Department of Civil Engineering

Regulation 2021
III Year – VI Semester
OSF351 Fire Safety Engineering
 FIRE SAFETY
INTRODUCTION
Fire safety is the set of practices intended to reduce the destruction caused by fire. Fire safety measures
include those that are intended to prevent ignition of an uncontrolled fire, and those that are used to limit the
development and effects of a fire after it starts. Fire safety measures include those that are planned during the
construction of a building or implemented in structures that are already standing, and those that are taugh t to
occupants of the building. Threats to fire safety are commonly referred to as fire hazards. A fire hazard may include a
situation that increases the likelihood of a fire or may impede escape in the event a fire occurs. Fire safety is often a
component of building safety.

The staff/employees should have a working knowledge of basic fire science and chemistry. A fire, or
combustion, is a chemical reaction. An understanding of the chemical reaction is the basis for preventing fires, as well
as extinguishing fires once they initiate. A working knowledge of basic fire science and chemistry is essential for
developing and implementing a successful fire safety program.

DEFINITION OF FIRE
A fire is a chemical reaction. There are many variables that can affect a fire. Effective fire safety management
programs control the variables that can affect a fire. Therefore, it is imperati ve to understand the variables. A fire is
self-sustained oxidation of a fuel that emits heat and light. A fire requires three variables to initiate: a fuel, oxygen,
and heat.

The fire triangle is a well-known representation of the three variables needed to initiate a fire. In order to
initiate a fire, fuel, oxygen, and heat are required.

FIRE TETRAHEDRON

Fire prevention is the concept of preventing the variables of the fire triangle from coming into contact with each other
to initiate a fire. Once a fire begins, it requires four variables to sustain the combustion reaction. The four variables
required to sustain a fire are fuel, oxygen, heat, and chemical chain reactions. These four variables represent the fire
tetrahedron.

Chemical chain reactions are a product of the combustion process. The chemical reactions ultimately produce
combustion byproducts such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbon, and other molecules , depending on the
specific fuel. It is these byproducts of combustion found in the smoke that usually affect the safety and health of
occupants and fire fighters.

Once a fire begins and is self-sustaining, the goal is to control and extinguish the fire. Fire extinguishment is done by
eliminating one of the variables of the fire tetrahedron. By removing the fuel, oxygen, or heat, or inhibiting the
chemical chain reactions, a fire can be extinguished. The concept of fire protection assumes fires will occur, and
focuses on controlling fires by eliminating or otherwise controlling the variables of the fire tetrahedron. The concept
of fire prevention differs from fire protection because fire prevention attempts to control the variables of the fire
triangle before a fire occurs.
 THE FIRE TETRAHEDRON

To further understand the fire triangle, it is necessary to analyze what influence each side of the fire triangle
has in the combustion process. For the safety manager, this analysis is the key for understanding the concept of fire
prevention. Fire prevention attempts to prevent fuels, oxygen, and heat from combining to start a fire. Fire prevention
strategies include controlling fuels, controlling oxygen sources, and con- trolling heat sources. A discussion of fuels,
oxygen, and heat sources follows.

FUEL:

A fuel is a combustible solid, liquid, or gas. Like in any chemical reaction, a source of energy is needed to
sustain the heat required. The most common solid fuels are wood, paper, cloth, coal, and so forth. Flammable and
combustible liquids include gasoline, fuel oil, paint, kerosene, and other similar materials. Propane, acetylene, and
natural gas are some examples of gases that are flammable. Solid and liquid fuels share a common characteristic; they
must be converted into a gas in order to support combustion. Gaseous fuels can undergo direct oxidation because the
molecules are already in the gas state. Some liquid fuels can undergo direct oxidation because they produce vapors at
ambient temperatures and pressures. Other liquid fuels and solid fuels, however, undergo sequential oxidation. This
means that a fuel must be heated first to produce sufficient concentrations of gas to support combustion. From a fire
safety standpoint, the safety manager should be aware of the different types of fuels located in the workplace.

The ease of ignition of a solid fuel is dependent on several factors. The most important factor is the surface to
mass ratio of the fuel. The surface to mass ratio refers to how much of a fuel’ s surface area is exposed to the
environment in relation to its overall mass. The safety manager should be concerned with two things regarding the
surface to mass ratio of a fuel. First, the more surface area that is exposed, the easier it is for a fire to initiate and the
more rapidly it can burn. Second, the more mass that a solid fuel has, the more difficult it will be to initiate and sustain
combustion. Consider cotton as a fuel in a textile mill. Cotton dusts and lint will burn easier and faster than a tightly
bound bale of cotton. Liquid fuels are affected by several factors. The safety manager should be familiar with the
terms flash point, fire point, boiling point, and specific gravity. Chapter 4 explores these factors in detail. However, one
of the most critical indicators of a liquid’s flammability should be mentioned—flash point. The flash point refers to the
temperature at which adequate vapors are produced to form an ignitable mixture in air. Therefore, a liquid heated to
a temperature at or above its flash point will ignite in the presence of an ignition source such as a spark, cigarette, hot
surface, or open flame.

OXYGEN:

The atmosphere contains approximately 21% oxygen by volume. During combustion, the oxygen necessary for
oxidation is sufficiently provided from the surrounding air. When the oxygen content of the atmosphere falls below
15%, a free-burning fire will begin to smolder. When the oxygen content of the atmosphere falls below 8%, a
smoldering fire will stop burning (Bryan, 1982). Oxygen can also be provided by other sources that release oxygen
molecules during a chemical reaction. The safety manager should be aware of these oxidizers in the workplace and
segregate them from any fuels.

HEAT:

The safety manager should be concerned with sources of heat commonly found in the workplace. This is a
concern because sources of heat provide the energy necessary to initiate combustion. By preventing heat sources
from contacting the ignitable fuel-air mixtures, fires can be effectively prevented from occurring. Some common
sources of heat for ignition in the workplace are:
• Open flames such as from cutting and welding torches
• Cigarettes
• Sparks such as from electrical equipment, brazing, or grinding
• Hot surfaces such as electrical motors, wires, and process pipes
• Radiated heat from boilers or portable heaters
• Lightning
• Static discharges such as during the transfer of flammable liquids
• Arcing from wires and electrical equipment
• Compression such as hydraulic oil under pressure on a machine
• Exothermic chemical reactions
• Spontaneous ignition from slow oxidation or fermentation combined with proper insulation of a fuel

Heat is transferred by three methods: conduction, convection, or radiation. Conduction occurs when two bodies are
touching one another and heat is transferred from molecule to molecule. Convection is the transfer of heat through a
circulating medium rather than by direct contact. The medium can be either a gas or a liquid. Radiation is the transfer
of electromagnetic waves through any medium. For the safety manager, recognizing how heat can be transferred in
the workplace is helpful for preventing fires.

As mentioned, four fire extinguishing principles exist. They are highlighted below:

1. Control the fuel— Controlling the fuel is accomplished by two methods. First, the fuel can be physically removed or
separated from the fire. For instance, a fire involving stacks of wood pallets could be controlled by removing any
exposed stacks of pallets to a safe location. Another example is closing a valve feeding a gas or flammable liquid fire.
Second, the fuel can be chemically affected by diluting the fuel.

2. Control the oxygen— Controlling the oxygen requires that the oxygen be inhibited, displaced, or the concentration
of oxygen be reduced below 15% by volume. Smoldering fires should be diluted to an oxygen concentration below 8%
by volume. The oxygen supply to a fire can be inhibited by smothering the fire. Smothering a fire places a barrier
between the flame and the atmosphere. This can be accomplished with a blanket or applying a layer of foam to form a
vapor barrier. Displacing and reducing the oxygen concentration involves applying an inert gas to the fire, such as
carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide displaces the oxygen thus lowering the concentration to a level that cannot sustain
the fire. Applying an inert gas to a fire requires that the fire be located in a confined space. Personnel must be aware
that displacing the oxygen or diluting the oxygen concentration affects their ability to breathe. Fire extinguishment
using this method requires that personnel be absent from the confined area or protected by self -contained breathing
apparatus.

3. Control the heat— Controlling the heat requires that the heat be absorbed. Combustion is an exothermic chemical
reaction. If the heat emitted by the reaction can be absorbed faster than the reaction can produce the heat, then the
reaction cannot be sustained. Water is the most common extinguishing agent. Water is also the most efficie nt
extinguishing agent because it has the capability to absorb immense amounts of heat.

4. Inhibit the chemical chain reactions— Inhibiting the chemical chain reactions requires that a chemical agent be
introduced into the fire. Certain chemical agents can interfere with the sequence of reactions by absorbing free
radicals from one sequence that are needed to complete the next sequence. Dry chemical extinguishing agents
commonly used in portable fire extinguishers have this ability.

CLASSES OF FIRE
Fires are classified based upon the type of fuel that is consumed. Fires are classified into categories so
personnel can quickly choose appropriate extinguishing agents for the expected fire and associated hazards. Fires are
classified into five general classes. Each class is based on the type of fuel and the agents used in extinguishment. The
five classes of fire are described next:

• Class A— Class A fires involve ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, cloth, rubber, and some plastics. Water is
usually the best extinguishing agent because it can penetrate fuels and absorb heat. Dry chemicals used to interrupt
the chemical chain reactions are also effective on Class A fires.

• Class B— Class B fires involve flammable and combustible liquids and gases such as gasoline, alcohols, and propane.
Extinguishing agents that smother the fire or reduce the oxygen concentration available to the burning zone are most
effective. Common extinguishing agents include foam, carbon dioxide, and dry chemicals.

• Class C— Class C fires involve energized electrical equipment. Non-conductive extinguishing agents are necessary to
extinguish Class C fires. Dry chemicals and inert gases are the most effective agents. If it can be done safely, personnel
should isolate the power to electrical equipment before attempting to extinguish a fire. Once electrical equipment is
de-energized, it is considered a Class A fire.

• Class D— Class D fires involve combustible metals such as magnesium, sodium, titanium, powdered aluminum,
potassium, and zirconium. Class D fires require special extinguishing agents that are usually produced for the specific
metal.

• Class K— Class K fires most often occur where cooking media (fats, oils, and greases) are used, and most of the time
are found in commercial cooking operations. Class K fire extinguishers are required in any location that cooks oils,
grease, or animal fat. Any location that fries must have a Class K fire extinguisher. Every commercial kitchen should
have a Class K extinguisher located in it to supplement the suppression system.

THREE STAGES OF FIRE

Fires evolve through several stages as the fuel and oxygen available are consumed. Each stage has its own
characteristics and hazards that should be understood by safety managers and fire-fighting personnel.

INCIPIENT STAGE:
 The incipient stage is the first or beginning stage of a fire. In this stage, combustion has begun. This stage is
identified by an ample supply of fuel and oxygen. The products of combustion that are released during this stage
normally include water vapor, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Temperatures at the seat of the fire may have
reached 1000°F, but room temperatures are still close to normal.

FREE-BURNING STAGE:

The free-burning stage follows the incipient stage. At this point, the self-sustained chemical reaction is
intensifying. Greater amounts of heat are emitted and the fuel and oxygen supply is rapidly consumed. Room
temperatures can rise to over 1300°F. In an enclosed compartment, the free -burning stage can become dangerous.
Because of the heat intensity, the contents within a compartment are heated. At some point, if the compartment is
not well ventilated, compartment contents will reach their ignition temperature. A flashover occurs when the contents
within a compartment simultaneously reach their ignition temperature and become involved in flames. It is not
uncommon for room temperatures to exceed 2000°F following a flashover. Human survival, even for properly
protected fire fighters, is difficult if not impossible for a few seconds within a compartment following a flashover.

SMOLDERING STAGE:

The smoldering stage follows the free-burning stage. As a free-burning fire continues to burn, the chemical
reaction will eventually consume the available oxygen within the compartment and ultimately convert it into carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide. This causes the oxygen concentration within the compartment to decrease. When the
oxygen concentration decreases to 15% by volume, the chemical reaction will not have suf ficient oxygen to support
free-burning combustion. Visibly, the flames subsist and the fuel begins to glow. A smoldering fire is identified by a
sufficient amount of fuels and lower oxygen concentrations. Smoldering fires, especially when insulated within a
compartment, can continue the combustion process for hours. Room temperatures can range from 1000–1500°F. The
byproducts of combustion also fill the compartment and human survival is impossible. During the smoldering stage, an
extreme hazard, called a backdraft, can develop. A backdraft occurs when oxygen is introduced into a smoldering
compartment fire. The immediate availability of sufficient oxygen in the presence of sufficient fuel, heat, and chemical
chain reactions causes flaming combustion again. In some cases, the backdraft is so violent that an explosion will
occur. Human survival, even of properly protected fire fighters, is usually not possible.

IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

In the past, chemical manufacturers labeled their products with the warnings “Caution,” “Danger,” and
“Handle with Care.” The terms were vague and did not indicate specific hazards associated with particular chemicals.
The U.S. Department of Transportation labeling system contains requirements for the shipping, marking, labeling, and
placarding of 1400 hazardous materials.

The objectives of this standard are to

(1) Provide an immediate warning of potential danger;
(2) Inform emergency responders of the nature of the hazard;
(3) State emergency spill or release control procedures; and
(4) Minimize potential injuries from chemical exposure.

The standard contains a hazardous materials table listing substances by name, prescribing requirements for
shipping papers, package marking, labeling, and transport vehicle placarding. Table shows a comparison listing of
United Nations and DOT classifications for hazardous materials. The classes of hazardous materials that must be
labeled and placarded are as follows: explosives, flammable and combustible materials, oxidizers , corrosives, poisons,
compressed gases, etiologies, and radioactive materials.

TABLE 1
United Nations and Department of Transportation Classificat ion of Hazardous Materials

United Nations Class DOT Classificatio n

1 Explosives: Class A, B, and C
2 Nonflammable and flammable gases
3 Flammable liquids
4 Flammable solids, spontaneously combustible substances,
and water reactive
substances
5 Oxidizing materials and organic peroxides
6 Poisons: Class A, B, and C
7 Radioactive I, II, and III
8 Corrosives
9 Miscellaneous materials which can present a hazard during
transport, but are not covered by other classes

TABLE 2
Table of Evacuation (Isolation) Distances

1. Determine if the accident involves a small or large spill and if day or night. Generally, a small spill
is one which involves a single, small package (i.e., up to a 208 liter [55 U.S. gallon] drum),a small
cylinder, or a small leak from a large package. A large spill is one which involves a spill from a
large package, or multiple spills from many small packages.

2. Determine the initial isolation distance. Direct all persons to move, in a crosswind direction, away
from the spill to the distance specified in meters and feet.

3. Next, determine the initial protective action distance. For a given dangerous goods, spill size,and
whether day or night, try to determine the downwind distance—in kilometers and miles—for
which protective actions should be considered. For practical purposes, the Protective Action Zone
(i.e., the area in which people are at risk of harmful exposure) is a square, whose length and
width are the same as the downward distance.

4. Initiate protective actions to the extent possible, beginning with those closest to the spill siteand
working away from the si te in the downwind direction. When a water-reactive PIH producing
material is spilled into a river or stream, the source of the toxic gas may move with the current or
stretch from the spill point downstream for a substantial distance.
 Identification and Control of Hazardous Material

TABLE 3
Classes of Flammable Materials

Hazardou s Class Definition Examples

Fl a mmable Li quid Any l i quid with a flash point below 37.8°C (100°F). Ga s ol i ne, penta ne
Fl a mmable Solid Any s ol id material, other than one classified as an Phos phorus, fish
expl osive, which is l ikely to ca use fire by s elf-ignition mea l
through friction, absorption of moisture, chemical
cha nges, or retained heat. Ca n be ignited readily
a nd burn vi gorously.
Fl a mmable Solid Sa me definition as above, with the additional fact Ma gnesium scrap,
(Da ngerous when tha t wa ter will accelerate the reaction. l i thium s ilicon
wet)
Fl a mmable Gases Any mi xture or ma terial i n a container having an Metha ne,
a bs olute pressure exceeding 40 psi a t 70°F or a ny methyl chloride
l i quid flammable material having a va por pressure
exceeding 40 psi a t 100°F.
Combus tible Li quid Any l i quid with a flash point a t or above 37.8°C Pi ne oil, ink, fuel
(100°F) a nd below 93.3°C (200°F). oi l

TABLE 4
Classification of Flammable and Combustible Liquids (NFPA-30)

Class I Flammable Liquids—Flash point below 100°F (37.8°C)

Volatile Class I Flammable Liquids

Class IA Most hazardous, having flash points below 73°F (22.8°C) with boiling points below 100°F
(37.8°C)
Class IB Same flash point range but with boiling points at or above 100°F (37.8°C)
Class IC Flash points between 73°F (22.8°C) and below 100°F (37.8°C)
 Class II Combustible Liquids—Flash points at or above 100°F (37.8°C) and below 140°F (60°C)
Class III Liquids are included in the combustible liquid classification and are further classified
Class IIIA Flash point between 140 and 200°F (60–93.4°C)
Class IIIB Flash point 200°F (93.4°C) or above

NFPA CODE 704:

NFPA 704 provides an easy method of recognizing hazards. The NFPA 704 Diamond indicates the
health, flammability, and reactivity (i.e., stability) hazards of chemicals by placing numbers in the three upper
squares of the diamond

Health Hazards Are Indicated in the Left Square, Color-Coded Blue

4. Materials which on very short exposure could cause death or major residual injury.
3. Materials which on short exposure could cause serious temporary or residual injury.
2. Materials which on intense or continued, but not chronic, exposure could cause temporary
incapacitation or possible residual injury.
1. Materials which on exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury.
0. Materials which on exposure under fire conditions would offer no hazard beyond tha t of ordinary
combustible material.
Flammability Hazards Are Indicated in the Top Square, Color-Coded Red
4. Materials which will vaporize rapidly or completely at atmospheric pressure and normal ambient
temperature, or which are dispersed readily and which will burn readily.
3. Liquids and solids which can be ignited under almost all ambient temperature conditions.
2. Materials which must be heated moderately or exposed to relatively high ambient temperatures before
ignition can occur.
1. Materials which must be preheated before ignition can occur.
0. Materials that will not burn.

Reactivity (Stability) Hazards Are Indicated in the Right Square, Color-Coded Yellow
4. Materials which in themselves are readily capable of detonations or of explosive decom position or
reaction at normal temperatures and pressures.
3. Materials which in themselves are capable of detonation or explosive decomposition or reaction, but
require a strong initiating source, or which must be heated under confinement before initiatio n, or
which react explosively with water.
2. Materials which readily undergo violent chemical change at elevated temperatures, or which react
violently with water, or which may form explosive mixtures with water.
1. Materials which in themselves are normally stable, but which can become unstable at elevated
temperatures and pressures.
0. Materials which in themselves are normally stable, even under fire expo- sure conditions, and which
are not reactive with water.

Special Information Is Indicated in the Bottom Square, Color-Coded White

0. The letter W with a bar through it indicates a material may have a hazardous reaction with water. This
does not mean “use no water,” but rather “avoid the use of water.” Note that some forms of water
(e.g., fog or fine spray) may be used. Because water may cause a hazard, it is advised that water be
used very cautiously until fire fighters have proper information.
1. The radioactive “pinwheel” indicates radioactive materials.
2. The letters “OX” indicate an oxidizer.

HAZARD DIAMOND

TABLE 5
Classes of Oxidizing Materials

Hazar dous Class Definition Examples

Oxidizer A substance that yields O 2 readily to stimulate Silver nitrate
the combustion of organic matter.
Organic Peroxide An organic derivative of the inorganic compound, Lauroyl peroxide
hydrogen
peroxide.
Oxygen An odorless, colorless, gaseous chemical element that Oxygen
supports combustion. At low temperatures the gas
liquefies.

TABLE 6
Classes of Explosives

Hazar dous Definition Examples

Class
Explosive Any chemical compound, mixture, or device, the purpose of which is to
function by explosion, that is, with substantial instantaneous release of
gas or heat.
Class A A detonating or otherwise maximum hazard. Black powder,
dynamite,
blasting caps
Class B Function by rapid combustion rather than detonation. Special fireworks,
flash powders
Class C Materials that do not ordinarily detonate in Flares, small arms
restricted quantities—minimum explosion hazard.
FIRE PREVENTION & PROTECTION:
FIRE PREVENTION
Fire prevention requires segregating the three elements of the fire triangle. A fire needs three elements -
heat, oxygen and fuel. Without heat, oxygen and fuel a fire will not start or spread. A key strategy to prevent fire is to
remove one or more of heat, oxygen or fuel. .

