processes
• Lyell perceived that changes in Earth’s surface can result from slow
continuous actions still operating today
– i.e. valleys formed by rivers wearing away at rocks

Therefore:
- if geologic changes result from slow, continuous processes rather than
sudden events,
- Then Earth = older than the 6,000 years estimated by biblical inference.

- slow and subtle processes persisting for long periods of time can also act on
living organisms,
- producing substantial change over a long period of time.
 Darwin developed his theory based on:

i) Malthus’ essay: Struggle for existence

ii) Lyell’s Principles of Geology
iii) Principles of artificial selection also
influenced Darwin’s theories
iv) His data (what he saw in the Galapagos)
i) Struggle for Existence –
(Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834)
• Population growth not always desirable
• Conflict between population growth and
food supply generates famine, disease,
war, which inevitably break population
growth

ii) Lyell’s Principles of Geology

• Darwin experienced geologic change
(earthquakes – rocks thrust upward by
several feet – therefore earth not static)
• Reinforced Darwin’s acceptance of Lyell’s
ideas
• doubt about the traditional view of a young and
static Earth.
iii) Artificial selection
- Humans have modified domesticated plants and animals in
just a few generations by selecting individuals with the desired
traits for breeding.
 If artificial selection can achieve large change in a relatively short
period of time, Darwin reasoned that natural selection should be
capable of modification over thousands of generations.

ex: 400 breeds of dog from Grey Wolf

ex: breeding of wild mustard (Canis lupus) in 14,000 years
 iv) Darwin’s data from the Galapagos
Darwin’s voyage was the basis for his theory of evolution
– Voyage on H.M.S. Beagle (1831): 5-year exploration of South
America and the South Pacific

Darwin
observed
various
adaptations of
plants and
animals that
inhabited the
many diverse
environments

Compared animals on islands (ex: Galapagos) with those of

mainland.
• Impressed by similarities and ALSO distinct differences
 Darwinian Evolution:
• Darwin was fascinated by the unusual organisms found.
• He hypothesized that the islands had been colonized by plants
and animals from the mainland that had subsequently
diversified on the different islands.
The origin of new species and
adaptation of species to
their environment are closely
related processes.
ex: clear differences in the
beaks among the 13
species of finches that
Darwin collected in the
Galapagos are
adaptations to the
specific foods available
on their home islands.

Darwin
How Does Natural Selection Work?
1) Species are capable of producing more offspring than
environment can support
– For any species, population sizes would increase
exponentially

spores

However, populations tend to be stable in size

How Does Natural Selection Work?
2) Environmental resources are limited
– Production of more individuals than the environment can support
leads to a struggle for existence among individuals of a population,
• i.e. competition, with only a fraction of their offspring surviving
 Competition for limited resources:
Food, Water, Light, Space….
 Killed by predators, disease, environmental conditions
 How Does Natural Selection Work?
3) Members of a population vary
extensively in their
characteristics
– No two individuals are exactly
alike
– Variations are heritable
– Survival depends in part on
inherited traits

Why do these organisms

look different?
Genetic Variation Explained
Recall: Asexual vs. Sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction:
• the offspring are identical to the parents (clones).

Sexual reproduction:
• the offspring are not identical to the parents.
• uses meiosis (a special type of cell division) to produce
gametes (i.e. UNIQUE sex cells: egg an sperm):
– When these sex cells (egg and sperm) combine during
fertilization, the offspring (children):
• differ genetically from the parents
• and also from each other.

This is because of the DNA (i.e.

chromosomes) contained in sex cells is
HAPLOID and has undergone mechanisms
to increase genetic variation
 23 pairs of chromosomes in a human
somatic cell (body cell)
Chromosome #2 from mom
Chromosome #2 from dad
Chromosome
#1 from mom
Chromosome
#1 from dad

Or XY for
males
x
XX for
Same chromosome # from mom & dad = Homologous Pair females
1 complete set of 23 chromosomes from mom
1 complete set of 23 chromosomes from dad 46 Total

Both chromosomes # 1 have the same genes that code for the same trait /
characteristic, so together they from a homologous pair
• Ex. can consider them like this:
• #1 from mom = chromosome 1 from mom has gene that encodes for hair color (blond)
• #1 from dad = chromosome 1 from dad has gene that encodes for hair color (brown)
 Homologous Chromosomes
• Homologous pairs of chromosomes are not identical...
just similar.

