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2023 Spring PH141-Chapter 17

Chapter 17 discusses the thermal behavior of matter, including the ideal gas law, phase changes, and thermal expansion. It explains the relationship between temperature and molecular energy, the phases of matter, and the energy involved in phase transitions, along with the concept of phase diagrams. Additionally, it highlights the unique thermal expansion properties of water and its implications for aquatic ecosystems.

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2023 Spring PH141-Chapter 17

Chapter 17 discusses the thermal behavior of matter, including the ideal gas law, phase changes, and thermal expansion. It explains the relationship between temperature and molecular energy, the phases of matter, and the energy involved in phase transitions, along with the concept of phase diagrams. Additionally, it highlights the unique thermal expansion properties of water and its implications for aquatic ecosystems.

Uploaded by

yulisnice
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Chapter 17:

The Thermal Behavior of Matter


 Ideal gases by using both
experimental results and Newtonian
physics applied to gas molecules
 Relation between temperature and
molecular energy
 Three principle phases of matter
 Energies involved in phase
transitions
 Phase diagrams
 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids,
and gases
The Ideal Gas Law
Experiment shows that a gas of N molecules in a closed
container obeys a simple relation between pressure p,
volume V, and temperature T:

𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵
Boltzmann’s constant k (or kB) = 1.38×10–23 J/K
A piston-cylinder system
for exploring gas behavior

 The ideal gas law may also be written 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝒏𝒏𝑵𝑵𝑨𝑨 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 = 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏,
n : the number of moles of gas (N = nNA )
R : ideal gas constant 8.314 J/K·mol (R = NAk)
NA : Avogadro’s number 6.02214129×1023 mol−1
 Mole [mol]: a unit for the amount of substance (1 mol of C has a mass of 12 g)
Note: Molar concentration (molarity) [M]= [mol/L]
Standard temperature and pressure (STP)

 Temperature T = 0 oC
 Pressure P = 1 atm = 101.3 kPa
 Volume of 1 mole ideal gas :
V = nRT/P = 22.4 liters

R : ideal gas constant 8.314 J/K·mol (R = NAk)


NA : Avogadro’s number 6.02214129×1023 mol−1

V = 1mol x 8.314 J/K·mol x 273 K /(101.3 x103 N/m2)


= 1x 8.314 x 273 m3 / 101.3 x 103 = 22.4059 x 10-3 m3
= 22.4059 x 10-3 x 106 cm3 = 22.4059 x 103 cm3 = 22.4059 L
Kinetic Theory of the Ideal Gas (1)
 The ideal-gas law follows by assuming a gas consists of particles
that obey Newton's laws. For analysis we assume
• N identical particles of mass m and no internal structure
• No intermolecular forces and molecules only have kinetic energy
• Molecular motion is random
• Elastic collisions with the wall of the container
 Gas pressure arises from the average force the particles exert
when they collide with the container walls.

Gas molecules confined to a rectangular box


Kinetic Theory of the Ideal Gas (2)
 Consider the elastic collision shown in the figure:
• The magnitude of vx and vy do not change.
• During collision the magnitude of the change
in momentum is 2mvx.
• Collisions recur in a time 2L/vx.

 The average force exerted by the


ith particle is

 Total force on the wall, summing


over all N particles, we obtain
Kinetic Theory of the Ideal Gas (3)
 The previous slide showed

 However, the molecules are moving randomly so their speeds are


independent of their direction of motion. Thus, we can eliminate
reference to the x-component by using

 Thus,

 Note that this is the ideal gas law if we make the substitution

 Temperature is a measure of the


average kinetic energy, associated
with random translational motion of
molecules.
The Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
 Molecules in a gas exhibit a range of speeds that result
from random collisions among the molecules.
• This is the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.
• At high temperatures, the distribution is broader and peaks at a
higher speed.
• The average kinetic energy is

• The thermal speed of


a molecule is

where m is the molecular mass.


Phase Changes
 Most substances occur in three phases—solid, liquid, gas
 It takes energy, called the heat of transformation, L, for
changing phase from solid to liquid and liquid to gas.
 The energy Q required to change the phase of a mass m: Q = Lm.
(latent heat, 잠열)

Q: You want to calibrate your thermometer. How do you make a stable ref T?
Phase Changes
 The solid-liquid change involves the heat of fusion, Lf.
 The liquid-gas change involves the heat of vaporization, Lv.
 The direct transition from solid to gas involves the heat of sublimation, Ls.
 Energy must be removed to reverse the changes.
 During a phase change, temperature remains constant as energy goes into
breaking molecular bonds.