HEAT

Heat can be generated by work processes and is an essential part of some processes such as cooking. This heat
must be controlled and kept away from fuel unless carefully controlled. Heat generated as a by -product of a process
must be dealt with properly.
Heat Safeguards

 Ensure employees are aware of their responsibility to report dangers

 Control sources of ignition
 Have chimneys inspected and cleaned regularly
 Treat independent building uses, such as an office over a shop as separate purpose groups and therefore
compartmentalize from each other
 Ensure cooking food is always attended
 Use the Electricity Supply Board's Safety webpage
 Have regard to relevant Authority Safety Alerts, e.g. Mobile Phone "Expert XP-Ex-1", Filling LPG Cylinders
 Use the Code of Practice For Avoiding Danger From Underground Services

OXYGEN

Oxygen gas is used

 in welding, flame cutting and other similar processes

 for helping people with breathing difficulties
 in hyperbaric chambers as a medical treatment
 in decompression chambers
 for food preservation and packaging
 in steelworks and chemical plants
The air we breathe contains about 21% oxygen. Pure oxygen at high pressure, such as from a cylinder, can react
violently with common materials such as oil and grease. Other materials may catch fire spon taneously. Nearly all
materials including textiles, rubber and even metals will burn vigorously in oxygen.
With even a small increase in the oxygen level in the air to 24%, it becomes easier to start a fire, which will then
burn hotter and more fiercely than in normal air. It may be almost impossible to put the fire out. A leaking valve or
hose in a poorly ventilated room or confined space can quickly increase the oxygen concentration to a dangerous
level.
The main causes of fires and explosions when using oxygen are

 oxygen enrichment from leaking equipment

 use of materials not compatible with oxygen
 use of oxygen in equipment not designed for oxygen service
 incorrect or careless operation of oxygen equipment

Oxygen Safeguards

 Ensure employees are aware of their responsibility to report dangers

 See safeguards in the Code of Practice for Working in Confined Spaces
 Oxygen should never be used to “sweeten” the air in a confined sp ace
 Where oxygen is used,
o follow safety advice from the supplier
o follow the safeguards on the safety data sheet
o keep the safety data sheet readily available
 Be aware of the dangers of oxygen if in doubt, ask
 Prevent oxygen enrichment by ensuring that equipment is leak-tight and in good working order
 Check that ventilation is adequate
 Always use oxygen cylinders and equipment carefully and correctly
 Always open oxygen cylinder valves slowly
 Do not smoke where oxygen is being used
 Never use replacement parts which have not been specifically approved for oxygen service
 Never use oxygen equipment above the pressures certified by the manufacturer
 Never use oil or grease to lubricate oxygen equipment
 Never use oxygen in equipment which is not designed for oxygen service
 Operators of locations storing large amounts of oxidising substances
FUEL

Workplaces in which large amounts of flammable materials are displayed, stored or used can present a
greater hazard than those where the amount kept is small.
In relation to fire, fuel consists of flammable material. Flammable material is material that burns readily in a normal
atmosphere. Flammable materials include flammable liquids (e.g. petrol), flammable gasses (e.g. propane and
butane) and flammable solids (e.g. charcoal, paper). It is importa nt to identify all flammable materials that are in
your workplace so that proper controls can be put in place.

Great care is required in the storage, handling and use of flammable materials. Safety Data sheets may provide
detailed advice.

Fuel Safeguards

 Identify all flammable materials so that proper controls can be put in place
 Identify use of substances with flammable vapours (e.g. some adhesives)
 Reduce quantities of flammable materials to the smallest amount necessary for running the business and keep
away from escape routes
 Replace highly flammable materials with less flammable ones
 Store remaining stocks of highly flammable materials properly outside, in a separate building, or separated from the
main workplace by fire-resisting construction
 Provide clearly marked separate storage for flammable chemicals, gas cylinders, and waste materials
 Train employees on safe storage, handling and use of flammable materials
 Keep stocks of office stationery and supplies and flammable cleaners' materials in separate cupboards or stores.
They should be fire-resisting with a fire door if they open onto a corridor or stairway escape route.
 This is highly specialised work and a detailed risk assessment must be conducted
 Detailed work instructions must be put in place
 Advice should be sought from the gas supplier as needed
 Workers must be properly trained and supervised
 The quantity of flammable liquids in workrooms should be kept to a minimum, normally no more than a half-day's
or half a shifts supply
 Flammable liquids, including empty or part-used containers, should be stored safely. Small quantities (Tens of
Litres) of flammable liquids can be stored in the workroom if in closed containers in a fire-resisting (e.g. metal), bin
or cabinet fitted with means to contain any leaks
 Flammable liquids should not be decanted within the store. Decanting should take place in a well-ventilated area
set aside for this purpose, with appropriate facilities to contain and clear up any spillage
 Container lids should always be replaced after use, and no container should ever be opened in such a way that it
cannot be safely resealed
 Flammable liquids should be stored and handled in well ventilated conditions. Where necessary, additional properly
designed exhaust ventilation should be provided to reduce the level of vapour concentration in the air
 Storage containers should be kept covered and proprietary safety containers with self-closing lids should be used
for dispensing and applying small quantities of flammable liquids
 There should be no potential ignition sources in areas where flammable liquids are used or stored and flammable
concentrations of vapour may be present at any time. Any electrical equipment used in these areas, including fire
alarm and emergency lighting systems, needs to be suitable for use in flammable atmospheres
 Avoid accumulations of combustible rubbish and waste and remove at least daily and store away from the building
 Never store flammable or combustible rubbish, even temporarily, in escape routes, or where it can contact
potential sources of heat
 Position skips so that a fire will not put any structure at risk
 Clean cooking surfaces on a regular basis to prevent grease build-up
 Rags and cloths which have been used to mop up or apply flammable liquids should be disposed of in metal
containers with well-fitting lids and removed from the workplace at the end of each shift or working day
 Handle material in accordance with the advice on the safety data sheet
 Keep safety data sheets readily available
 Keep safety data sheets safely available in the event of a fire so that the information is available for emergency
services

FIRE PROTECTION

Fire is a chemical reaction that requires three elements to be present for the reaction to take place
and continue. The three elements are:

 Heat, or an ignition source

 Fuel

 Oxygen

These three elements typically are referred to as the “fire triangle.” Fire is the result of the reaction between
the fuel and oxygen in the air. Scientists developed the concept of a fire triangle to aid in understanding of the
cause of fires and how they can be prevented and extinguished. Heat, fuel and oxygen must combine in a
precise way for a fire to start and continue to burn. If one element o f the fire triangle is not present or
removed, fire will not start or, if already burning, will extinguish.

Ignition sources can include any material, equipment or operation that emits a spark or flame —including
obvious items, such as torches, as well as less obvious items, such as static electricity and grinding operations.
Equipment or components that radiate heat, such as kettles, catalytic converters and mufflers, also can be
ignition sources. Fuel sources include combustible materials, such as wood, paper, trash and clothing;
flammable liquids, such as gasoline or solvents; and flammable gases, such as propane or natural gas. Oxygen
in the fire triangle comes from the air in the atmosphere. Air contains approximately 79 percent nitrogen and
21 percent oxygen. OSHA describes a hazardous atmosphere as one which is oxygen-deficient because it has
less than 19.5 percent oxygen, or oxygen enriched because it has greater than 23.5 percent oxygen. Either
instance is regarded by OSHA as an atmosphere immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) for reasons
unrelated to the presence of fire. Depending on the type of fuel involved, fires can occur with much lower
volume of oxygen present than needed to support human respiration. Every roofing project has all thr ee of
the fire triangle elements present in abundance. The key to preventing fires is to keep heat and ignition
sources away from materials, equipment and structures that could act as fuel to complete the fire triangle.
Fire Classifications Fires are classified as A, B, C, D or K based on the type of substance that is the fuel for the fire, as
follows:

Class A—fires involving ordinary combustibles, such as paper, trash, some plastics, wood and cloth. A rule of thumb is
if it leaves an ash behind, it is a Class A fire.
Class B—fires involving flammable gases or liquids, such as propane, oil and gasoline
Class C—fires involving energized electrical components
Class D—fires involving metal. A rule of thumb is if the name of the metal ends with the letters “um,” it is a Class D
fire. Examples of this are aluminum, magnesium, beryllium and sodium. Class D fires rarely occur in the roofing
industry.
Class K—fires involving vegetable or animal cooking oils or fats; common in commercial cooking operations using deep
fat fryers.

Fire Extinguishers There are different types of fire extinguishers designed to put out the different classes of fire.
Selecting the appropriate fire extinguisher is an important consideration for a roofi ng contractor. The wrong
extinguisher actually may make a fire emergency worse. For example, failing to use a Crated extinguisher on energized
electrical components may endanger workers by causing the extinguishing material to be electrified by the energiz ed
components that are on fire. C-rated fire extinguishers put out the fire by using a chemical that does not conduct
electricity.
The following table illustrates the types of extinguishers, fire classes for which each is used and the limitations of each
extinguisher.

Remember this easy acronym when using an extinguisher - P.A.S.S.

Employees should be instructed that if a fire cannot be extinguished using one full extinguisher, they should evacuate
the site and let the fire department handle the situation.
EMERGENCY EVACUATION
Emergency evacuation is the urgent immediate egress or escape of people away from an area that contains
an imminent threat, an ongoing threat or a hazard to lives or property.
Examples range from the small-scale evacuation of a building due to a storm or fire to the large-scale evacuation of a
city because of a flood, bombardment or approaching weather system, especially a Tropical Cyclone. In situations
involving hazardous materials or possible contamination, evacuees may be decontaminated prior to being transported
out of the contaminated area.
Evacuation Sequence-
The sequence of an evacuation can be divided into the following phases:

1. detection
2. decision
3. alarm
4. reaction
5. movement to an area of refuge or an assembly station
6. transportation
The time for the first four phases is usually called pre-movement time. The most common equipment in buildings to
facilitate emergency evacuations are fire alarms, exit signs, and emergency lights. Some structures need
special emergency exits or fire escapes to ensure the availability of alternative escape paths.

***************************
 MODULE II

FIRE SAFETY
1.Introduction to toxity of product of combustion

Hazardous substances are used in many workplaces today. Working people are
discovering that they need to know more about the health effects of chemicals, which they
use or may be exposed to on the job. Textbooks, fact sheets, and material safety data sheets
(MSDSs) provide important information, but they are often written in hard-to- understand
technical language. To help you better understand technical information about hazardous
workplace chemicals, this booklet explains how chemicals can affect the body, what to
look for when reading health information, the different types of exposure limits for
chemicals in the workplace, tips on how to know if you are exposed, what you can do to
reduce exposure, and where to go for additional information.
1.1 What makes a chemical toxic?

The toxicity of a substance is its ability to cause harmful effects. These effects can strike a
single cell, a group of cells, an organ system, or the entire body. A toxic effect may be
visible damage, or a decrease in performance or function measurable only by a test. All
chemicals can cause harm. When only a very large amount of the chemical can cause
damage, the chemical is considered to be practically non-toxic. When a tiny amount is
harmful, the chemical is considered to be highly toxic.
The toxicity of a substance depends on three factors: its chemical structure, the extent to
which the substance is absorbed by the body, and the body's ability to detoxify the
substance (change it into less toxic substances) and eliminate it from the body.
1.2 Are "toxic" and "hazardous" the same?

No. The toxicity of a substance is the potential of that substance to cause harm, and is
only one factor in determining whether a hazard exists. The hazard of a chemical is the
practical likelihood that the chemical will cause harm. A chemical is determined to be a
hazard depending on the following factors:
Toxicity: how much of the substance is required to cause harm, route of
exposure: how the substance enters your body,
Dose: how much enters your body,
Duration: the length of time you are exposed,
Reaction and interaction: other substances you are exposed to at the same time,and,
Sensitivity: how your body reacts to the substance compared to other people.

Some chemicals are hazardous because of the risk of fire or explosion. These are important
dangers, but are considered to be safety rather than toxic hazards. The factors of a toxic
hazard are more fully explained below.

Vapor cloud : Vapor cloud is vapor which has gathered in one place. An estimated 30 tons of
cyclohexane volatilized and formed a large vapor cloud. A rupture of a pipeline carrying
liquefied petroleum gas may lead to the formation of a vapor cloud.
A flash fire :A flash fire is a sudden, intense fire caused by ignition of a mixture of air and a
dispersed flammable substance such as a solid (including dust), flammable or combustible liquid
(such as an aerosol or fine mist), or a flammable gas. It is characterized by high temperature,
short duration, and a rapidly moving flame front.
Jet fire: A fire type resulting from the discharge of liquid, vapor, or gas into free space from an
orifice, the momentum of which induces the surrounding atmosphere to mix with the discharged
material.
Pool fire :A pool fire is a type of diffusion flame where a layer of volatile liquid fuel is
evaporating and burning. The fuel layer can be either on a horizontal solid substrate or floating
on a higher-density liquid, usually water

Auto ignition: Auto ignition: is defined as the self-ignition of the vapors emitted by a liquid
heated above its ignition temperature and that, when escaping into the atmosphere, enter into
their explosive range.

Ignition Sources: The information on this section of the site looks at the many possible ignition
sources found in the upstream oil and gas industry. Some are well understood and readily
identified, while others deserve further examination. Identifying Ignition Sources Hot Work
Static Electricity Hot Surfaces Pyrophoric Iron Sulphides Pressure (Compression Ignition)
Friction and mechanical Sparks Sudden Decompression Catalysts
Hot Work: Hot work has been defined as any operation that can produce enough heat from
flame, spark or other source of ignition, with sufficient energy to ignite flammable vapours,
gases, or dust. Welding, cutting, grinding, brazing, flaming, chipping, air gouging, riveting,
drilling, and soldering are all forms of hot work that can create sparks or high temperatures .

Static Electricity: Definition ―Static electricity is the electrical charging of materials through
physical contact and separation and the positive and negative electrical charges formed by this
process. If the process is not or cannot be properly grounded, allowing the charge build-up to be
safely dissipated, the charge may build up to the point where it will discharge with a static arc,
which may provide an ignition source to a nearby mixture of fuel vapour and air. This is shown
schematically in the Static Charge Generation diagram later in this section. Static electricity can
be generated in many different ways.

Pyrophoric Iron Sulphides: Pyrophoric iron sulphides form when iron is exposed to hydrogen
sulphide, or any other compound that contains sulphur, in an oxygen deficient atmosphere . They
are found frequently in vessels, storage tanks, and sour gas pipelines. Pyrophoric iron sulphides
present a hazard when equipment and tanks are opened for cleaning, inspection, and
maintenance. As the iron-sulphide compounds dry out and come in contact with air, they react
with the oxygen and spontaneously ignite .

Pressure (Compression Ignition):

When gases are compressed, heat is generated, or more accurately, energy is transferred. If the
rate of heat generation within a system exceeds the rate of heat loss (energy transfer) to the
surroundings, the temperature of the system will rise. If the rate of compression is rapid enough
such that the heat loss may be considered negligible, resulting in ―adiabatic compression‖, the
temperature rise will depend on compression ratio. Diesel engines work on this basic principle.
Friction and Mechanical Sparks: Mechanical sparks occur when there is excessive friction
between metals or extremely hard substances. As the two substances rub against each other,
small particles are torn off the surfaces. This tearing is due to the large amount of friction. For a
metal to spark, it must satisfy three conditions: ƒ

 The energy, which supplies the tearing off of the particles, must be sufficient to heat the
metal to high temperatures. Softer metals usually deform before they spark. ƒ
 The metal must be able to oxidize and burn easily. Generally, a metal‘s sparking
temperature is the same as its burning temperature. ƒ
 The metal‘s specific heat is the last factor. A metal with a low specific heat will reach a
higher temperature for the same amount of energy input.
Sudden Decompression: Sudden Decompression of air-hydrocarbon mixtures, particularly air-
liquid hydrocarbon mixtures, is not well understood. In the presence of air, liquid hydrocarbons
may oxidize forming products such as hydroperoxides, aldehydes, ketones etc. Higher
temperatures and pressures will increase this reaction rate. Some of these compounds are highly
unstable especially when subjected to sudden pressure and temperature changes. Decomposition
of such products can yield significant energy rapidly and may provide an ignition source for the
air-hydrocarbon mixture. In addition, during sudden decompression of air-hydrocarbon mixtures,
the release of dissolved gases within the liquid hydrocarbons may atomize the liquid
hydrocarbons thus enhancing their reactivity

Catalysts When added to hydrocarbons, some chemicals may substantially increase the
reactivity of the mixture. Some metals may also act as a catalytic surface.

2. Different Classes of Fires

Class A: solid materials such as wood or paper, fabric, and some plastics
Class B: liquids or gas such as alcohol, ether, gasoline, or grease
Class C: electrical failure from appliances, electronic equipment, and wiring
Class D: metallic substances such as sodium, titanium, zirconium, or magnesium
Class K: grease or oil fires specifically from cooking
Understanding the 5 different classes of fires can help you determine the biggest fire risks at your
facility, depending on the fuels and fire hazards present as well as how best to prepare in case of
a fire emergency.
Let‘s break down each of the 5 different classes of fires more thoroughly.

2.1 Class A Fires: “Ordinary” Fires

They occur when common combustible materials like wood, paper, fabric, trash, and light
plastics catch fire. These accidental fires are ubiquitous across a variety of industries, so it‘s
recommended to have adequate protection against ―ordinary‖ fires in addition to other condition-
specific fires.
Despite being ―ordinary‖, don‘t rule this class of fire as low-risk. If there‘s an abundance of fuel
present, these fires can intensify quickly. It‘s best to put out a Class A fire quickly before it
spreads using water or monoammonium phosphate.

2.2 Class B Fires: Liquids & Gases

Class B fires involve flammable liquids and gases, especially fuels like petroleum or
petroleum-based products such as gasoline, paint, and kerosene. Other gases that are highly
flammable are propane and butane, which are common causes of Class B fires. The best way to
deal with these types of fires is by smothering them or removing oxygen using foam or CO2 fire
suppression equipment.

2.3 Class C Fires: Electrical Fires:

Electrical fires fall under Class C and are common in facilities that make heavy use of
electrical equipment, but they can occur in a wide range of industries. For example, data
centers might be an obvious risk area for Class C fires. They must have safeguards in place to
deal with electrical fires.
Electrical fires require non-conductive materials to extinguish the flame, so water alone is not a
good solution. Facilities with sensitive equipment may prefer clean agent suppression because it
won‘t leave residue or damage electrical equipment.

2.4 Class D Fires: Metallic Fires

Class D fires are not as common as the other classes, but they do require special attention
because they can be especially difficult to extinguish. Metallic fires involve flammable materials
like titanium, aluminum, magnesium, and potassium — all commonly occurring in laboratories.
Class D fires cannot be addressed with water, as this can exacerbate the fire and be potentially
dangerous. Dry powder agents are the best solution for smothering the flames and limiting
damage to property or people.

2.5 Class K Fires: Grease Fires or Cooking Fires

Class K fires involve flammable liquids, similar to Class B fires, but are specifically
related to food service and the restaurant industry. These common fires start from the
combustion of liquid cooking materials including grease, oils, and vegetable and animal fats.
Because they can spread quickly and be difficult to manage, Class K fires are some of the most
dangerous. Water can make the situation worse, but smothering the flames or using a wet agent
fire extinguisher is effective.
Now that we understand how each fire starts, we can prepare for how to fight them — or better
yet, prevent them from happening in the first place.

3. Fire Extinguisher:
Fire extinguishers are portable devices used to extinguish small fires or reduce their
destruction before firefighters arrive at the scene. These are kept handy at places, namely fire
points, in buildings, factories, public paces or transportation. The types and numbers of
extinguishers legally required for an area are governed by the safety regulations in force in that
particular area.
Different types of fire extinguishers exist in order to address the 5 different classes of fires. Each
fire class describes the fuel or material a fire is burning or what caused it to start — therefore,
using the right extinguisher is essential to put out the fire safely.

