Final preparation for HKDSE Physics Revision Notes (Mechanics 2)

MECHANICS 2 : Projectile motion, Circular motion and Gravitation

y
B.5 Projectile motion

1. Vertical and horizontal motion vx

(a) When a particle is projected with Trajectory
initial velocity u making angle o with (path) is a
vy v parabola
horizontal in earth's gravitational field,
its path is a parabola and the motion is vx
called projectile motion.  
vx H
(o is known as angle of projection.)
vy v
u
(b) For the motion, the velocity v varies
with time. The angle  also varies with
o
time. However, we can resolve the x
velocity vector into two perpendicular 0
components, horizontal component vx R
and the vertical component vy.
(c) Assume air resistance is negligible; the acceleration and net force is due to weight only.
(d) If o = 0, it is called horizontally projected motion.

(e) To show independence of horizontal and vertical motion - 'Monkey and Hunter' experiment

electromagnet
aluminium foil

Iron object
(‘Monkey’)

toy gun

The bullet is aimed at the target (‘monkey’). Initially the iron

object is attracted by the electromagnet. As soon as the bullet
breaks the aluminium foil, the circuit is broken, and the ‘monkey’
falls from rest at the same instant.
The bullet always hits the monkey, showing that they have the same vertical displacement.

2. Calculations: Solving problems involving projectile motion

(a) Strategy:
(i) Consider the horizontal and vertical motion independently. Apply the equations of motion for the two
motions.
(1) Horizontal motion: constant velocity
(2) Vertical motion: free fall (constant acceleration, g)

(ii) Only time of flight t for vertical motion = time of flight t for horizontal motion
vy
(iii) Use v  v x 2  v y 2 and tan   to find the magnitude and direction of velocity.
vx

(b) Equation of motion uy = u sin 

Horizontal component of velocity vx remains constant.
u
ax = 0  vx = u cos o = constant

ux = u cos 

Vertical component of velocity is subjected to a constant acceleration due to gravity.

 ay =  g (Taking upward direction as positive)

Hence vy = uy  g t = u sin o  g t

R.C./S.6 Physics Revision Notes (Mechanics 2) / P.1 of 10

(c) To find maximum height, H
At highest point, vy = 0. Use vy2 = uy2 + 2 ay sy

(d) To find time of flight, T

1 2
Use sy = uy t + ay t
2
1
If the particle reaches ground again, vertical displacement sy = 0, 0 = u sin o T + (g) T2
2

(e) To find the horizontal range, R (i.e. maximum horizontal displacement)

vx = u cos o = constant
 horizontal displacement = horizontal velocity  time taken
Hence R = vx T

(f) Angle of projection in order to obtain the maximum horizontal range  o = 45o
(for a given initial projection velocity u)

(g) Resultant velocity at any time t

Resultant velocity is the vector sum of the horizontal and vertical components.
Magnitude: v = v x2  v y2 where vx = u cos  o and vy = u sin  o  g t
vy
Direction: making angle  = tan1 ( ) with horizontal as indicated in the diagram.
vx

3. Effect of air resistance

y
actual path in air

ideal path (projectile in vacuum)

0 x

(a) The effect is to reduce the maximum height and the horizontal range.
(b) The path becomes asymmetric as shown.
(c) The actual effect depends on several factors:
geometry and size of projected body, speed of projection, angle of projection.

Examples
1. An aeroplane, flying in a straight line at a constant height of 500 m
with a speed of 200 m s–1, drops an object. The object takes a time t
to reach the ground and travels a horizontal distance d in doing so.

(a) Ignoring air resistance, what are the values of t and d ?

Take the downward direction as positive.