80 cal/g
Phase Diagram
 The phases of a substance can be displayed on a plot of pressure
versus temperature.
 Curves separate regions characterizing the different phases.
• The curves meet at the triple point,
where all three phases coexist in
equilibrium.
• The liquid-gas curve ends at the
critical point, where the sharp
distinction between liquid and
gas disappears.
Lv = 0 at and beyond the critical point.
• Different paths in the phase diagram
take the material through different
phase sequences:
• Path CD shows the familiar
solid-liquid-gas transitions.
• Path AB goes directly from solid to gas.
• Path GH shows that changing pressure can result in phase changes.
Sublimation, deposition, melting, freezing, condensation, and evaporation?
Example 17.4: Heating and Phase Change
When 200 g of ice at -10oC are added to
1.0 kg of water at 15oC, is there enough
ice to cool the water to 0oC?
 Energy required to heat ice and melt it:
Q1 = micecice ΔTice + miceLf
= (0.2 kg)(2.05 kJ/kg·K)(10K)
+ (0.2 kg)(334 kJ/kg)
= 4.1 kJ + 66.8 kJ = 70.9 kJ

 Energy extracted by cooling the water from 15oC to 0oC:


Q2 = mwatercwater ΔTwater = (1.0 kg)(4.184 kJ/kg·K)(15K) = 62.8 kJ

 Q2 is first used for the energy 4.1 kJ to heat the ice to 0oC and then for the
energy to melt a fraction (x) of the ice.
Q2 = 62.8 kJ = 4.1 kJ + 66.8x kJ, therefore, x = 0.8787
 The amount of the left ice = (1−0.8787) (0.2 kg) ≈ 24 g
Thermal Expansion
 Most materials expand when heated.
• Liquids are best characterized by the coefficient of volume expansion,
β, which is the fractional change in volume per unit temperature change:

• Solids are best characterized by the


coefficient of linear expansion, α, which is the fractional change in
length per unit temperature change:

• In isotropic materials, β = 3σ.


• Typical values are

=
=
1 dV 1 1dV
β =β =
dV dL
V dT L3L3dL
dL
dL dT
dT
1
L3 (
=
3 L2
)
(α L ) 3α
Got It?

 The figure shows a donut-shaped object. If it's heated, will the


hole get (a) larger or (b) smaller?
Thermal expansion coefficients

(Note) Concrete : α =12 x 10-6


 Reinforced concrete structure is
free of thermal expansion stress.
The anomalous behavior of water
 Between 0˚C and 4˚C, water contracts on heating.
• This is a residual effect of the hydrogen bonds that form
ice crystals.
• The open structure of the ice crystal makes ice less dense
than liquid water.
• Hence solid water, unlike most substances, floats in its liquid phase.
• This fact has enormous consequences for aquatic life.

Cold water rises & warm water sinks (T< 4 oC)


The anomalous behavior of water

pressure melting

V.S.
Density of Water
 Perhaps the most striking effect of this phenomenon is the freezing of water in a
pond. When water near the surface cools down to 4ºC it is denser than the
remaining water and thus will sink to the bottom. This "turnover" results in a layer
of warmer water near the surface, which is then cooled. Eventually the pond has a
uniform temperature of 4ºC. If the temperature in the surface layer drops below 4ºC,
the water is less dense than the water below, and thus stays near the top.
 As a result, the pond surface can completely freeze over, while the bottom may
remain at 4ºC . The ice on top of liquid water provides an insulating layer from
winter's harsh exterior air temperatures. Fish and other aquatic life can survive in
4ºC water beneath ice, due to this unusual characteristic of water. It also produces
circulation of water in the pond that is necessary for a healthy ecosystem of the
body of water.

From https://www.boundless.com
Chapter 17 Summary
 The ideal-gas law relates pressure, temperature, and
volume:
• Derivation of the ideal-gas law from Newtonian mechanics
shows that temperature measures the average kinetic energy of
the gas molecules.
 Phase changes take substances
between solid and liquid, liquid and
gas, solid and gas.
• Phase changes require energy,
described by the heats of
transformation.
• The phase structure of a substance
is described in its phase diagram.
 Thermal expansion occurs as most substances are heated.
• An exception is water in the range from 0˚C to 4˚C.

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