Fire Fuel Type How to Suppress Fire Extinguisher Type

Class

Freely burning ABC/powder, water, water mist,

Class A Water, Smothering
combustibles foam

ABC/powder, CO2, water mist,

Class B Burning liquid or gas Smothering
clean agent

Non-conductive ABC/powder, CO2, water mist,

Class C Electrical fire
chemicals clean agent

Class D Metallic fire Dry powder agent Powder

Smothering, wet
Class K Cooking or grease fire Wet chemical, water mist
chemical
 3.1 Carbon dioxide fire extinguisher

CO2 fire extinguishers are mainly aimed at electrical fires but are also suitable for Class B liquid
fires and are used in different ways depending on the type of fire they are being used on. Do not
use CO2 extinguishers in small rooms as CO2 gas is poisonous at only 4% concentration and can
kill at just 8%.

Only tackle small fires with an extinguisher. If the fire has taken hold do not fight the fire but
evacuate immediately and warn others of the fire, then call the fire and rescue service. If you
tackle the fire make sure you stay at a safe distance and follow the instructions below.

1. Pull the safety pin (Fig.2), this will break the tamper seal

2. Do not hold the horn, unless it is a frost-free horn, as it becomes extremely cold during use
and can lead to severe frost burns. Only purchase CO2 extinguishers with frost-free horn to
prevent this happening.

3. Squeeze the lever to start discharging the extinguisher. Please note that the CO2 extinguishers
make a very strong discharge noise, which is normal.

4. Aiming the extinguisher:

o Flammable liquids: Aim the horn at the base of the fire and move across the area. Be
careful not to splash the burning liquid with the powerful jet of the CO2 extinguisher.

o Electrical equipment: Switch off the power, where safely possible, to prevent later re-
ignition and then direct the horn straight at the fire

5. Please note that a CO2 extinguisher only has a very short discharge time.

6. Ensure all the fire has been extinguished as re-ignition is easily possible when a CO2
extinguisher has been used. CO2 gas drifts off after use and if the fire is still very hot it might
just re-ignite.
3.2 What is the Fire Triangle
The fire triangle, or combustion triangle, is the three components needed to ignite and
sustain a fire. The three ingredients of a fire triangle are; heat, fuel and oxygen.

Heat A source of heat is required in order for ignition to occur, and different materials have
different ‗flash points‘ e.g. the lowest temperature at which they ignite.

Unfortunately, combustion reactions also produce heat as they burn, further increasing the
temperature of the fuel. For some types of fire, the heat can be cooled with the application of
water.

Fuel:A fire cannot begin if there is no material to burn. Homes and businesses are full of
flammable materials, such as paper, oil, wood and fabrics. Any of these can serve as a fuel for a
fire. Some materials burn more easily than others. Fuels are probably the most difficult ‗side‘ of
the fire triangle to remove, so it‘s wise to store them appropriately to prevent them becoming a
fire hazard.

Oxygen: To sustain the combustion reaction, oxygen (or an oxidising agent) is needed, as it
reacts with the burning fuel to release heat and CO2. Earth‘s atmosphere consists of 21%
oxygen, so there is plenty available to trigger a fire if the other two components are present.

Fire blankets and certain fire extinguishers remove the oxygen ‗side‘ of the triangle by removing
it or displacing it, causing suffocation and thereby ceasing the combustion reaction.
3.3 Fire Hazards
Fire hazards are workplace hazards that either involve the presence of a flame, increase the
probability that an uncontrolled fire will occur, or increase the severity of a fire should one
occur.
Fire hazards include:

 Flames
 Sparks
 Hot objects
 Flammable chemicals
 Chemicals accelerants, which can increase a fire‘s rate of spread

A Fire Hazard Analysis (FHA) ) is a method of evaluating the hazards present and subsequent
consequence potential at a processing plant or storage facility that requires an in-depth
assessment of fire risk due to significant quantities of flammable materials. These assessments
are based on specific review criteria that are dependent upon the types of hazards being assessed,
as well as commodities stored and facility processes.

4. Steps of a fire hazards analysis

Performing an FHA is a fairly straightforward engineering analysis. The steps include the
following:

1. Selecting a target outcome

2. Determining the scenario(s) of concern that could result in that outcome
3. Selecting an appropriate method(s) for prediction of growth rate of fire effects
4. Calculating the time needed for occupants to move to a safe place
5. Analyzing the impact of exposure of occupants or property to the effects of the fire
6. Examining the uncertainty in the hazard analysis
7. Documentation of the fire hazard analysis process, including the basis for selection of models
and input data Fire hazard analysis can also be used as part of the performance-based design
process.
4.1 WHAT TO DO AFTER THE FIRE
Now that the fire is out, there are a few things you need to know. Here is a check list to follow:

Step 1 - Securing the site

 Protect the fire site from any further damage by weather, theft or vandalism. Do not leave the
site unsecured.
 If you are the owner it is your responsibility to see that openings are covered against rain and
entry. Make sure outside doors to the property can be locked and secured. Fire and Rescue
NSW will help secure the premises until responsibility can be handed over to the occupier or
insurance company.
 If you are the occupier, contact your real estate agent or landlord and inform them of the fire.
If you cannot contact them and you need professional assistance in boarding the premises, a
general contractor or fire damage restoration firm can help. Check your telephone directory.
 If you plan to leave the site, try to remove any valuables remaining in the building.
 Contact your own insurance agent to report the loss.

Step 2- Cautions
 Household wiring which may have been water damaged should be checked by a licensed

electrician before power is turned back on.

 Check for structural damage caused by the fire as roofs and floors may be weakened. The
local Council's Building Inspector may be able to help.
 Food, drink and medicines exposed to heat, smoke or soot may be discarded in the
appropriate manner.
 Refrigerators and freezers left unopened will hold their temperature for a short time.
However do not attempt to refreeze thawed items.
 Fire and Rescue NSW will call for the services of the local gas, fuel and electricity suppliers
to disconnect services before they leave the site.
 If a utility (gas, electricity or water) is disconnected, it is your responsibility to have the
services checked and reconnected by a licensed trade person. Do not attempt to reconnect the
service yourself.
 Start collecting receipts for any money you spend. These are important because you can use
them to show the insurance company what money you have spent relating to your fire loss
and also verifying losses claimed.

Step 3 - Insurance Claims

 Make personal contact with the insurance claims manager.
 Advise the claims manager of loss or damage and give them a forwarding address and
telephone number if the circumstances have forced you to leave the damaged fire building.
 The sooner the insurance company is alerted, the quicker the insurance claim can be
processed, as the company has to alert the insurance assessor to carry out the inspection.
 Try to form an inventory, as soon as possible, of household items either inside or outside the
buildings which have been damaged by fire. The inventory of damaged items will further
speed the claim when the loss assessor makes contact. Do not throw away any damaged
goods until after the inventory is made by the insurance assessor.
 Should you be unable to recall the name of your insurance company, contact the Insurance
Council of Australia [external link].

Step 4 - Leaving your home

 If you have to leave your home because the fire has left it unsafe, contact the local police.
They can keep an eye on the property in your absence.
 Check with your insurance company to find out whether you are entitled to stay in hotel as
part of a temporary housing clause in your policy, or how soon you might get an advance on
your eventual insurance claim settlement.
 Provided it is safe to do so, try to locate the following to take with you:
 Identification such as wallets and passports.
 Vital medicines, such as blood pressure regulating drugs or insulin.
 Eyeglasses, hearing aids, prosthetic devices or personal aids.
 Valuables such as credit cards, cheque-books, insurance policies, savings account books,
money and jewellery.
 Flow chart after fire occurrence

5. First aid for burns

 First degree. The skin turns red, but it does not blister. It is somewhat painful, like
a sunburn.
 Second degree. The outer layer of skin is burned, and some part of the dermis is
damaged. The burn will be very painful and will likely develop blisters.
 Third degree. The skin will be charred or white. The epidermis and dermis (top two
layers of skin) are irreversibly damaged.

DO’s
 Stop the burning process: cool the burn with running cool (not cold) water for at least 5
minutes. But do not use ice, as this may cause further skin damage. Do not over cool! If the
victim starts to shiver, stop the cooling process.
 Remove all jewelry, watches, rings and clothing around the burned area as soon as
possible.
 Administer an over-the-counter pain reliever such as ibuprofen or acetaminophen for pain
control. Follow the directions on the label. Consult a physician or health care provider if
 pain is not relieved.
 Cover the burn with a sterile gauge bandage or clean cloth. Wrap the burned area loosely to
avoid putting too much pressure on the burn tissue.
 Minor burns will usually heal without further treatment.
 For small area burns, apply soothing lotions that contains aloe vera to the burned area to
help relieve the pain and discomfort.
 Seek medical attention if there is a persistent fever not relieved by medication or redness
that may extend beyond the border of the burn or pain is not controlled by ibuprofen or
acetaminophen.
 Drink plenty of fluids (electrolyte containing solutions such as gator aid) if the person
appears to be dehydrated.
DON’TS
 Do not apply ice – this may cause further damage to the skin.
 Do not use any butter, ointments or other home remedies on the burn. Such substances
may trap the heat in the tissue and makes the burn worse.
 Do not break any blisters…leave intact.
 Do not delay seeing medical attention if the burn is larger than the size of the victim‘s
palm.

6. Portable fire extinguisher11

A portable fire extinguisher by definition is an item of equipment for the purpose of

extinguishing a fire. The reality is however that a portable fire extinguisher is effective only for
the type and size of a fire that it is rated for.

Portable fire extinguishers are generally provided as "first attack" units in fire fighting and
should be used only in early stages of fire before the fire grows to a stage that is beyond the
capacity of the extinguisher. There are broadly six types of fire extinguisher;

1. Air-Water;
 2. Air-Foam;
3. Wet Chemical;
4. Dry Chemical Powder;
5. Carbon Dioxide.

Portable fire extinguishers are distinguishable by their labels and their colouring. In 1997 the
standard colour of portable fire extinguishers changed. From this date, extinguishers supplied to
the market are required to be painted red or be polished stainless steel. As this change was
relatively recent it is still common to find extinguishers using both Pre 1997 and Post 1997
extinguisher colour schemes.

There is no one type of fire extinguisher that is universally acceptable for all classes of fire.
Careful consideration needs to be given to the selection of the most suitable type of fire
extinguisher, or combination of fire extinguishers for each application.

A water based extinguisher also referred to as a Stored Pressure Air-Water fire extinguisher is an
extinguisher that is filled with water which is stored under pressure (normally by air). These
extinguishers are only appropriate for use on Class A fires.
A water extinguisher is effective because it cools the fire, interrupting the exothermic reaction of
a self-sustaining fire.
A water extinguisher operates when water, stored under pressure and contained within the
extinguisher container is expelled after the valve, operated by a hand-held trigger is depressed.

Extinguisher Operation
Fire extinguishers contain an agent that is expelled from the extinguisher help to try and
extinguish a fire. The agent in each of the extinguishers explained in this document is stored
under pressure. The valve is operated when the hand-held trigger is depressed.
Some fire extinguishers are also fitted with a pressure gauge that provides a visual indication of
the extinguishers pressurized state. Gauges may illustrate a numerical value or a color coded
pressure range where green illustrates the extinguisher is pressurized and is in a state of
readiness.

7. Fire detection, fire alarm and fire fighting system

Fire detection systems are designed to discover fires early in their development when time will
still be available for the safe evacuation of occupants. Early detection also plays a significant role
in protecting the safety of emergency response personnel. Property loss can be reduced and
downtime for the operation minimized through early detection because control efforts are started
while the fire is still small. Most alarm systems provide information to emergency responders on
the location of the fire, speeding the process of fire control.
To be useful, detectors must be coupled with alarms. Alarm systems provide notice to at least the
building occupants and usually transmit a signal to a staffed monitoring station either on or off
site. In some cases, alarms may go directly to the fire department, although in most locations this
is no longer the typical approach.
These systems have numerous advantages as discussed above. The one major limitation
is that they do nothing to contain or control the fire. Suppression systems such as automatic
sprinklers act to control the fire. They also provide notification that they are operating, so they
can fill the role of a heat detection-based system if connected to notification appliances
throughout the building. They will not, however, operate as quickly as a smoke detection system.
This is why facilities where rapid notice is essential, even when equipped with sprinklers, still
need detection and alarm systems.
7.1 Different Types of Fire Alarm Detectors:
At the core of a fire alarm system are the detection devices, from sophisticated intelligent smoke
detectors to simple manually operated break glass units, there are a wide array of different types,
but we can divide them into groups including:
– Heat detectors
– Smoke detectors
– Carbon Monoxide detectors
– Multi-sensor detectors
– Manual Call Points

7.1 Heat Detectors

Heat detector can either work on a fixed temperature basis, where it will trigger an alarm if the
temperature exceeds a pre-set value or they can work on the rate of change in temperature.
Commonly Heat detectors work in a similar way to an electrical fuse, the detectors contain a
eutectic alloy which is heat sensitive when a certain temperature is reached the alloy turns from a
solid to a liquid which in turn triggers the alarm.
7.2. Smoke Detectors
There are three basic types of smoke detectors including:
– Ionization
– Light Scattering
– Light Obscuring
2.1. Ionization Smoke Detector
Ionization Smoke detector generally contains two chambers. The first is used as a reference to
compensate for changes in ambient temperature, humidity or pressure.
The second chamber contains a radioactive source, usually alpha particle, which ionizes the air
passing through the chamber where a current flows between two electrodes.
When smoke enters the chamber the current flow decreases. This drop in current flow is used to
initiate an alarm.

2.2. Light Scattering Smoke Detector

The light scattering smoke detector operates on the Tyndall effect; a photocell and light source
are separated from each other by a darkened chamber such that the light source does not fall on
the photocell. The passage of smoke into the chamber causes the light from the source to be
scattered and fall on the photocell. The photocell output is being used to initiate an alarm.
2.3. Light Obscuring Smoke Detector
In the Light obscuring smoke detector, smoke interferes with a light beam between a light source
and photocell. The photocell measures the amount of light it receives. The variation in photocell
output, is being used to initiate an alarm. This type of fire detection equipment can be used to
protect large areas with the light source and photocell positioned some distance apart.

3. Carbon Monoxide Detectors

Carbon monoxide detectors are known also as CO fire detectors are electronic detectors used to
indicate the outbreak of fire by sensing the level of carbon monoxide in the air. Carbon
monoxide is a poisonous gas produced by combustion. In this instance, these detectors are not
the same as Carbon monoxide detectors used in the home for protecting residents against carbon
monoxide produced by incomplete combustion in appliances such as gas fires or boilers.
Carbon Monoxide fire detectors use the same type of sensor as those in the home but are more
sensitive and respond more quickly.Carbon monoxide detectors have an electrochemical cell,
which senses carbon monoxide, but not smoke or any other combustion products
4. Multi-Sensor Detectors
The Multi-sensor detectors combine inputs from both optical and heat sensors and process them
using a sophisticated algorithm built into the detector circuitry.
When polled by the control panel the detector returns a value based on the combined responses
from both the optical and heat sensors. They are designed to be sensitive to a wide range of fires.

5. Manual Call Points

A Manual Call Point or Break Glass Call Point is a device which enables personnel to raise the
alarm by breaking the frangible element on the fascia; this then triggers the alarm.
7.2 Different Types of Fire Alarm Systems

Fire Alarm Systems can be broken down into four main types;
– Conventional
– Addressable
– Intelligent
– Wireless
Let‘s spend some time considering each.

1. Conventional Fire Alarm Systems

In a Conventional Fire Alarm System, physical cabling is used to interconnect several call points
and detectors, the signals from which are wired back to the main control unit.
Call points and detectors are arranged in ―Zones‖ to simplify locating the cause of the alarm, this
is important for both the fire brigade and general building management. Each zone is indicated at
the Fire Alarm Control Panel either with an indicator lamp, a text display or in some cases both.
It makes sense that the more we can divide a building into zones, the more accurate locating the
alarm trigger will be.

The Control Panel is wired to a minimum of two sounder circuits which could contain bells,
electronic sounders or other audible fire alarm devices.
It is these devices which sound the alarm when triggered.
2. Addressable Fire Alarm Systems

The detection principle of an Addressable System is the same as a Conventional System except
that each detector is given a set Address (usually by means of a dip-switch) and the Control
Panel can then determine exactly which detector or call point has initiated the alarm.

The detection circuit is wired as a loop and up to 99 devices may be connected to each loop.
It is common for the loop to be fitted with Loop Isolation Modules so that the loop is sectioned
in order to ensure that a short circuit or single fault will only cause the loss of a small part of the
system; allowing the rest of the system to function normally.
In the previous two systems, the ―Conventional Fire Alarm System‖ and the ―Addressable Fire
Alarm System‖ the detectors are not considered ―intelligent‖ as they can only give output signals
representing the value of detected phenomena.
It is left up to the Control Unit to decide whether there is a fire, fault, pre-alarm or other.

3. Intelligent Fire Alarm Systems

However, in our next type of System, which is an Intelligent Fire Alarm system, each detector
effectively incorporates its own computer which evaluates the environment around it and
communicates to the Control Panel whether there is a fire, fault or the detector head needs
cleaning.
Essentially Intelligent Systems are far more complex and incorporate far more facilities than
Conventional or Addressable Systems. Their primary purpose is to help prevent the occurrence
of false alarms.
Intelligent Fire Alarm Systems are available in 2, 4, and 8 loop versions which means large
premises can be monitored from one single panel.

4. Wireless Fire Alarm Systems

The final type of system we will consider is the Wireless Fire Alarm System.These are an
effective alternative to traditional wired fire alarm systems for all applications. They utilize
secure, license-free radio communications to interconnect the sensors and devices with the
controllers. It is a simple concept, which provides many unique benefits and is a full intelligent
fire detection system without the need for cabling. In this article, we have learned that Fire
Alarm systems are fitted in many buildings we encounter every day and that they are used to
warn people within the building of an emergency fire-related situation.

Fire fighting System is used to prevent, extinguish, localize, or block fires in

enclosed spaces. Automatic fire-fighting systems are installed in buildings and rooms where the
fire hazard is comparatively high. A distinction is made between systems that are actuated
automatically and operate according to a predetermined program and those that are
actuated by an operator; the former are called automatic fire protection systems, the latter
fire protection units. An automatic fire-fighting system includes a sensor capable of detecting
combustion, alarm signaling devices, fire-extinguishing equipment, starting and stopping
devices, and feeders for the fire-extinguishing substance. Atomizers, foam generators, and pipe
nozzles form and direct the stream of the fire-extinguishing substance, which may be a liquid,
foam, powder, or gas. Fire-extinguishing substances are fed into the system from a centralized
supply, such as a water supply, or from self-contained or combined feeders. The most widely
used systems employ water (sprinkler and drencher systems), carbon dioxide, aerosols, or
powders. A sprinkler system consists of a grid of pipelines located on the ceiling of the room,
with sprinkler heads attached to the pipes by threaded connections. The opening of a sprinkler is
kept closed by a disk held in a closed position by a thermal lock. If the room temperature rises to
a specified point, the lock is destroyed and the disk opens, admitting water to the room.
Drencher systems, which use nozzles without thermal locks, are actuated either by a sprinkler
installed in a trigger air line or by a cable-type thermal lock. Automatic fire protection systems
are classified according to the time elapsed between the start of the fire and the actuation of the
system as ultrahigh-speed (to 0.1 second),
high-speed (to 3 seconds), and standard (to 180 second). The fire-extinguishing substance can be
applied for periods ranging from 30 second to 3600 second.