• Homologous chromosomes code

for the same genes (i.e. same
trait)
eye
• but may have different alleles for that
gene
• i.e. may have different versions of
that gene (ex. brown vs. blue eye
color, or blond vs brown hair color, or
short vs tall, etc.)
height

So chromosome 1 is homologous to the other

version (from other parent) of chromosome 1 Tongue
roll
 Alleles
• Alternative versions of a gene are
called alleles
– Ex. the gene for flower color in pea plants
exists in 2 versions:
• 1 for purple flowers and the other for
white flowers
• Alleles control the same character
(gene)
– but do not necessarily contain the
same information (ex. purple vs.
blue)
Ex. There are 2 major genes for eye color:
– One that controls for brown or blue
– One that controls for green or hazel
– There are other genes that modify the
above genes

The inheritance and expression of genes and various

alleles and the resulting Genetic variation of an
organism can give it an advantage (or disadvantage)
compared with another organism, this variation allows
Natural selection ‘choose’ / select the fittest organism
Dominant and Recessive Alleles:
What traits will appear?
A Dominant Allele:
– an allele that masks the presence of another allele
– always upper case letters
• ex. B (for brown eyes)

• A Recessive Allele:
– an allele whose presence can be masked by a Dominant Allele
– always lower case letters
• ex. b (for blue eyes)
– The allele for brown eyes is dominant over the allele for blue eyes

Homozygous vs Heterozygous Since have at least 2 alleles for each

Three possible combinations of alleles gene can have:
• BB = homozygous dominant
ex. brown eye & brown eye alleles
• Bb = heterozygous
ex. brown eye & blue eye alleles
• bb = homozygous recessive
ex. blue eye & blue eye alleles

Someone who displays the dominant phenotype but is heterozygous for a trait / disorder
= carrier i.e. has the recessive allele (heterozygote) but does not have / express the disease (only ‘carries’ it)
Sexual reproduction increases
Genetic variation by
‘reshuffling’ genes
• The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis (gamete / sex-cell formation)
and fertilization is responsible for most of the variation that arises in each
generation
• The mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation (i.e. which chromosomes
and genes end up in a gamete, and therefore which traits the offspring will
inherit) are random
• Ex. One of the mechanisms is Random fertilization (during zygote formation /
conception), i.e.:

 Mutation = changes
in DNA, original
source of different
alleles
 SEXUAL
Reproduction=
alleles mixed &
matched during
meiosis (i.e.
reshuffling of genes) Note: a Zygote is a fertilized egg
 How Does Natural Selection Work?
4) Differential Reproductive success (survival of the fittest)
– Individuals whose inherited traits (genes) give them an advantage
/ high probability of surviving and reproducing:
• likely to leave more offspring than other individuals
– leads to a gradual change in a population, with favorable
characteristics accumulating over generations
“Environment selects”
Increasing adaptation
of organisms to
environment
 How Does Natural Selection Work?
Important Notes
 Natural selection occurs through interactions
between individual organisms and their environment,
 but individuals do not evolve.
– A population is the smallest group that can
evolve.
– Evolutionary change is measured as changes in
relative proportions of heritable traits in a population
over successive generations.

 Natural selection can act only on heritable traits,

 traits that are passed from organisms to their
offspring.