When the object is released from the aeroplane,

horizontal component of velocity = velocity of the aeroplane = ux = u = 200 m s–1

For the vertical motion of the object: Initial velocity = uy = 0, acceleration = g = 9.81 m s–2,
In the vertical direction (take the downward direction as positive):
1
Using s y  u y t  a y t 2
2
Usually, you have to find t first!
500 = 0 + 0.5  9.81  t2
t = 10.1 s

In the horizontal direction (take the direction to the right as positive):

Distance (d) = u  t = 200  10.1 = 2019m

(b) What will be the velocity of the object after 8 s?

vx = 200 m s1
vy = uy + at = 0 + (9.81)(8) = 78.48 m s1
Magnitude of v  v x2  v y2  200 2  78.48 2  215 m s1
 vy 
The velocity makes an angle  = tan 1    21.4 with the horizontal.
 vx 
R.C./S.6 Physics Revision Notes (Mechanics 2) / P.2 of 10
2. When a fighter flies at a constant velocity and drops bombs one by
one, each bomb moves with the same horizontal distance as the
fighter. Therefore they always stay underneath the fighter.

3. A particle is projected from the ground with an initial velocity of

20 m s1 making an angle of 60o with horizontal.
(a) Calculate the maximum height above the ground.
Take the upward direction as positive.
vy2 = uy2 + 2asy  (0) 2 = (20 sin 60)2 + 2(9.81) sy  sy = 15.3 m

(b) Find the full range of the particle when it reaches the ground again.
sy = uyt + 0.5at2  0 = (20 sin 60 ) t + 0.5(9.81)t 2  t = 3.53 s or 0 s (rejected)
R = u cos  t = (20 cos 60)(3.53) = 35.3 m

B.6 Circular motion


v3
Uniform circular motion

Speed: v1 = v2 = v3 = v4 = v
   
 Velocity: v1  v2  v3  v4
v2

v4 Although the magnitude of the velocity (speed) is
constant, the direction of velocity changes
continuously.
Velocity is not constant.  Non-zero acceleration.


v1

1. Angular displacement and Angular velocity

(a) For a uniform circular motion, the period T and the linear
speed (tangential speed) v are related by
2r
T (r: radius of circle)
v
(b) Angular displacement : unit: radian

(c) Angular velocity  = Unit: rad s-1
t
2
    2f where f is frequency.
T

(d) Both the angular displacement and angular velocity are vector.

(e) v  r where v is linear speed and  is angular speed.

(Direction of v: tangent to path of circular motion; Direction is changing.)

Example
1. Peter is riding on the Ocean Park Tower. If the diameter of the tower is 10 m and the tower can finish 1 cycle
in 90 seconds, calculate Peter’s (a) angular speed, and (b) linear speed.
 2
(a)  =   0.0698 rad s-1 (b) v  r  (5)(0.0698) = 0.349 m s-1
t 90
v2
2. Centripetal acceleration ( a   r 2 )
r
Uniform circular motion is not a kind of uniformly accelerated motion since the acceleration is fixed only
in magnitude, but not in direction.

3. Centripetal force
(a) Centripetal force is the resultant force pointing towards the centre of uniform circular motion.

(b) The circular motion does not produce a centripetal force.

DO NOT draw additional “centripetal force” in the free body diagram!
mv 2
(c) Centripetal force = Fc = ma = = mr2
r
Direction of centripetal force changes but it points towards the centre.

R.C./S.6 Physics Revision Notes (Mechanics 2) / P.3 of 10

(d) Centripetal force of uniform circular motion is always perpendicular to the motion of the body.
=> It does no work on the body and the KE of the body in uniform circular motion remains unchanged.

(e) According to Newton’s first law, if the centripetal force disappears suddenly, an object in circular motion
will continue to move by its inertia. It will move with the same speed along a straight line in the direction
of the velocity just before the centripetal force disappears (i.e. moving along a tangent to the circle at the
point of breaking).