Block diagram of the wireless fire fighting system

 7. Fire Detection in the Power Plant:
In power plants, burners are critical equipment, heart of energy production system. They
produce energy as thermal; deliver it to air (that directly used in gas turbine) and water (for
thermal and combined cycle). Hot air and steam in turns rotate the gas and steam turbines.
Eventually electrical energy is delivered at generator terminals (The generator which is
coupled with turbines). Where is fuel (in burners), we have the risk of explosion. In such a
high energetic environment; boilers in thermal and combustion chambers in gas turbine power
plant (temperature is more than 1000 °C), ordinary gas analyzer or temperature sensors could
not be used and one of the most suitable devices, is optical flame detector. The flame
monitoring system issue the order, cut off the inlet fuel in the flame out, lowering the risk of
high accumulation of fuel result to explosion. There are 3 main type of fuels uses in Iran
power plants : heavy oil , light oil and natural gas , in two former infrared ( IR) and in the
latter ultraviolet (UV) detectors are used , according to their light wave length. In this paper
main principal and performance of the system is described briefly.
In power plants, burners are critical equipment, heart of energy production system. They
produce energy as thermal; deliver it to air (that directly used in gas turbine) and water (for
thermal and combined cycle). Hot air and steam in turns rotate the gas and steam turbines.
Eventually electrical energy is delivered at generator terminals (The generator which is
coupled with turbines). Where is fuel (in burners), we have the risk of explosion. In such a
high energetic environment; boilers in thermal and combustion chambers in gas turbine power
plant (temperature is more than 1000 °C), ordinary gas analyzer or temperature sensors could
not be used and one of the most suitable devices, is optical flame detector. The flame
monitoring system issue the order, cut off the inlet fuel in the flame out, lowering the risk of
high accumulation of fuel result to explosion. There are 3 main type of fuels uses in Iran
power plants : heavy oil , light oil and natural gas , in two former infrared ( IR) and in the
latter ultraviolet (UV) detectors are used , according to their light wave length. In this paper
main principal and performance of the system is described briefly.
In power plants, burners are critical equipment, heart of energy production system. They
produce energy as thermal; deliver it to air (that directly used in gas turbine) and water (for
thermal and combined cycle). Hot air and steam in turns rotate the gas and steam turbines.
Eventually electrical energy is delivered at generator terminals (The generator which is
coupled with turbines). Where is fuel (in burners), we have the risk of explosion. In such a
high energetic environment; boilers in thermal and combustion chambers in gas turbine power
plant (temperature is more than 1000 °C), ordinary gas analyzer or temperature sensors could
not be used and one of the most suitable devices, is optical flame detector. The flame
monitoring system issue the order, cut off the inlet fuel in the flame out, lowering the risk of
high accumulation of fuel result to explosion. There are 3 main type of fuels uses in Iran
power plants : heavy oil , light oil and natural gas , in two former infrared ( IR) and in the
latter ultraviolet (UV) detectors are used , according to their light wave length. In this paper
main principal and performance of the system is described briefly.
In power plants, burners are critical equipment, heart of energy production system. They
produce energy as thermal; deliver it to air (that directly used in gas turbine) and water (for
thermal and combined cycle). Hot air and steam in turns rotate the gas and steam turbines.
Eventually electrical energy is delivered at generator terminals (The generator which is
coupled with turbines). Where is fuel (in burners), we have the risk of explosion. In such a
high energetic environment; boilers in thermal and combustion chambers in gas turbine power
plant (temperature is more than 1000 °C), ordinary gas analyzer or temperature sensors could
not be used and one of the most suitable devices, is optical flame detector. The flame
monitoring system issue the order, cut off the inlet fuel in the flame out, lowering the risk of
high accumulation of fuel result to explosion. There are 3 main type of fuels uses in Iran
power plants : heavy oil , light oil and natural gas , in two former infrared ( IR) and in the
latter ultraviolet (UV) detectors are used , according to their light wave length. In this paper
main principal and performance of the system is described briefly.
In power plants, burners are critical equipment, heart of energy production system. They
produce energy as thermal; deliver it to air (that directly used in gas turbine) and water (for
thermal and combined cycle). Hot air and steam in turns rotate the gas and steam turbines.
Eventually electrical energy is delivered at generator terminals (The generator which is
coupled with turbines). Where is fuel (in burners), we have the risk of explosion. In such a
high energetic environment; boilers in thermal and combustion chambers in gas turbine power
plant (temperature is more than 1000 °C), ordinary gas analyzer or temperature sensors could
not be used and one of the most suitable devices, is optical flame detector. The flame
monitoring system issue the order, cut off the inlet fuel in the flame out, lowering the risk of
high accumulation of fuel result to explosion. There are 3 main type of fuels uses in Iran
power plants : heavy oil , light oil and natural gas , in two former infrared ( IR) and in the
latter ultraviolet (UV) detectors are used , according to their light wave length. In this paper
main principal and performance of the system is described briefly.
In power plants, burners are critical equipment, heart of energy production system. They
produce energy as thermal; deliver it to air (that directly used in gas turbine) and water (for
thermal and combined cycle). Hot air and steam in turns rotate the gas and steam turbines.
Eventually electrical energy is delivered at generator terminals (The generator which is
coupled with turbines). Where is fuel (in burners), we have the risk of explosion. In such a
high energetic environment; boilers in thermal and combustion chambers in gas turbine power
plant (temperature is more than 1000 °C), ordinary gas analyzer or temperature sensors could
not be used and one of the most suitable devices, is optical flame detector. The flame
monitoring system issue the order, cut off the inlet fuel in the flame out, lowering the risk of
high accumulation of fuel result to explosion. There are 3 main type of fuels uses in Iran
power plants : heavy oil , light oil and natural gas , in two former infrared ( IR) and in the
latter ultraviolet (UV) detectors are used , according to their light wave length. In this paper
main principal and performance of the system is described briefly.
In power plants, burners are critical equipment, heart of energy production system. They
produce energy as thermal; deliver it to air (that directly used in gas turbine) and water (for
thermal and combined cycle). Hot air and steam in turns rotate the gas and steam turbines.
Eventually electrical energy is delivered at generator terminals (The generator which is
coupled with turbines). Where is fuel (in burners), we have the risk of explosion. In such a
high energetic environment; boilers in thermal and combustion chambers in gas turbine power
plant (temperature is more than 1000 °C), ordinary gas analyzer or temperature sensors could
not be used and one of the most suitable devices, is optical flame detector. The flame
monitoring system issue the order, cut off the inlet fuel in the flame out, lowering the risk of
high accumulation of fuel result to explosion. There are 3 main type of fuels uses in Iran
power plants : heavy oil , light oil and natural gas , in two former infrared ( IR) and in the
latter ultraviolet (UV) detectors are used , according to their light wave length. In this paper
main principal and performance of the system is described briefly.
burners are critical equipment, heart of energy production system. They
produce energy as thermal; deliver it to air (that directly used in gas turbine) and water (for
thermal and combined cycle). Hot air and steam in turns rotate the gas and steam turbines.
Eventually electrical energy is delivered at generator terminals (The generator which is
coupled with turbines). Where is fuel (in burners), we have the risk of explosion. In such a
high energetic environment; boilers in thermal and combustion chambers in gas turbine power
plant (temperature is more than 1000 °C), ordinary gas analyzer or temperature sensors could
not be used and one of the most suitable devices, is optical flame detector. The flame
monitoring system issue the order, cut off the inlet fuel in the flame out, lowering the risk of
high accumulation of fuel result to explosion. There are 3 main type of fuels uses in Iran
power plants : heavy oil , light oil and natural gas , in two former infrared ( IR) and in the
latter ultraviolet (UV) detectors are used , according to their light wave length. In this paper
main principal and performance of the system is described briefly.
burners are critical equipment, heart of energy production system. They
produce energy as thermal; deliver it to air (that directly used in gas turbine) and water (for
thermal and combined cycle). Hot air and steam in turns rotate the gas and steam turbines.
burners are critical equipment, heart of energy production system. They
produce energy as thermal; deliver it to air (that directly used in gas turbine) and water (for
thermal and combined cycle). Hot air and steam in turns rotate the gas and steam turbines.
In power plants, burners are critical equipment, heart of energy production system. They
produce energy as thermal; deliver it to air (that directly used in gas turbine) and water (for
thermal and combined cycle). Hot air and steam in turns rotate the gas and steam turbines.
Eventually electrical energy is delivered at generator terminals (The generator which is
coupled with turbines). Where is fuel (in burners), we have the risk of explosion. In such a
high energetic environment; boilers in thermal and combustion chambers in gas turbine
power plant (temperature is more than 1000 °C), ordinary gas analyzer or temperature sensors
could not be used and one of the most suitable devices, is optical flame detector. The flame
monitoring system issue the order, cut off the inlet fuel in the flame out, lowering the risk of
high accumulation of fuel result to explosion. There are 3 main type of fuels uses in Iran
power plants : heavy oil , light oil and natural gas , in two former infrared (IR) and in the
latter ultraviolet (UV) detectors are used , according to their light wave length.
 MODULE III

MECHANICAL SAFETY

Safety Guards

Safety guard: Safety guard means an enclosure for protection from emission or accidental contact.

Safety guard means an enclosure designed to restrain the pieces of the grinding wheel and furnish
all possible protection in the event that the wheel is broken in operation.

Types of Machine Guards

 Fixed guards.
 Interlocking guards.
 Adjustable guards.
 Self-adjusting guards.

1 Fixed guards often are used to protect workers from the hazards associated with flywheels, fan
blades, screw conveyors and power transmission equipment.

Fixed guards are permanent parts of a machine.

Every fixed guard (or other guards) on point of operation should prevent entry of fingers (preferably
the smallest finger) or hands by reaching over, under or around the guard into the point of operation.
Its fasteners should not be easily openable to prevent misuse or accident.

2 Interlocked guards: Shut down the machine when the guard is not securely in place or is
disengaged. The main advantage of this type of guard is that it allows safe access to the machine

3 Adjustable guards: Provide a barrier against a variety of different hazards associated with
different production operations. They have the advantage of flexibility. However, they are not
dependable barrier as other guards, and they require frequent maintenance and careful adjustment.

4 Self adjusting guard: The openings of these barriers are determined by the movement of the
stock. As the operator moves the stock into the danger area, the guard is pushed away, providing an
opening which is only large enough to admit the stock. After the stock is removed, the guard returns
to the rest position. This guard protects the operator by placing a barrier between the danger area
and the operator.
 Interlocking guard

MECHANICAL HAZARDS

Mechanical hazards are hazards created by the use of or exposure to either powered or manually
operated equipment, machinery and plant. Mechanical injuries are mostly caused either by contact
or entanglement with machinery. Part of the machinery that could be hazardous to workers include
sharp edges, hot surfaces, moving parts, flywheel, pulley, belt, etc.

Where Mechanical Hazards occurs

It occurs majorly in three (3) area:

 The point of operation: Point where work is performed on the material, such as cutting,
shaping, boring, etc
 Power transmission apparatus: Components of the mechanical system that transmit energy
to the part of the machine performing the work. Example, flywheels, pulleys, belts,
connecting rods, couplings, cams, spindles, chains, cranks, gears, etc.
 Machine moving parts: Parts of the machine that move while the machine is working.
These may include reciprocating, rotating, and transverse moving parts, as well as feed
mechanisms and auxiliary parts of the machine.
6 Major types of hazards you should know

Common Mechanical injuries

 Fracture: Fracture is the medical term for a broken bone. It can be classified as simple,
compound or complete fracture.
 Puncturing/Stabbing: Puncturing results when an object penetrates straight into the body
and pulls straight out, creating a wound in the shape of the penetrating object.
 Straining and spraining: A strain results when muscles are overstretched or torn. Strains
and sprains can cause swelling and intense pain.
 Impact: Being hit by ejected parts of the machinery or equipment
 Friction and abrasion: A section of the skin being rub away by the machine.
 Entrapment: Being caught in a moving part of a machine or equipment or plant.
 Crushing: Collision of plant with a person can result to crushing.
 Shear: Can be two moving parts (sharp or otherwise) moving across one another.
 High pressure injection: This is an injury caused by high-pressure injection of oil, grease,
diesel fuel, gasoline, solvents, water, or even air, into the body.
 Cut: Severing of a human body part by a cutting motion e.g. amputation

What Are the Most Common Hazards in a Workplace?

The words ‘risk’ and ‘hazard’ are often used interchangeably. However, if you are responsible for
managing the health and safety in your workplace, it’s important that you understand the difference
between them. The rest of this article focuses on hazards, including where they might be found in
different workplaces. We also provide you with a range of further resources to make your risk
assessment process as smooth as possible.

The six main categories of hazards are:

 Biological. Biological hazards include viruses, bacteria, insects, animals, etc., that can cause
adverse health impacts. For example, mould, blood and other bodily fluids, harmful plants,
sewage, dust and vermin.
 Chemical. Chemical hazards are hazardous substances that can cause harm. These hazards
can result in both health and physical impacts, such as skin irritation, respiratory system
irritation, blindness, corrosion and explosions.
 Physical. Physical hazards are environmental factors that can harm an employee without
necessarily touching them, including heights, noise, radiation and pressure.
  Safety. These are hazards that create unsafe working conditions. For example, exposed wires
or a damaged carpet might result in a tripping hazard. These are sometimes included under
the category of physical hazards.
 Ergonomic. Ergonomic hazards are a result of physical factors that can result in
musculoskeletal injuries. For example, a poor workstation setup in an office, poor posture
and manual handling.
 Psychosocial. Psychosocial hazards include those that can have an adverse effect on an
employee’s mental health or wellbeing. For example, sexual harassment, victimisation, stress
and workplace violence

FORK LIFT SAFETY INFORMATION

Forklifts are extremely useful workplace vehicles, as long as they are used safely and appropriately
by operators who are appropriately trained and competent to use them

What is a forklift?

A forklift is a powered truck used to carry, lift, stack ortier materials. They include pallet trucks, rider
operated forklifts, fork trucks, or lift trucks.

They can be powered by electric battery orcombustion engines.

Safe Operation
Always:

✓ Wear appropriate personal protective clothing as provided by employer. Hard hat, protective
footwear and high visibility clothing are
recommended as a minimum when working aroundforklifts. Other equipment may be needed
depending on the working environment

✓ Carry out a pre-shift check of the forklift

✓ Report defects immediately to supervisor

✓ Make sure work path is free of obstructions

✓ Wear operator restraints, where fitted

✓ Look all around before moving off

✓ Look in the direction of travel

✓ Travel at a speed suitable for the location and theload carried

✓ Travel with the forks lowered, but clear of theground

✓ Watch out for pedestrians

 ✓ Avoid sudden stops and violent braking

✓ Take care when driving on wet, icy , slippery orloose surfaces

SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE USE OF MACHINE TOOLS

1 STATIONARY POWER TOOLS SAFETY

Many of the safety practices used for portable tools apply to stationary power tools. However, stationary tools
tend to be larger, more powerful, and more complex. These factors can lead to serious injuries. These are
reviewed below, followed by specific safety measures for a variety of stationary power tools:
1 Safety devices and guards must always be in place. These devices were designed by the
manufacturer tobe
used with the tool.
2 Always keep blades and cutting edges sharp!
3Perform maintenance, accessory changes, and adjustments only when the tool is off and unplugged.
4 Don't wear loose fitting clothing. High-powered stationary tools can catch clothing and draw
the
operator’s body into the tool.
5 When using any type of stationary saw, never use gloves. They can get caught in the saw.
6 Never put your fingers and hands in front of saw blades and other cutting tools.
7 Never turn or feed the material or work piece at excessive speed. This increases stress on both
thework piece and the machine.
8Because stationary tools tend to be complex, tools from different manufacturers can vary in safety
and operation procedures and precautions. Read the owner’s manual and safety precautions before using.
9 Many stationary tools are equipped with emergency- off switches. Know the location of these
switchesand the tool power switch.
10 Make sure that blades, bits, and accessories are properly mounted. In addition, make sure all
locking handles and clamps are tight before using a tool.
11 Watch for flying objects. Keep unnecessary personnel away from machines when in use.

2 TABLE SAW.

The circular blade of a table saw moves at very high speed. Employ the following precautions when using
thistool:
1 Use the saw guard at all times. No operation shall be done with the guards removed.
2 Never reach over the saw blade to remove scraps, or to provide support to the work piece. If you
areoff- balance, you could fall into the saw.
 3 Always stand to the side of the saw, and never directly in line with the blade. If the saw catches
thematerial you are working on, the saw will throw it in line with the blade.
4 To prevent kickback never use a dull blade and never cut without the guide and splitter guard in place.
Inaddition, don't drop wood on top of the saw blade.

5 When cutting, NEVER PULL the work piece through the saw. Start and finish the cut from the
front ofthe saw.
6 Never feed the work piece from the back of the saw.
7 When crosscutting, hold the work piece firmly against the miter gauge. Make sure that the miter
gauge works freely in the slot and that it will clear both sides of the blade when tilted. Note that on some
saws the miter gauge can be used only on one side when the blade is tilted.
8Use a push stick according to the manufacturer's guidelines. In general, when using a push stick or
push block, the trailing end of the board must be square. A push stick against an uneven end could slip
off or push the work away from the fence. The fence is the stop plate or barrier used to guide the work
piece.

3 RADIAL ARM SAW

The radial arm- saw is a very versatile tool and is one of the most used tools in the shop. Because of its
ability to cut a variety of ways, it presents a variety of hazards. However, if used properly it can be one of the
safest tools in the shop. Follow these precautions when using a radial arm saw:

1. Never stand directly behind or in- line with the saw. Stand to either side of the saw.
2. The motor/ saw assembly must be returned to the rear of the table (against the column) after each
cut.Never remove the work piece from the table until the saw has been returned to the rear.
3. When crosscutting, make sure the work piece is held against the guide fence. This will virtually
eliminatekickback.
4. It's easy to overload the motor of a radial arm saw. If the motor overloads, check the motor and
blades.Don't feed the work piece too quickly.
5. To minimize vibration, the saw should be maintained in good alignment and adjustment.
6. When lowering the blade, keep your hands and arms out of the way of the blade!

7. When ripping, make sure that the blade rotates toward you and always feed the work piece under
the safety guard from the side opposite to the anti- kickback fingers. When ripping narrow stock, use
a push stick to complete the cut.
4 BAND SAW AND JIG SAW.
A main safety concern with the band saw is the breakage of the blade. In addition, because both the band saw
and jig saw allow for intricate cuts, the fingers can come close to the saw blade. The following rules can
minimizeinjuries from these hazards:

Band Saw:
1 Always stand to the left of the band saw. In the event of a broken blade, the blade will fly off to the
right.
If the blade breaks, shut- off the power and stay away from the saw until it stops.
1 Care should be taken in uncoiling, removing, and installing the band saw blade. Use gloves. The
blade shallbe adjusted and tensioned properly.
2 The blade guard is very important when using the band saw and jig saw. Keep your fingers
away fromexposed parts of the blade.
3 Follow the manufacturer's guidelines for adjustment of the sliding bar or post. If the guide is too
high, theblade will not have the proper support.
2 Avoid backing out of the cut. This could push the blade off the wheels.
3 Never cut a small radius with a wide blade unless you make relief cuts first.

Jig Saw:
1. Always install the blade with the teeth pointing down.
2. Adjust the tension according to the manufacturer's guidelines. Turn the pulley over by hand to make
surethat the blade operates properly before turning on the power.
3. Do not place excess force on the jigsaw blade. It can easily break and fly off.
4. Adjust the blade guide and hold down properly.

5 W H E E L GRINDERS, BENCH GRINDERS

.
The chief hazards from wheel grinders are flying pieces of a shattered grinding wheel and being cut
by the grinding wheel. Follow these precautions to avoid these hazards:
5. Before each use, inspect the grinder to ensure that the grinding wheels are firmly attached and that
the work rests are tight.
6. Because some grinders can be converted to buffers, guards are often removed. When using the unit
as a grinder, always have a guard in-place.
7. Always inspect the grinding wheel before use. The wheel should be free of cracks. All grinding
wheelsshall be ring-tested prior to installation.
 8. Too much pressure on the wheel can cause it to fracture. Spend more time at lighter pressure.
Always use grinding discs that are marked with a rating speed above the maximum speed of the
grinder. Never use an unmarked grinding wheel. Check the spindle speed before mounting the wheel.

6 LATHES

The lathe is different from some of the tools presented thus far. While most tools rotate or move a blade or
bit to cut, the lathe moves the work piece being cut. If the work piece is not fastened to the lathe properly
or isdefective, it can fly off or beak apart, causing injury.