 Environmental factors vary from place to place and

from time to time.
 A trait that is favorable in one environment may be
useless or even detrimental in another environment
 How Does Natural Selection Work?
Important Notes
 Natural selection doesn't create perfect organisms;
 it allows organisms to adapt to their environment (‘edits’ existing
variations)
• Chance and Natural Selection interact
 Evidence for Darwin’s Theory

a) Natural Selection in action (examples,

including ‘artificial selection’)

b) Homology (anatomy, development and molecular)

c) Convergent evolution (Analogous features)
d) Biogeography
e) Fossils
a) Natural Selection in Action
Example – Peppered Moth
The peppered moth lives on the
trunks of birch trees (white).
Pre-Industrial Revolution, birds
ate the black moths bec. more
easily seen against white tree
 inc. proportion of white  Two variants:
moths white with black spots
black with white spots
Industrial Revolution darkened the
white birch due to soot.
White moths were more easily
seen and birds ate more white
moths  increase in proportion of
black moths
a) ‘Artificial selection’ (as seen with human influence
on many plants, animals, etc.)
Example 3 – Drug Resistance
The use of drugs selects for pathogens that, through
chance mutations are resistant to the drugs’ effects
• antibiotic resistant bacteria and bacteria and drug resistant HIV

• This selection is a cause

of adaptive evolution
– Researchers have
developed numerous
drugs to combat HIV
• using these medications
selects for viruses
resistant to the drugs
 b) Homology: Anatomy
• Homology: the similarity resulting from common ancestry
• Homologous structures between organisms
– anatomical resemblances that represent variations on a structural theme
– present in a recent common ancestor but diverged to have different fucntions
(divergent evolution)
ex: Human arm, cat forelimb,
whale front flipper, bat wing –
• strikingly similar
arrangements of bones,
muscles and nerves

• Vestigial organs are seemingly useless organs or structures (“leftovers from ancestors”)

– indicate that the organism evolved

from ancestors in which the organ
was functional Ex. vestigial hind limb
bones seen in large
– tend to persist as there is no snakes and whales
indicate that they both
selective pressure to eliminate them evolved from tetrapod
(4-legged) ancestors
b) Homology: Development
ex: all vertebrate embryos have
structures called pharyngeal
pouches (gill slits) in their throat at
some stage in their development.
– These embryonic structures develop
into very different (divergent), but still
homologous, adult structures,
• such as the gills of fish and parts of
the ear for humans embryonic development of all vertebrates
shows remarkable similarities

Gill slits
 b) Homology: Molecular
ex: Universal genetic code of
nucleotides in DNA and conserved
sequence of amino acids in
proteins
Triplet (sequence of 3 nucleotides in DNA)
codes for a particular codon (mRNA)
 codes for a particular amino acid
– Example: AAA (DNA)  UUU (mRNA)
 which codes for phenylalanine in:
shrimp, bacteria, humans, tulips…. Genetic Code: Same
• Universal code: evidence for a common in almost all organisms!
ancestor
 b) Homology: Molecular
ex: Proteins:
The numbers represent the number
of amino acid differences between
the beta polypeptide chain of
human hemoglobin and the beta
hemoglobins of the other species.

• The human polypeptide chain contains

146 amino acids, as do most of the
others.
• In general, the number is inversely
proportional to the closeness of
kinship.
 c) Convergent Evolution (Analogous)
• When characters are similar, but are not derived from a
common ancestor = Analogous
• Analogous features demonstrate that organisms with separate
ancestors may adapt in similar ways to similar environment

Independent evolution of
similar structures in
distantly related
organisms
Some similar mammals
that have adapted to
similar environments

-similar environments  evolved similar structures (longs sharp claws &

elongated snouts) have evolved independently from different ancestors
 d) Biogeography
Species tend to be more closely related to other species from
the same area than to other species that live in different areas
 suggests a common
ancestor adapts to
various habitats
• Pangea: Continents once
joined together, as time
passed, each continental
plate moved (plate
tectonics)

• This resulted in
populations becoming
isolated in different
environments  evolved ex: Australia's marsupials are a diverse group
differently of animals developing in isolation (separate
land mass for millions of years)
 e) Fossil Record
• Succession of forms observed in
the fossil record consistent with
other inferences about the major
branches of descent in the tree of
life
– ex: considerable evidence suggests
that prokaryotes are the ancestors
of all life and should precede all
eukaryotes in the fossil record.
• In fact, the oldest known fossils are
prokaryotes.