4. Examples of uniform circular motion

(a) Vehicles rounding bends on a level road
(i) For a car making a turn on a level road, the centripetal force which keeps the car on the curve comes
mv 2
from the friction between the road and the tyres, f. f 
r
(ii) The maximum friction fmax possible is given by fmax = N
where  is a constant called coefficient of friction which depends on the nature of the two contact
surfaces, and N is the normal reaction acting on the car by the ground.

(iii) The required centripetal force is provided solely by the friction between the tyres and the ground.

The maximum speed vmax that a car can make a safe turn is given by
2 2 2
mvmax mvmax mvmax
f max   N   mg 
r r r
 vmax 2  gr  vmax  gr

Skidding will occur if v > gr .

The limiting speed of the vehicle without skidding is independent of its mass.
When the road is wet, the friction reduces and thus the maximum speed of the vehicle is lower.

Example
2. Assume the coefficient of friction  for a normal tyre on a dry road is 0.9. A car is making a turn where the
radius of curvature is 50 m. Find the limiting speed of the car in km h–1.
vmax  gr = (0.9)(9.81)(50) = 21.0 m s–1

(b) Vehicles rounding bends on a banked track

(i) For a car making turns on a banked road, the horizontal components of the normal reaction on the car
and the friction between the road and the tyres affect the centripetal force.
(ii) At the ideal banking angle, the horizontal component of the normal reaction is fully responsible for the
required centripetal force. Friction is not required.

(iii) Force acting on the car in ideal case (without relying on friction)

N cos  N

N sin  N sin  centre

r

mg 

The centripetal force required is provided entirely by the horizontal component of the normal reaction
due to track.
mv 2
Horizontal component: N sin   ………………… (1)
r
There is no vertical motion/acceleration.
Vertical component: N cos  mg ………………… (2)

(iv) Ideal banking angle

v2
Divide (1) by (2), we can get the ideal banking angle . tan  
gr
(I) Ideal banking angle θ is independent of mass m.
(II)  is the correct angle of banking without friction.
Each value of θ is ideal for one speed only.

R.C./S.6 Physics Revision Notes (Mechanics 2) / P.4 of 10

 (v) More about Case with friction:

Figure v
As seen in the equation tanθ= v2/rg, for a given radius of banked bend, the value of θ is ideal for one
speed. However, friction (f) between the tyres of the vehicle and the ground reduces the danger of skidding
when it turns. At lower speed, friction points up along the ground so as to prevent the vehicle from skidding
inwards. At higher speed, friction points down along the ground so as to prevent the vehicle from skidding
outwards. For higher speed (Figure v), we have:
Horizontal direction: R sinθ + f cosθ= mv2/r
Vertical direction: R cosθ – f sinθ= mg

(vi) Advantages of banking at a bend in highways

(I) To offer wider range of speed without skidding.
(II) To reduce wearing of car tyres as friction can be reduced or eliminated.

(c) Motion of a cyclist round a horizontal circular track

(i) If a cyclist turns round a bend on level ground, friction provides the centripetal force.
(ii) If the cyclist remains upright, the friction produces a moment (about C.G.) to topple the cyclist. Hence
the cyclist must lean at a suitable angle to the vertical, so that the normal reaction produces an
opposing moment to prevent toppling (overturning).

f = lateral friction exerted on the tyre by the ground,

r = radius of the track
 = angle of inclination to the vertical, G
h = height of C.G. above ground
G = position of centre of gravity of the cyclist and his bike
d = separation between the lines of action of the forces mg and normal reaction, N

There is no vertical acceleration. Net force = 0.  N = mg

mv 2
The friction f provides the centripetal force.  f=
r
Taking moments about G, fh = Nd = Nh tan  (since d = h tan  )
f d
  tan  (divide by Nh)
N h
2 2 v2
 tan  = d  f  mv / r  v tan  
h N mg gr gr
(iii) The angle θ is independent of mass m.
(iv) Note that the cyclist-and-bike system is not in static equilibrium. The net force on the system is the
friction, which provides the centripetal force.