To minimize this and others, follow these safety rules:

1. Stand to the side of the lathe. This will also minimize the chance of being hit by a tool if it catches.
2. The work piece (especially wood) should be free of cracks, knots, and other defects. Check for
weakglue joints.
3. Watch out for flying chips and shavings. Always wear safety glasses with side shields. Make
sure thatanyone in close proximity to the lathe is doing the same.
4. Adjust the tool rest as close as possible to the work piece. Then revolve the stock by hand to make
surethat it clears the rest.
5. Avoid long nods projecting from the rear of the headstock at high speeds. The whipping action can
causeserious injuries.
6. Always run the lathe at low speed until the work piece is rounded.
7. Check to make sure that the chuck is secured before turning the lathe on.

8. DANGER! Lathe chips are sharp; do NOT remove them with your hands. An air hose should
NEVER beused to remove chips. The flying particles might injure you or a nearby person.
9. No attempt should be made to operate a lathe until you know the proper procedures and have
beenchecked out on its safe operation by your instructor.
10. Dress appropriately! Remove necktie, necklace, wrist watch, rings and other jewelry, and loose
fittingsweaters. Wear an apron or a properly fitted shop coat. Safety glasses are a must!
11. Clamp all work solidly! Use the correct size toot and work holding device for the job. Get help
whenhandling large sections of metal and heavy chucks and attachments.
12. Check work frequently when it is being machined between centers. The work expands as it
heats upand could damage the tailstock center.
13. Be sure all guards are in place before attempting to operate the machine.
14. Turn the faceplate or chuck by hand to be sure there is NO binding or danger of the work
striking anypart of the lathe.
15. Keep the machine clear of tools!
16. Stop the machine before making measurements and adjustments.
17. Remember--chips are sharp! Do NOT try to remove them with your hands when they become
"stringy"and build up on the tool post. Stop the machine and remove them with pliers.
18. Do NOT permit small diameter work to project too far from the chuck without support
from the tailstock. Without support, the work will be tapered, or worse, spring, up over the cutting
tool and/or break.
19. Be careful NOT to run the cutting tool into the chuck. Check any readjustment of work or tool
for ample clearance when the cutter has been moved left to the farthest point that will be machined.
20. Stop the machine before attempting to wipe down, a machine surface.
21. Before repositioning or removing work from the lathe, move the cutting tool clear of the work
area.This will prevent accidental cuts from the cutter bit.
22. Avoid talking to anyone while running a lathe! Do NOT permit anyone to fool around with the
machine while you are operating it. You are the only one who should turn the machine on or
off, or make adjustments to the lathe.
23. If the lathe has a threaded spindle nose, never attempt to run the chuck on or off the spindle
using power. It is also dangerous- practice to stop such a lathe by reversing the direction of
rotation. The chuck could spin off and cause serious injury to you. There is also the danger of
damaging the machine.
24. You should always be aware of the direction of travel and speed of the carriage before engaging the
half-nuts or automatic feed.
25. Always remove the key from the chuck. Make it a habit NEVER to let go of the key until it is out
of thechuck and clear of the work area.
26. Tools must NOT be placed on the lathe ways. Use a tool board or place them on the lathe tray.
27. When filing on the lathe, be sure the file has a securely fitting handle.
28. Stop the machine immediately if some off sounding noise or vibration develops during operation. If
you cannot locate the trouble, get help from your instructor. Under no condition should the
machine beoperated until the trouble has been corrected.
29. Remove sharp edges and burrs from work before removing it from the machine.
30. Plan your work thoroughly before starting. Have all needed tools on hand.

Use care when cleaning the lathe. Chips sometimes stick in recesses. Remove them with a brush or
short stick.NEVER clean a machine tool with compressed air.
DANGER! Stop the machine before making measurements or cleaning out chips.
SAFETY NOTE! NEVER turn on the lathe until checking that you did NOT accidentally leave the
chuck key inthe chuck.
7 BENDING MACHINE OR BRAKE
Though the bender is powered by human force alone, the long push arm, counterweight can generate a great
deal of force. If body parts get caught in the brake, they can be easily broken or amputated. It's easy to prevent
this and other injuries from occurring. Follow these safety rules when using the brake:

1 Never place any body part in the blade area.

2 Always check the work area around the brake. Be sure that the area is free from people.
3 Before using the brake, check the counterweight rods and counterweights to make sure they are
secure.
4 Never place material in the brake, which is too rigid for the capacity of the brake.
Overstraining thebrake can cause the arm and other parts to break and possibly cause injury.

8 WELDING MACHINE
The high-energy arc of even the smallest welding machine can cause severe burns. When welding, the
following precautions must be observed:
1. Ideally, welding should be performed in a separate, well-ventilated room with a fire-resistant
flooring material. If welding is to be conducted in other areas, the area must be free of flammable
materials.
2. Non-flammable clothing, eye, and hand protection must be worn to protect from molten metal and
hot sparks. Eye protection must provide appropriate shading according to the guidelines of the
AmericanNational Standards Institute (ANSI).
3. Consult your safety representative for help in determining the appropriate eye protection, and
otherprotective equipment, for your operation.

9 SHEET METALS SHEARS

When using shears, follow these precautions:
1 Keep fingers away from the cutting blade.
2 Wear leather gloves when handling sheet metal to avoid cuts from sharp edges.
3 Keep objects other than the piece being cut away from the blade.

10 TAPS

Hand threading safety:

1. If a tap or threaded piece must be cleaned of chips with compressed air, protect your eyes from
 flyingchips by wearing goggles. Take care NOT to endanger persons working in the area near
you!
2. Chips produced by hand threading are sharp. Use a brush or piece of cloth, NOT your hand, to
removethem!
3. Newly cut external threads are very sharp. Again, use a brush or cloth to clean them.
4. Wash your hands after using cutting fluids or oils! Some cause skin rash. This can develop into a
seriousskin disorder if the oils are left on hands for extended periods.
5. Have cuts treated by a qualified person. Infections can occur when cuts and other injuries are
NOTproperly treated.

11 DRILL PRESS AND MILLING SAFETY

Many of the safety rules of the portable drill apply to the drill press. In addition, follow these rules:
1. Always secure the material being drilled.
2. When lowering the press, keep your hands out of the way of the bit.
3. Never use a hand bit or auger bit. Use bits designed only for the drill press.
4. Never try to stop the machine by taking hold of the chuck after the power is off.
5. Check to make sure the chuck is secured before turning the drill press on.
6. Remove neckties and tuck in loose clothing so there is no chance of them becoming entangled
in therotating drill!
7. Check out the machine! Are all guards in place? Do switches work? Does the machine operate
properly?Are the tools sharpened for the material being worked?
8. Clamp the work solidly. Do NOT hold work with your hand. A "merry-go-round" can inflict
serious andpainful injuries.
9. Wear goggles!
10. Place a piece of wood under drills being removed from the machine. Small drills can be damaged
whendropped and the larger tools can injure you if dropped.
11. Use sharp tools
12. Clean chips from the work with a brush, NOT your hands!
13. Treat cuts and scratches immediately!
14. Always remove the key from the chuck BEFORE turning on the power.
15. Let the drill spindle stop on its own after turning off the power. Do NOT attempt to stop it with
yourhand!
16. Keep the work area clear of chips.
17. Wipe up all cutting fluid that spills on the floor right away.
18. Avoid trying to clean the tapered opening in the spindle while it is rotating.
 19. After using a drill, wipe it clean of chips and cutting fluid. Replace the tool to proper storage.
20. Never start a cut until you are sure there is adequate clearance on all moving parts!

DRILLS

 SAFETY NOTE! NEVER attempt to operate a drilling machine while your senses are
impaired bymedication or other substances.
 DANGER! Always remove the key from the chuck before turning on the drill press. It
could hitsomething or fly out with considerable force.
 DANGER! Serious injury can result from work that becomes loose and spins about on a drill
press ormilling machine. This dangerous situation is nicknamed a "merry-go-round".
 DANGER! NEVER insert a tap into the drill chuck and attempt to use drill press POWER to
run the tapinto the work. The tap will shatter when power is applied. Turn the tap by hand!

12 MILLING MACHINE

Milling machines present similar hazards as drill presses and lathes. Follow these general safety rules when
usingthe milling machine:
1. Become thoroughly familiar with the milling machine before attempting to operate it. When in
doubt,obtain additional instructions.
2. Wear appropriate clothing and approved safety glasses!
3. Stop the machine before attempting to make adjustments or measurements!
4. Get help to move any heavy machine attachment, such as a vise, dividing head, rotary table or
largework.
5. Stop the machine before trying to -remove accumulated chips.
6. Never reach over or near a rotating cutter!
7. Be sure the work holding device is mounted solidly to the table, and the work is held firmly.
Spring orvibration in the work can cause thin cutters to jam and shatter!
8. Avoid talking with anyone while operating a machine tool, nor allow anyone to turn your machine
on foryou.
9. Keep the floor around your machine clear of chips and wipe up spilled cutting fluid immediately!
10. Be thoroughly familiar with the placement of the machine's STOP switch or lever.
11. Treat any small cuts and skin punctures as potential infections! Clean them thoroughly. Apply
antiseptic and cover injury with a bandage. Report any injury, no matter how minor, to your
instructor or supervisor.
12. Never "fool around" when operating a milling machine! Keep your mind on the job and be ready for
 any emergency!
13. Be sure all power to the machine is turned off before opening or removing guards and covers.
14. Secure the work piece in a vice or clamp to the table.
15. Maintain cutting fluids properly. Prevent coolant from getting on the floor.
16. Keep fingers from rotating cutters.
17. Use appropriate feeds and speeds for the material machined.
18. Avoid performing a machining operation on the milling machine until you are thoroughly familiar
with how it should be done.
19. Some materials that are machined produce chips, dust and fumes that are dangerous to your
health. NEVER machine materials that contain asbestos, Fiberglass, beryllium and beryllium copper
unless you are fully aware of the precautions that must be taken.
20. Be sure the cutter rotates in the proper direction. Expensive cutters can be quickly ruined.
21. Carefully store milling cutters, arbors, collets, adapters, etc., after use. They can be damaged if not
stored properly.

Precautions for the Use of Jib Cranes

In the assembly workshop, Jib cranes are widely used as small lifting equipment. Every company
should pay attention to the safety management and operation of jib cranes.

The following points should be paid attention to when using the Jib crane:

1.Operators should check carefully, check the hooks, ropes, alarms, and safety devices for a long
time, and report abnormalities in time.
2.Before starting, confirm that the following conditions are in a safe state:
(3) Whether all controllers are set to zero position;
(4) Whether there are irrelevant persons in the working area of the crane should evacuate to a safe
area;
(5) Whether there are obstacles in the operating range of the crane;
(6) Whether the minimum distance between the crane and other equipment or fixed buildings is
more than 0.5m;
(7) Whether the power circuit breaker is locked or has a warning sign;
(8) Whether the mobile Jib crane has leveled the site as required and laid the outriggers firmly and
reliably.
(9) The operator shall not have the following behaviors during normal operation
(10) Use the stopper at the extreme position as a brake;
(11) Use the opposite direction as a brake;
(12) The jib crane is inspected and repaired while working;
(13) When lifting materials, cranes must not pass over people's heads, and people must not stand
under the hanging objects and boom.
General Safety Precautions for Storage of Cylinders

1. The gas cylinder storage shed must be located in an isolated area, as far as practicable.
2. The gas cylinder
3. Storage shed shall have roofing to protect from direct sunlight and have adequate
ventilation.
4. Gas cylinders shall not be stored in exits or egress routes.
5. Gas cylinders shall not be stored in damp areas, near salt or corrosive chemicals, fumes,
heat or in areas having exposure to the weather.
6. The gas cylinder storage shed shall not be located close to any inflammable chemicals / fuel
storage area / source of combustion activities / open flames / steam pipes.
7. Full and empty cylinders are to be stored separately.
8. The gas cylinders shall be stored in segregated manner, considering incompatibility
[example bulk DA ( Dissolved Acetylene) & bulk Oxygen; bulk Hydrogen & bulk Oxygen,
bulk LPG & bulk Oxygen, toxic and flammable gas cylinders]. Incompatible gas cylinders
must be stored at least at a gap of 3 meters.
9. Incompatible gas cylinders must not be transported together.
10. The store in-charge / supervisor shall maintain the up-to-date inventory of Gas cylinders.
Doc. No: SG/01, Rev no: 00 Page 3 of 11
11. Other than notified gas cylinders, no other material of any kind shall be stored inside the
 area.
12. All the gas cylinders shall be kept in upright position with chaining to prevent accidental
fall.
13. A system of marking of gas cylinders for their individual identification & record of their
hydrostatic test to be maintained by custodian deptt.
14. All gas cylinders shall be capped when not in use.
15. All gas cylinders shall be stored so that cylinders are used in the order in which they are
received.
16. The gas cylinder storage area shall not have any loose electrical cables, wires or lines in the
vicinity.
17. Do not keep cylinders in battery room or oil storage room.
18. Adequate warning signs / labeling / no smoking caution / safety instructions shall be
displayed in the gas cylinder storage area in legible manner.
19. Display of Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) of the stored gas to be done at appropriate
place in legible & in local language/ English.
20. Avoid storing cylinders in confined location with improper ventilation.
21. Oxygen and Fuel cylinders shall be kept separately.
22. Restrict entry to the cellar, allowing only trained persons to enter and work there. xxii)
Clean up spillages immediately to prevent slipping hazards.
23. Ensure the cellar has adequate lighting.
24. Avoid placing cylinders on uneven surface. The cylinder may fall, causing injury or
damage.
25. Explosive gases like hydrogen to be stored in separate sheds with proper fencing as per the
guidelines.
26. Acetylene and LPG must never be stacked horizontally in storage or in use.
27. Regularly check for leakages, if any. xxviii) Depending on the properties of gases stored,
maintain proper temperature in the storage area, avoiding excessive or low temperature
build up.
Corrosive Chemicals – Procedures for Safe Handling and Storage

Corrosives (liquids, solids, and gases) are chemicals that cause visible destruction or
irreversible alterations to living tissue by chemical action at the site of contact. Corrosive effects
can occur not only to the skin and eyes, but also to the respiratory tract through inhalation and to
the gastrointestinal tract through ingestion. Corrosive liquids have a high potential to cause external
injury to the body, while corrosive gases are readily absorbed into the body through skin contact
and inhalation. Corrosive solids and their dusts can damage tissue by dissolving rapidly in moisture
on the skin or within the respiratory tract when inhaled. In order to minimize these potential
hazards, precautionary procedures must be observed when handling corrosives.

Handling:
 Appropriate personal protective equipment (e.g., gloves, fire-resistant or all cotton lab coat, and
safety goggles) must be worn when working with corrosive chemicals. A face shield, rubber apron,
and rubber booties may also be appropriate depending on the work performed.
 Appropriate protective gloves that are resistant to permeation or penetration from corrosive
chemicals must be selected and tested for the absence of pin holes prior to use.
 Eyewashes and safety showers must be readily available in areas where corrosive chemicals are
used and stored. In the event of skin or eye contact with a corrosive chemical, the affected area
should be immediately flushed with water for 15 minutes. Contaminated clothing should be
removed and medical attention sought.
 Corrosive chemicals should be handled in a fume hood to ensure that any possible hazardous or
noxious fumes generated are adequately vented.
 When mixing concentrated acids with water, add the acid slowly to the water. Allow the acid to
run down the side of a container and mix slowly to avoid violent reactions and splattering. Never
add water to acid.
 Appropriate spill clean-up material should be available in areas where corrosive chemicals are
used and stored.
 Protective carriers shall be used when transporting corrosive chemicals.

Storage:
 Containers and equipment used for storage and processing of corrosive material must be
corrosion resistant.
 Corrosive chemicals must be stored below eye level, preferably near the floor to minimize the
danger of their falling from cabinets or shelves.
 Acids and caustics (i.e. bases) must be stored separately from each other. Secondary containers or
trays must be used to separate acids and bases or other incompatible corrosives within a corrosive
cabinet.
 Oxidizing acids must be separated from organic acids and flammable/combustible materials
(oxidizing acids are particularly reactive with organics and flammable/combustible materials).
 Acids must be segregated from active metals (e.g., sodium, potassium, and magnesium) and from
chemicals that can generate toxic gases (e.g., sodium cyanide and iron sulfide).
 Corrosive gas cylinders must be returned for disposal every two year

SAFETY WHILE HANDLING WASTE DRUM AND CONTAINERS

A flow chart showing one set of possible procedures for drum handling is given in Figure 11-1.

Industrial 205-litre drums and barrels can weigh up to 350kg when full, these weights
are well in excess of manual handling – the male and female upper limit is 25kg and
16kg respectively. With drum weights potentially being 22 times greater than
guideline manual handling limits, these containers pose a severe health and safety risk
to people who handle them.
For companies that use barrels and drums within their operation, drum handling safety
should be an important part of work culture. Employers must look at the risks of
loading and unloading heavy drums/barrels and put sensible health and safety measures
in place to avoid the need for hazardous manual handling. In this post we are going to
discuss the current landscape, risks and recommendations surrounding incorrect drum
handling and ways to improve drum handling safety during daily operations.

The following procedures can be used to maximize worker safety during drum handling and
movement: ·
1. Train personnel in proper lifting and moving techniques to prevent back injuries. ·
2. Make sure the vehicle selected has sufficient rated load capacity to handle the anticipated
loads, and make sure the vehicle can operate smoothly on the available road surface. ·
3. Air condition the cabs of vehicles to increase operator efficiency; protect the operator with
heavy splash shields. ·
4. Supply operators with appropriate respiratory protective equipment when needed. Normally
either a combination SCBA/SAR with the air tank fastened to the vehicle, or an airline
respirator and an escape SCBA are used because of the high potential hazards of drum
handling. This improves operator efficiency and provides protection in case the operator must
abandon the equipment. ·
5. Have over packs ready before any attempt is made to move drums.
6. Before moving anything, determine the most appropriate sequence in which the various
drums and other containers should be moved. For example, small containers may have to be
removed first to permit heavy equipment to enter and move the drums. ·
7. Exercise extreme caution in handling drums that are not intact and tightly sealed. ·
8. Ensure that operators have a clear view of the roadway when carrying drums. Where
necessary, have ground workers available to guide the operator's motion.
Drums Containing Radioactive Waste ·
1 If the drum exhibits radiation levels above background immediately contact a
health physicist. Do not handle any drums that are determined to be radioactive until persons
with expertise in this area have been consulted.
Drums that May Contain Explosive or Shock-Sensitive Waste

1. If a drum is suspected to contain explosive or shock-sensitive waste as determined by visual

inspection, seek specialized assistance before any handling. ·

2 If handling is necessary, handle these drums with extreme caution. ·

Prior to handling these drums, make sure all nonessential personnel have moved a safe distance
away.
3 Use a grappler unit constructed for explosive containment for initial handling of such drums. 4
Palletize the drums prior to transport. Secure drums to pallets. ·
5 Use an audible siren signal system, similar to that employed in conventional blasting operations,
to signal the commencement and completion of explosive waste handling activities. 6 Maintain
continuous communication with the Site Safety Officer and/or the command post until drum
handling operations are complete.
Bulging Drums
1 Pressurized drums are extremely hazardous. Wherever possible, do not move drums that may
be under internal pressure, as evidenced by bulging or swelling.
2 If a pressurized drum has to be moved, whenever possible handle the drum with a grappler
unit constructed for explosive containment. Either move the bulged drum only as far as
necessary to allow seating on firm ground, or carefully over pack the drum. Exercise extreme
caution when working with or adjacent to potentially pressurized drums.