Stromatolites
 Natural Selection … Just A
Theory?
• In science, a theory:
– Accounts for many observations and data and attempts to explain
and integrate a great variety of phenomena
– Massive amounts of data support Darwin’s theory of natural
selection
• The effects of natural selection can be observed and tested in
nature
• Scientists continue to test this theory.

• Neo-Darwinism is the modern version of Darwinian

evolutionary theory which incorporates Mendelian genetics.
• Neo-Darwinism postulates that natural selection acts on the heritable
(genetic) variations within individuals in populations
• and that mutations (especially random copying errors in DNA)
provide the main source of these genetic variations.
 Lecture 2: Learning Objectives
Evolution by Natural Selection
- Define Evolution and Natural Selection
- Know the views before Darwin (Aristotle, Old Testament, Linnaeus,
Fossils, Hutton, Lyell, Lamarck)
- Be able to explain how natural selection works (4 points)
- Know where Darwin got his ideas from (4 main sources)
- Be able to provide evidence for natural selection (examples, homology,
convergence, divergence, anologies, biogeography and fossils)
- Understand the importance of genes in evolution and how sexual
reproduction (and mutations) contribute to genetic variability
- Know the meaning of the scientific terms discussed (ex. chromosomes,
gametes / sex cells, somatic cells, homologous chromosomes, alleles,
recessive / dominant, genotype / phenotype, zygote, random fertilization,
etc.)
SUMMARY SLIDES
 Sex Cells Somatic (regular body) cells
(produced by (divide / produced by mitosis,
Meiosis) i.e. a type of cell cloning)

ZYGOTE
Haploid Diploid cells (2n) = 46 chromosomes
gametes
(n) = 23
chromosomes
 Genotype vs Phenotype
Genotype
– short hand notation or description for the
combination of alleles
• these alleles present for the characteristic
in a particular organism

Phenotype
– appearance of the characteristic
• ex. flower color = purple, eye color =
blue, hair color = black
NB. Phenotype does
Ex. Flower Color:
not always reveal
Genotype Phenotype genotype!
PP (Homozygous dominant) Purple
pp (Homozygous recessive) White
Pp (Heterozygous) Purple
 The Behavior of
Recessive Alleles
• Recessively inherited disorders / traits occur
only in individuals homozygous
(recessive) for the allele
– ex. ff, pp, bb, dd, etc.

• Someone who displays the dominant

phenotype but is heterozygous for a trait:
= carrier of the recessive allele (heterozygote,
ex. Ff, Pp, Bb, Dd)
• does not have / express the disease (only
carries it, i.e. can pass recessive allele on to
offspring)

• Close relatives tend to have the same

recessive alleles.
Principles of Inheritance:
Examples
The Evolutionary Significance of genetic
variability
• Populations evolve through
differential reproductive success of its
variant members
• Natural selection results in the
accumulation of genetic variations
favored by the environment
• Different combination of alleles (sex)
may work better than others in certain Variation in genes

environments

 Mutation = changes in DNA, original source

of different alleles
 SEXUAL Reproduction= alleles mixed &
matched during meiosis and fertilization
a) Natural Selection in Action
Example – Introduced Species
Soapberry bugs use their “beak” to feed on
seeds within fruits

- South Florida soapberry bugs feed

on larger fruit and have longer
beaks
- Central Florida same species feed
on smaller, introduced, fruit; they
have shorter beaks

Natural Selection: Beak length

matches depth at which the seeds
are found in fruit

*also been observed in Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Australia

Homology: Anatomy (vestigial organs)

• Vestigial organs are

seemingly useless
organs or structures
(“leftovers from ancestors”)
– indicate that the organism
evolved from ancestors in
which the organ was
functional

– tend to persist as there is no

selective pressure to eliminate
them Ex. vestigial hind limb bones
seen in large snakes and
whales indicate that they both
evolved from tetrapod (4-
legged) ancestors