(d) Aircraft turning in flight

(i) An aircraft experiences a lifting force L perpendicular to the wings. An aeroplane has to be tilted (to
incline to the horizontal) in order to make a turn in the air. The horizontal component of the lifting
force provides the necessary centripetal force.

Lifting force, L 

Component of lifting force

provides the centripetal acceleration

 mg

R.C./S.6 Physics Revision Notes (Mechanics 2) / P.5 of 10

 mv 2
Horizontal component: L sin  = , for circular motion
r
Vertical component: L cos   mg , for vertical equilibrium
v2
Angle of banking  is given by : tan  
gr

(ii) The tilting angle depends only on the aircraft’s speed and the radius of the turn. The tilting angle is
independent of mass m.

(e) The ‘rotor’ in an amusement park

(i) Some amusement parks have a ‘rotor’ which is a large drum
rotating at high speeds.
(ii) In the horizontal direction, the normal reaction N acting
on the rider by the wall provides the centripetal force.

mv 2
N=
r
In the vertical direction, friction f balances weight.
f = mg
The ‘rotor’ retracts its floor
(iii) To prevent the passenger from falling, when it reaches the full
speed. The rider can stand
mv 2
mg  f  mg  N  mg   on no floor.
r
gr
 
v2

(f) Weightlessness and Artificial gravity

(i) Weightlessness
(1) An astronaut feels weightless in spaceship moving with
uniform circular motion around the Earth in space.
(2) Centripetal force is provided by total weight of spaceship and
astronaut.
( M  m )v 2
(3) For whole system, Mg  mg 
r
2
v  gr

For astronaut only, mv 2

mg  R 
r
m( gr )
mg  R 
r
R0
No reaction on astronaut (weightless)!

(ii) Artificial gravity

The space station should rotate about an axis through its
centre and normal to the plane containing the station
with a constant angular speed such that the centripetal
acceleration at the periphery equals 9.81 m s–2.
Example
1. Consider the wheel-like space station; the periphery of
the station is 1.10 km from centre.
(a) What should be the angular velocity  so that
‘artificial gravity’ of 9.81 N kg -1 can be created at
the periphery of space station?

R = mr2
The astronaunt feels his weight R = mg
g = r2  9.81 = (1100) 2   = 0.0944 rad s-1

(b) What should be the corresponding period for the ‘artificial gravity’ of 9.81 N kg -1 ?
T = 2π /  = 66.5 s

R.C./S.6 Physics Revision Notes (Mechanics 2) / P.6 of 10

(g) Conical pendulum
(i) The centripetal force acting on the object is provided by the component of tension of the string.
(ii) Force acting on the conical pendulum


L

mg

The string is held aside so that it makes angle  with vertical. The bob is given a suitable speed v so
that it will describe a horizontal circle of radius r = L sin  .

The necessary centripetal force is provided by the horizontal component of tension.

mv 2
Horizontal component: T sin  
r
No vertical acceleration:
Vertical component: T cos   mg

v2
Hence, tan  
gr

The angle θ is independent of mass m.

(iii) Tension in terms of angular speed

T sinθ = mr2
T sinθ = m (L sinθ) 2
T = mL2

(iv) Important experiment about uniform circular motion

B.7 Gravitation

1. Newton's law of universal gravitation

(a)
m1 F F m2
r

For two point masses m1 and m2, the gravitational force between them is proportional to the product of
Gm1 m2
masses and inversely proportional to the square of distance apart. F=
r2

(b) More about Newton's law of universal gravitation

(i) G is called universal gravitational constant. Its value does not depend on the nature of the point masses
and nature of the intervening material.
(ii) The formula F = G m1m2/r2 also holds for spherically symmetric bodies.
(r = distance between the centres)
r can be taken to be the distance between centres of mass.
1
(iii) Inverse square law : F  2
r
(iv) The gravitational forces form an action-and-reaction pair.
(v) Unlike electrical forces, gravitational force is attractive only. The force is very weak.
(vi) Unlike electrical forces, there is no shielding effect in gravitation.
GMm
(vii) Suppose M > m  F 2
r
(viii) Calculation skill: Consider all objects as point masses at their centres!