Drums Containing Packaged Laboratory Wastes (Lab Packs)

Laboratory packs (i.e., drums containing individual containers of laboratory materials

normally surrounded by cushioning absorbent material) can be an ignition source for fires at
hazardous waste sites. They sometimes contain shock-sensitive materials. Such containers should
be considered to hold explosive or shock-sensitive wastes until otherwise characterized. If handling
is required, the following precautions are among those that should be taken:

1 Prior to handling or transporting lab packs, make sure all non-essential personnel have
moved a safe distance away. ·
2 Whenever possible, use a grappler unit constructed for explosive containment for initial
handling of such drums. ·
3 Maintain continuous communication with the Site Safety Officer and/or the command post
until handling operations are complete. ·
4 Once a lab pack has been opened, have a chemist inspect, classify, and segregate the bottles
within it, without opening them, according to the hazards of the wastes. An example of a
system for classifying lab pack wastes is provided in Table 11-3. The objective of a
classification system is to ensure safe segregation of the lab packs' contents. Pack these
bottles with sufficient cushioning and absorption materials to prevent excessive movement of
the bottles and to absorb all free liquids, and ship them to an approved disposal facility. ·
5 If crystalline material is noted at the neck of any bottle, handle it as a shock-sensitive waste,
 due to the potential presence of picric acid or other similar material, and get expert advice
before attempting to handle it. ·
6 Palletize the repacked drums prior to transport. Secure the drums to pallets.
Leaking, Open, and Deteriorated Drums ·
1 If a drum containing a liquid cannot be moved without rupture, immediately transfer its contents
to a sound drum using a pump designed for transferring that liquid.
2 Using a drum grappler, place immediately in over pack containers:
3 Leaking drums that contain sludges or semi-solids.
4 Open drums that contain liquid or solid waste. ·
5 Deteriorated drums that can be moved without rupture.
 MODULE-4

ELECTRICAL SAFETY
1 Introduction to Electrical Safety
What is Electricity?
Though you cannot see electricity, you are aware of it every day. You see it used in countless
ways. You cannot taste or smell electricity, but you can feel it. Basically, there are two kinds of
electricity - static (stationary) and dynamic (moving). This module is about dynamic electricity
because that is the kind commonly put to use.
Electricity (dynamic) is characterized by the flow of electrons through a conductor. To
understand this phenomenon, you must know something about chemical elements and atoms.
Elements and Atoms
Elements are the most basic of materials. Every known substance - solid, liquid, or gas - is
composed of elements.
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains all the properties of that element. Each
element has its own kind of atom; i.e., all hydrogen atoms are alike, and they are all different
from the atoms of other elements. However, all atoms have certain things in common. They all
have an inner part, the nucleus, composed of tiny particles called protons and neutrons. An atom
also has an outer part. It consists of other tiny particles, called electrons, which orbit around the
nucleus. Neutrons have no electrical charge, but protons are positively charged. Electrons have a
negative charge. The atoms of each element have a definite number of electrons, and they have
the same number of protons. An aluminum atom, for example, has thirteen of each. The opposite
charges - negative electrons and positive protons - attract each other and tend to hold electrons in
orbit. As long as this arrangement is not changed, an atom is electrically balanced. This is
illustrated in the figure below.

Electrical Materials A material that contains many free electrons and is capable of carrying an
electric current is called a conductor. Metals and (generally) water are conductors. Gold, silver,
aluminum and copper are all good conductors. Materials that contain relatively few free electrons
are called insulators. Non-metallic materials such as wood, rubber, glass and mica are insulators.
Fair conductors include the human body, earth, and concrete.
Generating Electricity There are several ways to produce electricity. Friction, pressure, heat,
light, chemical action, and magnetism are among the more practical methods used to make
electrons move along a conductor. To date, magnetism is the most inexpensive way of producing
electrical power and is therefore of most interest to us. Because of the interaction of electricity
and magnetism, electricity can be generated economically and abundantly and electric motors
can be used to drive machinery. Electricity is produced when a magnet is moved past a piece of
wire. Or, a piece of wire can be moved through a magnetic field. A magnetic field, motion, and a
piece of wire are needed to produce electricity.

1.1 Voltage, Current and Resistance

i) Voltage
A force or pressure must be present before water will flow through a pipeline. Similarly,
electrons flow through a conductor because a force called electromotive force (EMF) is exerted.
The unit of measure for EMF is the volt. The symbol for voltage is the letter E. A voltmeter is
used to measure voltage.

ii) Current
For electrons to move in a particular direction, it is necessary for a potential difference to exist
between two points of the EMF source. The continuous movement of electrons past a given point
is known as current. It is measured in amperes. The symbol for current is the letter I and for
amperes, the letter A. It is sometimes necessary to use smaller units of measurement. The
milliampere (mA) is used to indicate 1/1000 (0.001) of an ampere. If an even smaller unit is
needed, it is usually the microampere (µA). The microampere is one-millionth of an ampere.

An ammeter is used to measure current in amperes. A microammeter or a milliammeter may be

used to measure smaller units of current.

iii) Resistance
The movement of electrons along a conductor meets with some opposition. This opposition is
known as resistance. Resistance can be useful in electrical work. Resistance makes it possible to
generate heat, control current flow, and supply the correct voltage to a device. The symbol for
resistance is shown in the accompanying figure.
In general, resistance in a conductor depends on four factors: the material from which it is made,
the length, the cross-sectional area, and the temperature of the material.
iv)Material. Different materials have different resistances. Some, such as silver and copper,
have a low resistance, while others, such as iron have a higher resistance.
v) Length. For a given material that has a constant cross-sectional area, the total resistance is
proportional to the length. The longer the conductor, the greater the resistance.
vi) Cross-Sectional Area. Resistance varies inversely with the cross-sectional area of the
conductor. In other words, the resistance decreases as the cross-sectional area increases.
vii) Temperature. Generally, in metals, the resistance increases as the temperature increases.
For non-metals, the reverse is usually true.

The symbol for resistance is the letter R. Resistance is measured by a unit called the ohm. The
Greek letter omega (S) is used as the symbol for electrical resistance. The figure below
summarizes the factors that affect resistance.

2 List and Explain the common electrical hazards

Electricity is part of our daily lives, right from the time we wake up and throughout the
day. We take it for granted and have forgotten how powerful it is and can also be dangerous.
While at home, we are aware of the electrical risks and we follow safety rules such as
unplugging unused devices, putting off switches when not in use, no open or live wires lying
around, using circuit breakers and various other precautions.

While at our workplace, where most of the work tasks are done while sitting in a chair in an air
conditioned office building, would seem perfectly safe. However, a surprising number of hazards
can be present in an office setting. To keep you safe at your workplace, we have listed a few
common electrical hazards that you should be aware of and take necessary precautions.
i) Faulty or Damaged Wiring

Non-functioning wires or cables should be removed at once. Cables which are frayed, loose or
have exposed wires should be attended to and replaced. Damaged wires and cables can cause
electric shocks and fires.

ii) Overloading Circuits

If too many devices are plugged into a circuit, the current will heat the wires to a very high
temperature, which may cause a fire. If the wire insulation melts, arcing may occur and cause a
fire in the area where the overload exists or even inside a wall.

iii) Use of Extension Cords

Extension cords tend to develop cracks and other defects that can lead to shocks. And these
problems cannot be covered with electrical tape. Better to be safe and position your electrical
devices within reach of an electrical outlet rather than to use an extension cord.

iv) Water Spill on Electrical Devices

No electrical equipment should be operated or even switched in case of contact with
water. Water greatly increases the risk of electrocution especially if the equipment has damaged
insulation. Switch off the main power connection, then unplug all the wet or damp equipment.
Make sure you dry them out well. Have a certified electrician check the device to confirm it is
no longer a danger and can be switched back on.

v)Improper Grounding

Every electrical equipment, appliance or device must be Earthed or grounded to obtain a low
resistance path for dissipation of current into the earth. Ground fault current directly has an
impact on human safety, can cause fires and electrical shock. Additionally, ungrounded electrical
systems can be potentially hazardous to your electronics. This important safety feature takes the
extra electricity away from your device, which can save your electronics from damages.

vi)Incorrectly placed Electrical Cords

Electrical cords should be installed in a proper manner and with safety in mind. They are mostly
located within or along walls. There should not be any loose wires as well. Also ensure that no
electrical cables run through high-traffic areas, under carpets or across doorways.

vii) Loose Fitting Plugs

Plug for all electrical equipment’s should be firmly fitted in its socket. Be aware that loose-fitting
plugs can potentially cause equipment to overheat and catch fire. It may require periodic physical
checks to ensure that the plug has not loosened. Be wary when cleaning of work location takes
place and equipment is moved during cleaning, causing the plug to get loosen from the socket.

3. Prevent Electrical Accidents:

i) Proper grounding

Grounding an electrical instrument creates a low-resistance path that connects to the earth. This
helps in preventing the build-up of voltages that may cause an electrical accident.

1. Make sure that all equipment is grounded so that you are not at risk of getting an
electrical shock. Proper grounding eliminates unwanted voltage and reduces the risk of
electrocution.
2. You can use guarding as a secondary protective measure to further reduce the risk of
electrical hazards.

ii) Guard electrical equipment

Guarding electrical equipment means that you locate or enclose them so that people do not
accidentally come in direct contact with them.
1. It is important to guard all the exposed electrical wires or components. Use electrical
connectors wherever necessary. They join electrical terminators and create an electrical
circuit.
2. Disconnect machines before you service or repair them.
3. Use insulators such as mica, glass, plastic or rubber over metals and conductors to reduce
the flow of current.

iii) Extension cord safety

Electrical equipment will have cords and wires. Make sure you practice cord safety in the
workplace.
1. Do not plug two extension cords together. Try to minimize the use of extensive cords as
much as possible.
2. Never nail the extensive cords into place. Use electrical tape for the same. Nails will
damage the cords, which may lead to shocks and electrical fires.
3. Do not cover power and extension cords with rugs and mats. This may create tripping
hazards or cause issues with the wires.
4. Do not pull the cords or yank them. Carefully, unplug them from the outlet by gripping
the plug.
5. Do not use equipment with broken cords or plugin anything that has a missing prong.

Inspect all the electrical cords regularly. If you see any signs of cord damage, stop using the
equipment immediately and call a professional.
iv) Never operate in wet conditions

Water greatly increases the risk of electrocution. The risk will be greater if the equipment’s
insulation is damaged.
1. Do not keep or use electrical equipment near wet surfaces or in wet locations.
2. Never operate electrical equipment with wet hands or when the equipment is wet.
3. Bring in a qualified electrician to inspect electrical equipment if it got wet. Do not
energize it before getting it checked.

v) Circuit protection

Use circuit protection devices as they will limit or stop the current flow automatically in the
event of a ground fault, short circuit or overload in the wiring systems. Some circuit protection
devices include circuit breakers, fuses, arc-fault circuit interrupters and ground-fault circuit
interrupters.
1. Make sure you do not plug multi-outlets bars to other multi-outlet bars.
2. Do not overload the sockets. If there are multiple connections, use a power board. Use
just one power board per wall outlet.
3. Notice if the wires are getting heated. There is a high risk of electrical fires when the
wires become overheated. Ensure that the wires are suitable for their electrical load.

Do not ignore electrical hazards as they can lead to serious bodily injuries. It is of utmost
importance that you take proper precautions when you deal with electrical equipment. Conduct a
safety assessment test of the workplace to identify different hazards. Then, create a plan on how
to address the hazards so that it does not lead to any serious accident.

4. Electrical protection system

4.1 What is a Relay

 Device which receives a signal from the power system and determines whether conditions are
"normal" or "abnormal" (measuring function)-
 If an abnormal condition is present, relay signals circuit breaker to disconnect equipment that
could be damaged (Switching or signaling function)
 "Relays" signal from system to circuit breaker
What is the Purpose of the Relay
The purpose of the protective relaying systems is to isolate only the faulty component of power
system. Relaying equipments are classified into two groups: 1. Primary relaying equipment. 2.
Back-up relaying equipment. Primary relaying is - the first line of defense for protecting the
equipments. Back-up protection relaying works only when the primary relaying equipment fails
(they are slow in action).

4.2. FUSE An electric fuse is an electric device which interrupts the flow of current in an electric
circuit. It is installed in a circuit to stop the flow of excessive current. A fuse is usually a short
piece of wire. The fuse is made up of a material which has high resistivity and low melting point,
so that it melts down due to overheating of the wire during high current flow.
The thickness of the fuse wire is determined based on the amount of current flow in the circuit.
Normally an alloy of tin and lead is used as the fuse wire, as it has high resistivity and low
melting point.
Function of Fuse

Here is a list of some major functions of an electric fuse.

 An electric fuse acts as a barrier between an electric circuit and the human body.
 It prevents any damage to the electric device by restricting excess current flow.
 It prevents overload of current. When too many appliances are connected in a single
circuit, it leads to overload which requires a fuse to terminate the circuit connection.
 It prevents damage that occurs due to mismatched loads.
 Prevents blackouts: if any dis-function occurs in the components of the circuit, the
nearest circuit breaks.
Information about the ampere rating, voltage rating, approval standards of the fuse and interrupt
rating are generally marked on the fuse. This information must be checked and verified before
buying a fuse.

Working of Fuse

An electric fuse is based on the principle of heating effect of electric current. It is made up of
thin metallic wire of non-combustible material. A fuse is always connected between the ends of
the terminal in a series connection with the circuit.

When an excessive current flows in the circuit, it generates heat in the circuit which leads to melt
the fuse due to its low melting point, and it also opens the circuit. The excessive flow of current
may lead to breakdown of the circuit and stop the current flow. Once a fuse melts, it can be
changed or replaced with a new fuse.
Fuse is normally made up of elements like zinc, copper, aluminum and silver.
A fuse acts as a circuit breaker and breaks the circuit in case any fault occurs in the circuit. It acts
as a protector of electric appliances and also as a safety measure for humans. The figure below
represents a fuse operation, fuse barrel and fuse link.

4.3 Circuite Breaker

A circuit breaker is a switching device that interrupts the abnormal or fault current. It is a
mechanical device that disturbs the flow of high magnitude (fault) current and in additions
performs the function of a switch. The circuit breaker is mainly designed for closing or opening
of an electrical circuit, thus protects the electrical system from damage.

Working Principle of Circuit Breaker

Circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts. These contacts are touching
each other and carrying the current under normal conditions when the circuit is closed. When the
circuit breaker is closed, the current carrying contacts, called the electrodes, engaged each other
under the pressure of a spring.

During the normal operating condition, the arms of the circuit breaker can be opened or closed
for a switching and maintenance of the system. To open the circuit breaker, only a pressure is
required to be applied to a trigger.

5. Overvoltage and Under Voltage Protection System

5.1 Protections of over voltage electric shock

There is always a chance of suffering an electrical power system from abnormal over
voltages. These abnormal over voltages may be caused due to various reasons such as, sudden
interruption of heavy load, lightening impulses, switching impulses etc. These over voltage
stresses may damage insulation of various equipments and insulators of the power system.
Although, all the over voltage stresses are not strong enough to damage insulation of system, but
still these over voltages also to be avoided to ensure the smooth operation of electrical power
system. These all types of destructive and non destructive abnormal over voltages are eliminated
from the system by means of overvoltage protection.
i) Over voltage surge:
The voltage surges appear in the electrical power system due to switching surge, insulation
failure, arcing ground and resonance are not very large in magnitude. These over voltages hardly
cross the twice of the normal voltage level. Generally, proper insulation to the different
equipment of power system is sufficient to prevent any damage due to these over voltages. But
over voltages occur in the power system due to lightning is very high. If over voltage protection
is not provided to the power system, there may be high chance of severe damage. Hence all over
voltage protection devices used in power system mainly due to lightning surges.
ii) Switching Impulse or Switching Surge:
When a no load transmission line is suddenly switched on, the voltage on the line becomes twice
of normal system voltage. This voltage is transient in nature. When a loaded line is suddenly
switched off or interrupted, voltage across the line also becomes high enough current chopping
in the system mainly during opening operation of air blast circuit breaker, causes over voltage in
the system. During insulation failure, a live conductor is suddenly earthed. This may also caused
sudden over voltage in the system. If emf wave produced by alternator is distorted, the trouble of
resonance may occur due to 5th or higher harmonics. Actually for frequencies of 5th or higher
harmonics, a critical situation in the system so appears, that inductive reactance of the system
becomes just equal to capacitive reactance of the system. As these both reactance cancel each
other the system becomes purely resistive. This phenomenon is called resonance and at
resonance the system voltage may be increased enough.

But all these above mentioned reasons create over voltages in the system which are not very high
in magnitude.

But over voltage surges appear in the system due to lightning impulses are very high in
amplitude and highly destructive. The affect of lightning impulse hence must be avoided for over
voltage protection of power system.
Methods of Protection Against Lightning:
These are mainly three main methods generally used for protection against lightning. They are
 Earthing screen.
 Overhead earth wire.
 Lighning arrester or surge dividers.

Earthing Screen:
Earthing screen is generally used over electrical substation. In this arrangement a net of GI wire
is mounted over the sub-station. The GI wires, used for earthing screen are properly grounded
through different sub-station structures. This network of grounded GI wire over electrical sub-
station, provides very low resistance path to the ground for lightning strokes. This method of
high voltage protection is very simple and economic.
Overhead Earth Wire:
This method of over voltage protection is similar as earthing screen. The only difference is, an
earthing screen is placed over an electrical sub-station, whereas, overhead earth wire is placed
over electrical transmission network. One or two stranded GI wires of suitable cross-section are
placed over the transmission conductors. These GI wires are properly grounded at each
transmission tower. These overhead ground wires or earth wire divert all the lightning strokes to
the ground instead of allowing them to strike directly on the transmission conductors.
Lightning Arrester
The lightning arrester is a devices which provides very low impedance path to the ground for
high voltage travelling waves. The concept of a lightning arrester is very simple. This device
behaves like a nonlinear electrical resistance. The resistance decreases as voltage increases and
vice-versa, after a certain level of voltage.The functions of a lightning arrester or surge dividers
can be listed as below. Under normal voltage level, these devices withstand easily the system
voltage as electrical insulator and provide no conducting path to the system current. On
occurrence of voltage surge in the system, these devices provide very low impedance path for the
excess charge of the surge to the ground.
There are different types of lightning arresters used in power system, such as rod gap arrester,
horn gap arrester, multi-gap arrester, expulsion type LA, value type LA. In addition to these the
most commonly used lightning arrester for over voltage protection now-a-days gapless ZnO
lightning arrester is also used.

5.2 Under Voltage protection system.

 A low voltage electric shock occurs when a person comes into contact with a source of low
voltage electricity which directly or indirectly sends an electrical current passing through the
person’s body, potentially causing both internal and external injuries
A low voltage electric shock is dangerous because it can cause electrocution and fatal injuries
even though there are no visible signs of external injury. It transmits through tissues with low
resistance such as the brain, heart, internal organs, blood vessels and the central nervous system.
This is very serious because electrical damage to the brain may result in a permanent seizure
disorder, depression, anxiety, or other personality changes. Additionally, electrical shock can

Three conditions of exploitation must be respected in order to provide satisfactory fault

protection:
 No live conductor at SELV must be connected to earth
 Exposed-conductive-parts of SELV supplied equipment must not be connected to earth, to
other exposed conductive parts, or to extraneous-conductive-parts
 All live parts of SELV circuits and of other circuits of higher voltage must be separated by a
distance at least equal to that between the primary and secondary windings of a safety
isolating transformer.

These measures require that:

 SELV circuits must use conduits exclusively provided for them, unless cables which are
insulated for the highest voltage of the other circuits are used for the SELV circuits
 Socket outlets for the SELV system must not have an earth-pin contact.

The SELV circuit plugs and sockets must be special, so that inadvertent connection to a different
voltage level is not possible.

6. What is electric shock?

An electric shock is the physiological effect of an electric current through the human body.
When a current exceeding 30 mA passes through human body, the person concerned is in serious
danger if the current is not interrupted in short time.
An electric shock occurs when a person comes into contact with an electrical energy source.
Electrical energy flows through a portion of the body causing a shock. Exposure to electrical
energy may result in no injury at all or may result in devastating damage or as fatal as death also.
7. Primary electric shock
Just like any other works, welding also has its own probability where accidents happen. Most
often accidents happen because of the improper precautionary steps taken by the welders or
when it happened due to the instrument fault.
One of the accidents that happen during the process of welding is Electric shocks. The primary
shock is a condition when the primary voltage shock - at 115 volts to as high as 600 volts passes
through the victim’s body. This Electric shock is even dangerous than the much greater voltages.
A person can experience a primary shock if he happens to get in contact with touch a lead or
other electrically hot element inside the welder. Especially when the body of the victim stays in
contact with welder case or other grounded metal with the power to the welder. You can
identify a grounding lead in the input power cable when the input power grounding lead has got
green insulation or when it has got no insulation.

Secondary electric shock: Not getting proper material

/

8. AC and DC Electric current shock:

8.1 DC current shock:

Victims who have experienced the electric shock with DC current says that they are unable to
pull their hand back because DC current flows continuously. This effect is similar to an electric
doorbell supplied with DC current. Hence, it is believed that the DC current shock is more
dangerous. Whereas, in the case of AC current, the person experiencing the electric shock can
pull their hand back as the current goes to zero. Hence, it is believed that the AC current shock is
least dangerous than DC current.
8.2 AC Current shock:
Whereas in the case of AC current, a person experiencing electric shock undergoes a series of
muscle contraction. Series of muscle contraction causes very severe damage to the muscles. Due
to the capacitive behaviour of the skin coming in contact with the current carrying conductor,
more current can pass through the body if the voltage is rapidly changing. Studies have shown
that twofold of increase in the voltage increases sevenfold increase in the current.DC current
―let-go‖ threshold is higher than the AC ―let-go‖ threshold. More DC current is required to
produce a similar effect as of AC current.
These arguments are not only based upon experiments being carried out on men and women but
also have been studied medically. Hence, the argument in favor of AC current holds the truth.
Now, it can be summarized that AC Current is more dangerous than DC Current. Well, one
should not be afraid of electricity, but one must remember that both AC current and DC current
can be dangerous to the human body and safety measures must be taken into the consideration
when working with any of them.

Facts about Electric Shock

 It is the magnitude of current and the time duration that produces effect. That means a low
value current for a long duration can also be fatal. The safe current/time limit for a victim
to survive at 500mA is 0.2 seconds and at 50 mA is 2 seconds.
 The voltage of the electric supply is only important as it ascertains the magnitude of the
current. As Voltage = Current x Resistance, the bodily resistance is an important factor.
Sweaty or wet persons have a lower body resistance and so they can be fatally electrocuted
at lower voltages.
 Let-go current is the highest current at which subject can release a conductor. Above this
limit, involuntary clasping of the conductor is present. It is 22 mA in AC and 88 mA in
DC.
 Apart from electric shock the other equally dangerous hazards of playing (or working)
with electricity are electrical arc flash and electrical arc blast.
 Placing your hand in your pocket may protect you by preventing a current from traveling
through the heart making a shock non-lethal.
 The severity of the electric shock depends on the following factors: body resistance, circuit
voltage, amplitude of current, path of the current, area of contact, and duration of contact.
 Death may also occur from falling in case of electric shock.
 Burn injury may occur at both the entrance and exit of the current.
 Low frequency AC is more dangerous than high frequency AC.
 AC and DC both kill so treat them with respect.
9. Safety precaution against electric shock

1 Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any
electrical equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of the electric
current.
2 Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or broken plugs.
3. If you are working on any receptacle at your home then always turn off the mains. It is also a
good idea to put up a sign on the service panel so that nobody turns the main switch ON by
accident.
4. Always use insulated tools while working.

5. Electrical hazards include exposed energized parts and unguarded electrical equipment which
may become energized unexpectedly. Such equipment always carries warning signs like ―Shock
Risk‖. Always be observant of such signs and follow the safety rules established by the electrical
code followed by the country you’re in.
6. Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and goggles while working on any branch
circuit or any other electrical circuit.
7. Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de-energized first by using a
tester. When an electric tester touches a live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester lights up
showing that an electrical current is flowing through the respective wire. Check all the wires, the
outer metallic covering of the service panel and any other hanging wires with an electrical tester
before proceeding with your work.
8. Never use an aluminum or steel ladder if you are working on any receptacle at height in your
home. An electrical surge will ground you and the whole electric current will pass through your
body. Use a bamboo, wooden or a fiberglass ladder instead.
9. Know the wire code of your country.
10. Always check all your GFCI’s once a month. A GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) is a
RCD (Residual Current Device). They have become very common in modern homes, especially
damp areas like the bathroom and kitchen, as they help avoid electrical shock hazards. It is
designed to disconnect quickly enough to avoid any injury caused by over current or short circuit
faults.

10 Explain the effect of electric current on human heart and lungs

The severity of injury from electrical shock depends on the amount of electrical current and
the length of time the current passes through the body. For example, 1/10 of an ampere (amp) of
electricity going through the body for just 2 seconds is enough to cause death. The amount of
internal current a person can withstand and still be able to control the muscles of the arm and
hand can be less than 10 mill amperes (milliamps or mA). Currents above 10 mA can paralyze or
―freeze‖ muscles. When this ―freezing‖ happens, a person is no longer able to release a tool,
wire, or other object. In fact, the electrified object may be held even more tightly, resulting in
longer exposure to the shocking current. For this reason, handheld tools that give a shock can be
very dangerous. If you can’t let go of the tool, current continues through your body for a longer
time, which can lead to respiratory paralysis (the muscles that control breathing cannot move).
You stop breathing for a period of time. People have stopped breathing when shocked with
currents from voltages as low as 49 volts.Usually
The table shows what usually happens for a range of currents (lasting one second) at typical
household voltages. Longer exposure times increase the danger to the shock victim. For example,
a current of 100 mA applied for 3 seconds is as dangerous as a current of 900 mA applied for a
fraction of a second (0.03 seconds). The muscle structure of the person also makes a difference.
People with less muscle tissue are typically affected at lower current levels. Even low voltages
can be extremely dangerous because the degree of injury depends not only on the amount of
current but also on the length of time the body is in contact with the circuit.

11. Explain the root cause of electric accident at construction site

Construction workers can be exposed to dangerous amounts of electrical currents in a number of
ways. Common causes of these deadly accidents include:
 Being in contact with live power lines
 Failing to provide ground-fault protection for workers
 Failing to properly ground electrical equipment
 Not following manufacturer instructions
  Not using extension cords properly
Serious Injuries That Workers Can Suffer
Contact with as little as two amps of electricity can cause a construction worker to suffer serious
injuries. Common injuries from electrical accidents fall into four main categories:
 Electrocutions
 Electrical shock
 Electrical burns
 Falls resulting from electrical accidents
The extent of a worker’s injuries will depend on a number of factors. Some of these include:

 The length of time he was exposed to an electrical current

 The amount of current that went through his body
 The path of the current through his body
 The amount of moisture present, including on his skin
 The voltage of the current going through his body
 The phase of his heart cycle at the time he is exposed to the electrical current
 His general health
Construction workers can suffer many life-threatening injuries from exposure to electrical
currents. Common injuries can include:
Cardiovascular: A worker can suffer the lack of cardiac rhythm or a chaotic and useless
fluttering of his ventricles—often fatal if not treated immediately—and other heart problems.
Respiratory: While these injuries are rarer, if the current passes through the chest muscles or the
portion of the brain controlling breathing, the person can go into respiratory arrest where he stops
breathing—with deadly results.
Central nervous system: Victims of electrical accidents often fall and suffer additional injuries.
These can include spinal cord injuries, head injuries, nerve damage, and seizures.
Musculoskeletal: When victims fall after being shocked, they can suffer serious fractures and
internal organ damage—sometimes permanent.
Burns: A worker can suffer serious, disfiguring burns from contact with electricity.
 12. Explain ten preventive measures to prevent shock in a substation:
Personal protective equipment is an integral part of substation safety requirements. It serves to
provide adequate protection against hazards of different severity levels that personnel are likely
to be exposed during their routine jobs at the substation. It is the responsibility of the employer to
accurately assess the various risks in the work environment, determine their severity and
accordingly choose PPEs that offer the best protection. The choice of PPEs must be based on the
findings of the most recent arc flash analysis and risk assessment exercise to provide effective
cover.
PPES REQUIRED TO ENTER A SUBSTATION
Most utilities and industrial firms spell out PPE requirements, usage and maintenance
instructions as a part of their safety protocol. Employers must make sure the PPEs available on
site include:
 Hard hats (with full/partial brims as necessary)
 Safety glasses with side shields
 Face masks/shields
 Suitable footwear (safety/steel-toed boots, rated dielectric footwear)
 Insulating gloves (rated, used along with leather/cloth linings for shock protection)
 Insulated tools
 Electrical/insulation blankets
 Live-line tools/hot sticks
Batteries and other chemicals that find use in substations pose a chemical hazard in the
environment, which may require the use of respirators and other chemically resistant PPEs,
clothing, gloves and footwear to safeguard personnel.

Special safety equipment designed for use in confined/cramped spaces, barricades, scaffolding,
gas/smoke detectors must also be available on demand.

TACKLING VISIBLE AND HIDDEN DANGERS

Potential electrical hazards at a substation are not to be taken lightly. While all danger areas and
high-voltage equipment/installations are usually enclosed, shielded from access or prominently
 labelled, there are several other imminent hazards throughout the place that need to be tackled on
a daily basis.

Not all live transmission lines, equipment or components within the substation are insulated as in
conventional wiring. Accidental contact or even breaching the recommended minimum access
distance can prove quite dangerous in certain areas. Even insulated components/parts are likely
to be energised during an arc-flash, posing a serious safety threat to those in contact with the
component or in the path of the arc, and not adequately protected.

Residual energy in certain parts of de-energised equipment is another latent threat that catches
people off guard. Actuators and springs in the breakers may not be fully discharged even after
power supply to the equipment has been shut off, making the use of recommended PPEs
mandatory to avoid undue surprises.

It is important for personnel to keep in mind the PPEs do not totally mitigate the impact of
hazards and are not replacements for safety protocols and procedures. De-energising equipment
(risky in few cases), maintaining prescribed clearances and remote operations wherever possible
are bound to ensure safe working conditions. Donning an arc-flash rated suit will at best reduce
impact of the incident and, hence, the overall severity of injuries – only if adequate precautions
are taken and safety procedures followed.

TRAINING ON USE AND MAINTENANCE OF PPES

Apart from providing the right arc-rated PPEs for the job, employers must also ensure that all
employees who have access to the substation, especially restricted, high-risk areas within are
trained on:
 The safety and emergency procedures
 Likely hazards on specific tasks and how to use PPEs in a proper manner for personal safety
 Inspection of PPEs for any damages that may compromise the level of protection
 Maintenance and care of PPEs
PRO-ACTIVE PERSONAL PROTECTION
Substation workers must strictly adhere to safety regulations and use the right PPEs that offer
best protection against risks involved in a specific task. This is to safeguard themselves from
imminent hazards to which they are likely to be exposed.
Complacency can prove fatal. Even the most experienced and qualified personnel on site may
not be able to anticipate an arc-flash. It is never safe to enter the work area without adequate
precautions. Customary inspections are mandatory to ensure de-energisation and grounding. It is
mandatory to maintain the recommended clearance from live units, wear the necessary protective
garments and gear, and follow instructions meticulously when inside the substation. Workers
must take time to carefully inspect the PPEs before use, report damages if any, and get the units
replaced/ repaired/ tested for safety.

13. Ten ways to prevent electrical accident:

1. Never touch anything electrical with wet hands or while standing in water. Wear rubber shoes
in wet areas. If you get a tingle or shock when touching a sink, tub, or other wet area, turn off
the power at the main panel (if it’s safe) and immediately call an electrician.
2. Don’t use frayed or broken cords or plug in anything with a missing prong.
3 Cover unused outlets. Keep metal objects such as silverware away from outlets.
4 Don’t overload sockets. Use a power board with a safety switch and only use one per wall
outlet.
5 When unplugging, don’t yank! Pull by the plug, not the cord.
6 Don’t run cords under rugs or furniture. Also keep them away from pets that like to chew.
7 Always clean the lint filter for your dryer. If an item says ―do not put in dryer―, trust the
warning!
8 Test safety switches each year.
9 Don’t fly kites near power lines. The kite or string can conduct electricity sending it right
through you to the ground.
10 Never touch a downed power line or climb a utility pole.

14. Safety precaution in small and residential building installation

Before a utility will connect an installation to its supply network, strict pre-commissioning
electrical tests and visual inspections by the authority, or by its appointed agent, must be
satisfied.

These tests are made according to local (governmental and/or institutional) regulations, which
may differ slightly from one country to another. The principles of all such regulations however,
 are common, and are based on the observance of rigorous safety rules in the design and
realization of the installation.

IEC 60364-6 and related standards included in this guide are based on an international consensus
for such tests, intended to cover all the safety measures and approved installation practices
normally required for residential, commercial and (the majority of) industrial buildings. Many
industries however have additional regulations related to a particular product (petroleum, coal,
natural gas, etc.). Such additional requirements are beyond the scope of this guide.

The pre-commissioning electrical tests and visual-inspection checks for installations in buildings
include, typically, all of the following:

 Electrical continuity and conductivity tests of protective, equipotential and earthbonding

conductors
 Insulation resistance tests between live conductors and the protective conductors connected to
the earthing arrangement
 Test of compliance of SELV (Safety Extra Low Voltage) and PELV (Protection by Extra Low
Voltage) circuits or for electrical separation
 Insulation resistance/impedance of floors and walls
 Protection by automatic disconnection of the supply
 For TN, by measurement of the fault loop impedance, and by verification of the
characteristics and/or the effectiveness of the associated protective devices (overcurrent
protective device and RCD)
 For TT, by measurement of the resistance RA of the earth electrode of the exposed-
conductive-parts, and by verification of the characteristics and/or the effectiveness of the
associated protective devices (overcurrent protective device and RCD)
 For IT, by calculation or measurement of the current Id in case of a fist fault at the line
conductor or at the neutral, and with the test done for TN system where conditions are
similar to TN system in case of a double insulation fault situation, with the test done for TT
system where the conditions are similar to TT system in case of a double insulation fault
situation.
 Additional protection by verifying the effectiveness of the protective measure
 Polarity test where the rules prohibit the installation of single pole switching devices in the
neutral conductor.
 Check of phase sequence in case of multiphase circuit
 Functional test of switchgear and controlgear by verifying their installation and adjustment
 Voltage drop by measuring the circuit impedance or by using diagrams

These tests and checks are basic (but not exhaustive) to the majority of installations, while
numerous other tests and rules are included in the regulations to cover particular cases, for
example: installations based on class 2 insulation, special locations, etc.

The aim of this guide is to draw attention to the particular features of different types of
installation, and to indicate the essential rules to be observed in order to achieve a satisfactory
level of quality, which will ensure safe and trouble-free performance.

The methods recommended in this guide, modified if necessary to comply with any possible
variation imposed by a utility, are intended to satisfy all precommissioning test and inspection
requirements.

After verification and testing an initial report must be provided including records of inspection,
records of circuits tested together with the test result and possible repairs or improvements of the
installation.

15. Safety procedure in electric plant

Electricity is a necessary source of energy in industrial plants but it can also be a serious
workplace hazard. It exposes employees to electrocution, shock, fires, burns and explosions.
According to OSHA, electrical accidents rank sixth amongst the causes of work-related fatalities
in the United States. Hundreds of employees have lost lives due to electrical accidents and
thousands have required time off to recover from injuries caused by them. The good news is that
you can prevent electrical hazards by implementing the best electrical safety practices. Read on
to know more.
Keeping the Employees Safe

Employees are the most important asset to your company, which is why you need to protect them
from electrical hazards. The first step would be to acknowledge that hazards exist within your
 facility and decide on safe practices that must be employed in different work areas. Employee
training is critical.

Make sure that the workers are qualified to perform the electrical tasks at hand. Ensure that
employee knowledge is up to standard and monitor their daily work habits. Additionally, monitor
the established processes to ensure compliance.

Role of Employers in Establishing Safety Practices

As an employer, you must undertake the following tasks to implement safety practices:
 Use due diligence to hire qualified candidates for the electrical work. At the same time, consider
that the new hires have neither been tested nor been measured for understanding or qualified
candidates and train them from scratch.
 Audit the workplace to determine the existing level of qualification and compliance.
 Separate the electrical work tasks into the categories of operations or maintenance and conduct
audit performance to ensure that this separation remains.
 Don’t ever assume that your employees know how to handle electrical equipment safely. Provide
them with company expectations on how to work with energized and de-energized equipment
and demonstrate skills that would be necessary to conduct the tasks safely. It is important to
periodically monitor for compliance and understanding. Lastly, measure the level of employee
qualification.
 Audit the electrical safety program to ensure compliance with current standards and measure
against industry best practices. It also helps in identifying various shortfalls in providing a safe
work environment.
 Ensure that all the technically competent workers are aware of and can understand the hazards
that they may encounter while working and how they can keep themselves and their peers safe
while doing it.

Implementing Safety Model

You can give your employees the framework for safe work practices by introducing a safety
model as a part of electrical hazard awareness orientation. The model would also encourage them
to understand their tasks better, enabling them to identify and avoid potential risks when they are
working with or around electricity. Safety model helps in the following three ways:
 It helps in recognizing the hazards in the workplace to avoid and control them. At this stage, the
risk of injuries can be reduced and awareness can be increased by discussing and planning with
supervisors and co-workers.
 It helps in evaluating the risks of injuries from each identified hazard, which helps you apply the
appropriate method of control. Remember that risk evaluation is a continuous process to keep up
with the constant changes in the workplace.
 MODULE 5
CHEMICAL SAFETY
Introduction
A wide range of chemicals are being used in Institute laboratories. The hazards associated with
these chemicals vary depending on their properties and mode of handling and usage.
Inherent hazards are also associated with the reactions that are carried out with these chemicals
and the equipment being used.
The risks involved include serious injuries and adverse health effects. This calls for utmost care
in handling of chemicals from the time of receipt to disposal.
Prevention of mishaps requires a proactive approach in identifying hazards and putting control
measures in place.

Routes of Entry

The chemicals being handled can adversely affect the health of the person if it finds its way into
the body.

This can happen either through the

 respiratory system by inhalation,
 skin absorption and
 Ingestion
Among these three modes, the respiratory system is the main route of entry of chemicals into the
body. Inhalation : Inhalation is the most common route of entry for chemicals into the body.
The vapors or fumes released from chemical containers or during the chemical reaction being
carried out can enter the respiratory system if adequate precautions are not taken.
The impact on the respiratory system will depend upon the type of chemical, its properties,
ambient concentration of the chemical and duration of exposure.

The chemical vapours can cause severe irritation of the respiratory tract or it can be absorbed
into the blood stream to be carried to target organs.
The respiratory system has its own defense mechanism against foreign materials entering it.
The mucous secretion along the nasal cavity and millions of tiny hairs called cilia lining the
respiratory tract help in expelling foreign material. In addition to this, macrophage cells attack
and expel the dust particles reaching the lower respiratory passages. But these defense
mechanisms are often overwhelmed when foreign materials enter the body in excess amounts.

Skin absorption

Next to inhalation, absorption through the skin forms the main route of entry of chemicals into
the body.
Absorption through the skin can happen when the chemical handled comes in contact with
unprotected body parts. This happens when the person handling the chemicals is not wearing
appropriate clothing or personal protective equipment.
Cuts and abrasions on the skin can be a source of absorption of the chemical into the blood
stream. Chemicals can also be absorbed through the intact skin.

Gastrointestinal introduction of toxins

This route of entry of chemicals into the body is rare when compared to other means of entry.
Ingestion of the chemical can result from the consumption of food items inside the labs,
contamination of food items stored in refrigerators meant for chemicals, mouth pipetting, and
accidental ingestion of chemicals stored in drinking water bottles and poor personnel hygiene

Types of chemicals

Corrosives

-Corrosives are chemicals which cause burns on the skin, mucous membrane and eyes. Chemical
burns are also caused when tissues come in contact with corrosive solids, corrosive liquids
dispersed in the air as mists.
- It includes mainly acids and alkalies.
- Acid mists or fumes can corrode structural materials and equipment.
- Corrosives chemicals have other dangerous properties as well. For example, perchloric acid, in
addition to being highly corrosive, is also a powerful oxidizing agent which can cause fire and
explosions.
- Facilities like emergency eyewash and shower must be available in the labs handling
corrosives.
- Splashing of corrosives into the eyes can result in partial or total loss of vision if not flushed
with copious amount of water immediately. Caustics can cause serious skin burns as they
penetrate deep into the tissue.
- Corrosive chemicals, both solid and liquid, can generate large amounts of heat when mixed
with water. This can cause the solution to boil or even erupt violently.
- When water is added into a container of concentrated sulfuric acid it is converted instantly to
steam which will eject the entire contents into the air. To prevent this always add corrosives to
water, slowly, in small amounts, with frequent stirring.
- Always use personal protective equipment like safety goggles, face shields, chemical
apron/coverall and hand gloves with long sleeves while handling corrosive chemicals.