R.C./S.6 Physics Revision Notes (Mechanics 2) / P.7 of 10

2. Mass, weight and gravitational acceleration
GM E m
From the law of universal gravitation, the weight W is given by W 
r2
From Newton’s second law of motion, W = mg
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
GM E
Hence, g 
r2
For an object which is very close to the surface of the Earth, r  RE ,
GM E 6.67  10 11  5.98  10 24
g 2
  9.83 m s  2
RE (6.37  10 6 ) 2

3. Gravitational field
(a) In general, a field is a region where a force acts on a body placed in that region.
“Field” is often used to describe non-contact forces.
(b) Generally, a gravitational field is a region where a force acts on a body with non-zero mass placed in that
region.
(c) More precise definition:
A gravitational field is said to exist at a point if a force of gravitational origin is exerted on a small test mass
placed at that point. A body with mass will set up a gravitational field around itself. Usually, the field is
significant if the body is massive, such as Earth.

Test mass: Mass is very small and its effect on the original gravitational field can be neglected.
Usually it is point mass.

4. Field lines
(a) Field lines are used to visualize the direction and strength of the field.
Field lines are not real. They are only tools for describing field.

(b) Properties of gravitational field lines

(i) Direction: To the massive object (usually the centre)
(ii) Do not have branches
(iii) Do not cross one another
(iv) Field lines are denser  stronger field
(v) Uniform fields – lines of forces are parallel
Non-uniform fields – lines of forces are not parallel

(c) The direction of the field line at a point gives the direction of the force experienced by a small test mass
placed there. Direction of field line is NOT the direction of motion of the object!

5. Gravitational field strength g: Calculation

(a) (i) The gravitational field strength at a point is defined as the gravitational force per unit mass at that point.
F  GMm  1 GM
(ii) g   2   2 Unit: N kg-1 (equivalent to m s-2)
m  r m r

(iii) g is a vector, same direction as that of the gravitational force.
1
(iv) Since g  2 , g follows inverse square law.
r

(b) Case study( r  RE ) ME = mass of the Earth and RE = mean radius of the Earth.
GM
(i) On surface of the Earth, r = RE, g = g0 = 2
= 9.81 N kg1 (Very useful expression!)
RE
GM
(ii) At a height of h above the Earth’s surface, r = RE + h, g  .
( R E  h) 2
(iii) For small heights above Earth’s surface (h<< RE,), say less than a few hundred metres above
surface of Earth (RE = radius of Earth = 6400 km), g is almost constant ( go). The uniform field
is represented by equally spaced parallel lines.

(c) The Earth is not a perfect sphere. The value of g near the Earth’s surface varies with the location. The value
of g at the poles is slightly larger than that at the equator.
We assume the Earth is a perfect sphere of uniform density in most calculations.

(d) g can represent gravitational acceleration or gravitational field strength at a point.

R.C./S.6 Physics Revision Notes (Mechanics 2) / P.8 of 10

6. Estimation of mass and density using g
Assumptions: Earth is a perfect sphere of uniform density.
GM
On Earth's surface, go = 2 = 9.81 N kg1 (experimental value)
R
Now G  6.67  10 N m2 kg –2 (experimental value), and R  6400 km
11

g R 2 9.81  (6.4  10 6 ) 2
(a) Mass of Earth can be deduced. M = o =  6.02  1024 kg
G 6.67  10 11
M 6.02  10 24
(b) Mean density of Earth = total mass / total volume =   =  5490 kg m3
4 3 4
R  (6.4  10 )
6 3
3 3

7. Objects in circular orbits Important!

Common Example: Satellites in circular orbits around the Earth

(a) Let v = orbital / correct speed in the circular orbit of radius r.

The centripetal force required for circular motion is provided by the gravitational attraction.

GMm mv 2 GMm
= Important! Other form: = mr2
r2 r r2
GM
 v= Useful form if G or M is not given!
r
GM
 v= gr [g= = field strength at that orbit radius r ]
r2

(b) For orbits close to Earth, r  R , g  go, (R  6400 km)

6
v  go R  9.81  6.4  10  7920 m s1
2 r 2   6.4  10 6
Time to complete one revolution, T = =  5 070 s  85 minutes
v 7924

(c) Geostationary satellites (Period T = 24 hours)

(i) Parking orbits
(1) Orbits of satellites in which the period of revolution is the same as that of the Earth.
(Period T = 24 hours)
(2) Satellite appears stationary relative to observer on earth.

(ii) Some conditions for geostationary satellites / parking orbits

(1) The period of rotation must be 24 hours (same as period of Earth's self-rotation.)
 Same period T for all geostationary satellites
2
 Same angular velocity (   ) for all geostationary satellites
T
(2) The satellite must be placed at a suitable height above Equator.
 Same radius r for all geostationary satellites
Let r = required radius of orbit,
GMm mv 2 GM
2
=  r = 2
r r v
2r
Now GM = go R2 and v =
T
2 2 2 2
g R T g R T 9.81  (6.4  10 6 ) 2  (24  60  60) 2
 r= o 2 2  r3 = o 2 =
4 r 4 4 2
(go = 9.81 N kg , R  6400 km and T = 24  60  60 s)
1

 r = 4.24  10 m = 42400 km
7

[Height of this orbit above equator = h = 42400 km – 6400 km = 36000 km.]

(3) It must be given the correct linear velocity (direction same as that of Earth's rotation.)
 Same orbital speed v (linear velocity) for all geostationary satellites
2 r 2  4.24 x 10 7
Velocity in this orbit = = = 3080 m s1
T 24  60  60

(iii) Values found in (ii) above (i.e. T , r, v) are the same for satellites of different masses m .
(iv) Geostationary satellites can be placed directly over Equator only.
A satellite which is not placed directly over Equator cannot move in circular orbit under the
influence of the Earth’s gravitational force only. The direction of the required centripetal force is
different from the direction of the gravitational force acting on the satellite. The plane of orbit of
the satellite must pass through the centre of the Earth.

R.C./S.6 Physics Revision Notes (Mechanics 2) / P.9 of 10

8. Estimation of mass using radius r and period T
Mass of Sun
Consider motion of Earth around Sun in circular orbit,
GM S M E 2 2
2
= ME r 2 = ME r ( )
r T
4 2 r 3
 MS = . MS 
G T2 r

r = mean radius of Earth’s orbit around Sun = 1.50  1011 m ME

T = 365 days = 365  24  3600 s = 3.1536  107 s
4 2 (1.50  1011 ) 3
 MS = 11
 7 2
 2.01  1030 kg
6.67  10 (3.1536  10 )

9. Advanced topics
T 2  r3 (Not required but useful!) 
For most planets, the orbits are nearly circular. r
From Newton's law of gravitation,
sun F
GM S m 4 2 r 3
= m r  2
 G M S = 2 3
r = , ( = 2/T)
r2 T2
4 2 r 3
 T2 =
GM S
  T 2  r3 for the same central object.

Exercise
1. A communication satellite takes 12 hours to revolve once around the Earth in a circular orbit.
Given: radius of the Earth RE = 6400 km
Find the orbital radius of the satellite. [ 2.67  107 m ]

GMm mv 2 GMm
Skills:: Use (1) 2
= or 2
= mr2
r r r
2r 2
(2) v or 
T T
GM
(3) 2
= go = 9.81 N kg1
RE

R.C./S.6 Physics Revision Notes (Mechanics 2) / P.10 of 10