Examples of corrosives include

 Nitric acid
 Sulphuric acid
 Calcium hydroxide
 Hydrofluoric acid
 Sodium hydroxide
 Bromine
Oxidisers
- Oxidisers are a hazard as they support combustion. Fires can burn violently in their presence.
- Oxidisers must be stored away from flammables, since they can start a fire if they come in
contact with each other.
- Oxidizing materials which start to decompose at temperatures marginally above normal room
temperatures must be stored well below their decomposition temperature.
- Do not use sawdust or other combustible substances to clean up spills of oxidizing materials.

Examples of oxidisers include

 Nitric acid
 Perchloric Acid
 Permanganates
 Nitrates
 Perchlorates

Flammables

- Flammable chemicals are a fire hazard. The lower the flashpoint (the lowest temperature at
which a liquid fuel will give off enough vapour to form a momentarily ignitable mixture with
air.) of the chemical, greater the hazard.

- Flammable chemical bottles must not be kept open without caps. They must not be kept
near ignition sources.

- They must not be left on the lab bench after use, but to be stored in safety cabinets after use.
- A fire in a laboratory can easily get out of control if it involves any flammable solvents.

- Flammable chemicals must not be kept open in beakers or containers as they readily release
vapour. The released vapours can form a flammable vapour air mixture which can ignite in
the presence of a source of ignition.

- Open flames must be prohibited where solvents are handled and stored. The amount of
solvent storage inside the labs must be only those required for immediate use.

- Flammable chemicals must not be stored along with oxidisers.

- Flammable chemical bottles or open containers with flammable chemicals must not be
stored in domestic refrigerators. The vapours released can be ignited by the lighting unit or
the thermostat inside. Intrinsically safe lab-purpose refrigerators must be used for the purpose
of storing flammable chemicals.

- Distillation of solvents must only be done inside a chemical fume hood.

- Flammable chemicals must not be heated with Bunsen burners, use a water bath for the
same. Examples of flammable chemicals are
  Acetone
 Toluene
 Methyl alcohol
1.Labelling of chemicals:

- Chemicals when transferred to secondary bottles/cans must be provided with proper labels.
- Chemical formulae or short forms must not be used for labelling of the containers.
The label must contain
 the full name of the chemical,
 its hazards,
 information for safe handling and
 the signage/pictogram indicating the hazard class.
- Labels of bottles which got deteriorated or worn off must be replaced immediately.
- Chemical bottles without labels or improper labeling can result in the wrong chemical being
used.
- Further it will also cause difficulty in case of a spill or body contact or at the time of disposal of
the chemical. Pictograms as per Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of
Chemicals created by the United Nations are as follows.
2. Procedures Used in Safety Audit Practice

It is an essential requirement of an audit system that it will originate, like any safety policy or
safety programme, with the policy-making executive because of the monetary implications, e.g.:
• Implications of a major disaster.
• Running cost of a safety audit team.
• Cost of recommended alterations.
It is important that line management accepts the objectives and supports the activity; properly
assessing the audit findings and ensuring that agreed actions are carried out.
Safety Programmes embody three essential elements:
• Safety Audits
• Safety Inspections
• Safety Walks.
See Appendix A for a Summary of Proposed Characteristics of Safety Audits, Safety Inspections
and Safety Walks.
2.1 Safety Audits
21.1 Preparation
In view of reaching the aims described, every safety audit should be carefully prepared.
Questionnaires should be established for each activity and plant by the safety audit team and be
approved by Company Management. Safety audit questionnaires will also include questions on
general organisation, management and training. Previous audit reports must be studied prior to
the next audit to ensure that all actions from the previous audit either have been carried out
satisfactorily or are included as an additional item on the current audit report.
2.1.2 Frequency of Safety Audits
As safety audits are by nature in-depth assessments of the safety situation of an activity, a
frequency of one every three or four years seems to be appropriate. The frequency will enable
the audit team to better identify technical and personnel changes, evaluate the effectiveness of
training at all levels, review the application of codes of practice and recent statutory regulations.
2.1.3 Safety Audit Team
Safety audits should be carried out at general management level and at each plant or site. The
audit team members should be carefully selected for their knowledge and experience in the field
of audit, from general management, plant management, and other safety specialists.
For example, at plant level, the team should consist of, as a minimum:
• Site Plant Manager
• Site Plant Foreman
• Safety Specialist.
As safety audits are carried out at a number of levels in a factory, e.g. small department,
followed by operating and then general management level, it is essential that a team member at
the lowest level is
also incorporated in the next level team, and so on, so as to ensure a common approach,
improved ease of reporting and communication. When safety audits are carried out at a Main
Branch satellite works, it is recommended that one of the Safety Audit Team who conducted the
audit at the satellite works, participate in the Main Branch Team. The indications given for
frequency, duration, team composition and areas of activity may be adjusted according to plant
size.
2.1.4 Safety Audit Report
Local management must be involved in the review of the findings of the audit team before the
audit team leaves site
Following the audits, a report should be issued containing the following:
• A description of all findings relative to items needing a proposal for remedial action.
• A description of any defects detected on equipment and initial proposals for remedial actions.
• The names and job titles of those people who are responsible for initiating remedial actions.
• The need for any revision of operating instructions or company standards.
• Agreed target dates for completion (which realistically allow sufficient time for thorough
technical assessment and consequent changes, if necessary).
Copies of the audit report shall be given to the local plant manager and to the company
management, who will take decisions and supervise follow-up actions agreed by the safety audit
team.
2.1.5 Monitoring and Follow-up
Monitoring of approved safety audit conclusions and recommendations is an important activity
to ensure improvement of the safety level of a plant or company. It is the responsibility of the
Plant Manager to see that audit conclusions and recommendations are implemented by the
agreed target dates.
2.2 Safety Inspection
A safety inspection is a scheduled inspection of a plant area, conducted by the plant supervisor or
plant management member, one of the plant employees and a company safety officer. Safety
inspections will be carried out with a frequency of one year, and may last up to one or two days.
Safety inspections may cover the following subjects:
• Housekeeping
• Unsafe acts or conditions
It will use lists referring to specialised equipment and procedures according to activity.
The result of the safety inspection, provided by the checklists filled in by the visiting team, will
be handed over to the plant manager who will be responsible for monitoring all resultant actions
and follow-up.
2.3 Safety Walks
A safety walk is a scheduled or non-scheduled inspection of a plant area, conducted by local
personnel, e.g. a plant management member assisted by one of the plant employees.
It will cover the following subjects:
• Housekeeping
• Visible unsafe acts and conditions.
The use of a simple aide memoire is of assistance in reminding those involved of the objectives.
The result of the safety walk will be recorded and reported to the plant manager who will decide
on the follow-up to be given. The team conducting the safety walk should have received
adequate training in observing unsafe acts and conditions.
When scheduled, a safety walk of a plant area may be carried out every month and last one hour.

3. Safety Precautions using CNG

CNG cars have their own set of drawbacks. When compared with diesel or petrol. CNG is highly
combustible. Just one spark is required to set the car on fire. Therefore, to guarantee that you are
driving safely in your CNG-powered vehicle, you must take a few precautions.

Listed below are precautionary measures that every CNG driver must take.

1. Do Not Use Unauthorized CNG Kits: Even though it is advisable for people to buy a CNG car
with the factory-installed CNG cylinder, many people try to convert their petrol cars into
CNG by installing the fuel kit in their car. Besides they get the installation done by a roadside
dealer or mechanic instead of an authorized dealer. This can not only spoil the car’s
mechanics and result in leakage leading to a fire. Therefore, you must avoid installing
unauthorized CNG cylinder in your car.
2. Avoid Using Substandard/Mismatched Accessories: When installing the CNG cylinder in
your car, you must make sure that the fuel kit and cylinder suits the model of the car. The
CNG cylinder needs to be compliant with the car's original fixtures and wiring. Additionally,
the CNG cylinder must be of approved brand and manufactured according to the relevant
standards. There are increasing risks of fire/damage due to different voltages and current
ratings if a substandard/mismatched CNG cylinder is installed in the car.
3. Regular Maintenance: Ensure that the car is thoroughly checked before conversion. You must
get your car regularly checked/serviced. Old wires typically lose insulation, leading to a short
circuit, as such they must be replaced immediately. The CNG cylinder must also be tested
before installation.
4. Test Certificate: Once the CNG kit has been installed, you must obtain a “CNG Cylinder Test
Certificate” by the CNG licensee or retrofitter. The certificate acts as a proof for installing an
approved CNG cylinder in the car.
5. Thorough Leak Test of the Gas System: Do not overfill the fuel tank or have an incorrect
fitting or a gradual leak in your fuel tank since this could be very dangerous. This will lead to
the outbreak of fire and the explosion of the fuel tank.
6. Replace Spark Plugs: You must make sure the car's spark plug is compliant with the CNG
cylinder. This is crucial since spark plugs wear out faster when used on CNG. If there is no
special CNG-compatible spark plug available it is important to reduce the gap between the
spark source and the metallic plug tip.
7. Follow the Rules: The car’s functioning on CNG must meet the terms as stipulated in the
central motor vehicles rules. Activities like smoking in the car, firecrackers near the car, using
mobile phones or any electronics when refilling the cylinder, carrying/transporting
inflammable materials, and prolonged use of the car heater can be risky.

4. Safety Precautions using CNG

Here are safety tips to observe when using LPG in your home.
1. Never leave your gas stove unattended when cooking.
2. Leave the LPG cylinder in an upright position in a safe space for storage.
3. Ensure all your equipment is up to date.
4. Open a window for ventilation
1) Never leave your gas stove unattended when cooking
Is it risky to leave an LPG stove on? The answer is yes. Leaving a gas stove on can turn into a
hazardous condition. Unattended gas stoves are the main reason that kitchen fires get started.
Always switch off your gas stove when not in use.
2) Leave the LPG cylinder in an upright position in a safe space for storage
Always keep LPG cylinders in a standing position (whether full or empty) and ensure the valves
are at the top of the cylinder. Also, make sure the storage area has enough fire extinguishers,
especially the dry powder type. Finally, keep the safety gadgets at an easily accessible location
and maintain them regularly.
3) Ensure all your equipment is up to date
When using LPG cylinders, ensure you are using the correct and updated equipment. Check in
the market the recommended brands to avoid buying substandard apparatus. Also, make sure you
check the equipment’s condition before each use. Most importantly, avoid using damaged or
rusty canister seals to evade gas leakage.
4) Open a window for ventilation
One of the most significant factors to consider when using LPG in your house is ventilation.
Always place your LPG cylinder in an open place such as a door or window to ensure adequate
air circulation. Never keep your cylinder close to other heat sources like electric outlets and
danger-prone locations in the house to avoid ignitions.
Acid Hood Purpose and Importance
The laboratory chemical fume hood is the most common local exhaust ventilation system used in
laboratories and is the primary method used to control inhalation exposures to hazardous
substances. When used properly, fume hoods offer a significant degree of protection for the user.
Understanding the limitations, the appropriate maintenance techniques, and overall design of the
fume hood will ensure your safety while using hazardous materials. The purpose of a chemical
fume hood is to prevent the release of hazardous substances into the general laboratory space by
controlling and then exhausting hazardous and/or odorous chemicals. In the event of an
accidental spill, the fume hood will contain the spilled chemicals and exhaust the fumes away
from the user and laboratory zone.

5.1 Safety and Precautions while handling Acid Hoods

• Untrained users should not handle acids or their containers.
• Always use proper PPE when working with acids. In addition to standard cleanroom attire, this
includes an apron, face shield, arms sleeves and extended gloves, all of which must be resistant
to corrosive chemicals.
• Never work with acids while alone in the cleanroom. Make sure that at least one of the present
users is aware of the nature of your work and is close enough to assist you in the case of an
emergency.
• Be aware of the nearest shower and eye wash station, as well as its proper use, before
beginning.
• Always keep chemicals at least a foot away from the edge of the hood. This will reduce the
likelihood of accidents and will prevent fumes from escaping into the cleanroom. Laminar air
flow is only effective below the sash and within this 1-foot perimeter.
• Use proper pouring technique, as described later in this document, and place wipes under
glassware to capture small spills.
• Clean any spilled chemicals immediately.
• Ensure that the lab ware and utensils you are using are compatible with your chemicals. Glass
should not be used with HF and many types of tweezers are not suitable for acids. Contact
NUFAB staff if you are unsure of compatibility.
• All chemicals that are left unattended must be clearly marked with chemical name, owner’s
name, contact information, time that the chemical will be removed and instructions for other
users who will be working in the vicinity of the unattended chemical. Never leave an unlabeled
chemical unattended.
• All chemicals for use in NUFAB are approved by NUFAB management. Please send email
requests with chemical name, SDS, and quantity. • Only open the cap of any chemical bottle
inside the hood and under the sash.
• No waste goes down the drain. All waste must be handled according to the waste procedures.
• Do not mix chemicals without first verifying compatibility – never mix acids and solvents.
• When mixing etches, always add acid (AAA). Never add water (NAW) to acid.
• Do not use more chemical that is required for your experiment.
• Do not remove acids from samples or containers using the hood’s spray guns – this will cause
splashing of the acid.
• Refer to the SDS of every chemical that is to be used before handling that chemical.
• Follow all chemical safety rules.
6. Shower and Eye washer
6.1 Shower:
A safety shower is a unit designed to wash an individual's head and body which has come into
contact with hazardous chemicals. Large volumes of water are used and a user may need to take
off any clothing that has been contaminated with hazardous chemicals. Safety showers cannot be
used for flushing an individual's eyes, due to the high pressure of water from the shower, which
can damage a user's eyes.
 Fig.1 Shower Station Fig.2 Eye wash station

6.2 Eyewash and Eye/Face Wash Stations

Eyewash stations should be designed to deliver fluid to both eyes simultaneously at a volume of
not less than 1.5 litres/minute (0.4 gallons/minute) for 15 minutes. The combination eye and face
wash stations require 11.4 litres per minute (3.0 gallons per minute). However, in either case, the
volume should not be at a velocity which may injure the eyes. The unit should be between 83.8
and 134.6 cm (33 to 53 inches) from the floor, and a minimum of 15.3 cm (6 inches) from the
wall or nearest obstruction.A pH neutral solution for emergency eyewash[3] may also be chosen
to reduce the danger from contaminants if strong acids or alkali chemicals are presented.

With an eye wash station, the user should be able to open their eyelids with their hands and still
have their eyes in the liquid. In the case of the eye/face wash, the user should have enough room
to allow the eyelids to be held open with the hands while the eyes and face are still in the stream.
As with the shower, the unit should also be designed so that it can be activated in less than 1
second, and it remains operational without the operator's hand on the valve (or lever, handle,
etc.) with the valve being located in an easily located place. Since the nozzles to eyewash
stations typically need to be protected from airborne contaminants, the units are to be designed
such that the removal of these covers should not require a separate motion by the user when the
unit is activated.
7. Safety policy of the company:

Company policy: It is the policy of this company to ensure a safe, healthful workplace for all its
employees. Injury and illness losses from incidents are costly and preventable. This company
will employ an effective accident and illness prevention program that involves all its employees
in the effort to eliminate workplace hazards.

Management: Management is accountable for preventing workplace incidents, injuries and

illnesses. Management will provide top-level support of safety program initiatives. Management
will consider all employee suggestions for achieving a safer, healthier workplace. Management
also will keep informed about workplace safety and health hazards, and it will regularly review
the company safety and health program.

Supervision: Supervisors are responsible for supervising and training workers in safe work
practices. Supervisors must enforce company safety rules and work to eliminate hazardous
conditions. Supervisors shall lead safety efforts by example.

Safety Committee: The safety committee includes employer and employee representatives who
are responsible for recommending safety and health improvements in the workplace. The
committee is also responsible for identifying hazards and unsafe work practices, removing
obstacles to incident prevention and helping the company evaluate the accident and illness
prevention program.

Employees: All employees are expected and encouraged to participate in safety and health
program activities including the following: reporting hazards, unsafe work practices and
accidents immediately to their supervisors or a safety committee representative; wearing required
personal protective equipment; and participating in and supporting safety committee activities.

 All incidents must be reported immediately to your supervisor/foreperson, and prior to

leaving the workplace.
 All workers must have proof of training indicating that they are trained in WHMIS.
 Workers must wear appropriate PPE when and where required.
 Workers must perform all work following safe work practices and safe job procedures.
 Workers must maintain good housekeeping.
 No fighting or horseplay is permitted at the workplace.
 No theft or vandalism will be tolerated at the workplace.
 No possession or consumption of alcohol or illegal drugs is permitted while at the
workplace.
 You are not permitted to arrive or remain at work if your ability to perform the job safely is
impaired.


8. Entry into a Confined Space :

Entry into a confined space is defined as the action by which a person passes through a limited
opening into a restricted or potentially hazardous work area. Entry is considered to occur as soon
as any part of the entrant’s body breaks the plane of the entry point into the confined space.
8.1 Hazards
Anything, by its nature that will or may, endangers the safety or health of a worker. Hazards
may include;
 Toxic vapors, mists, or dusts from welding, cleaning, or powder coating.
 Explosive atmospheres.
 Lack of Oxygen, causing asphyxiation.
 Electrical shock from powered tools or lights.
 Physical hazards such as slipping or falling.
 Entering a confined space without testing the atmosphere.
 Leaking cutting/welding hoses inside the confined space.
 Improper use, or not using, Personnel Protective Equipment.
 Noise  Temperature extremes.
 Insufficient rescue equipment or procedures.
 Not following confined space entry procedures.

9. Confined Space “Safe Entry Tag”

The “Safe Entry Tag”, is Company Name Confined Space Entry Permit and this tag is used to
ensure that the existing hazards of a confined space have been properly identified, assessed
(evaluated) and that necessary preventive and protective measures and procedures are put into
place for the safety and health of workers involved in confined space work.
9.1 Responsibilities
Supervisor
 The supervisor in charge of the area for which the confined space entry will occur, is
responsible to ensure that all preparations are in place for the safe entry of any worker.
 Ensure workers involved in the confined space are trained in the conditions of entry and the
nature of any hazards they may be exposed to.
 Ensure the appropriate PPE is available and in good working order.
 Ensure rescue procedures, equipment and trained rescue personnel are in place.
 Ensure a Confined Space “Safe Entry Tag” is completed.
 Identify the “Class” of Confined Space.
 Assign a safety watch person on the outside of the tank.
 Periodically check the confined space entry jobs to ensure all Health & Safety procedures are
being followed.
 To immediately shut down any unsafe confined space entry job. 3 Worker and any other
Personnel entering the Confined Space
 The worker prior to entering the confined space will ensure that all necessary precautions and
procedures are in place to their satisfaction and then sign the Confined Space “Safe Entry Tag”.
 Will wear all Personal Protective Equipment assigned to them, to ensure their safety and health
according to the hazards of the confined space job.
 Will inspect and use equipment and tools required to do the jobs inside the confined space,
according to safe work practices and procedures.
 Will monitor conditions inside the confined space and if conditions should change inside that
are not accounted for on the “Safe Entry Tag” they will discontinue the work and exit the
confined space until the new hazards have been addressed.
 10. Risk = Hazard x Exposure

When it comes to chemical management, a distinction must be made between hazard and
risk. Hazard defines the inherent property of a chemical having the potential to cause adverse
effects when an organism, system or population is exposed to that agent. Risk however,
establishes the probability of the adverse effect occurring.

To be more specific, the risk of a chemical depends on the following 2 factors:

 The inherent toxicity of the chemical (hazard);

 How much of a chemical is present in an environmental medium (e.g., water, soil, air) and how
much contact a person or ecological receptor has with the chemical substance (exposure).
A hazardous chemical substance poses no risk if there is no exposure. For example, sulfuric
acid is very corrosive. It is of no or little risk to ordinary people who do not handle them. For
some people who may be exposed to sulfuric acid (scientists, workers), risk management
measures (i.e, wearing goggles and gloves) can be taken to minimize the risk.

10.1 Chemical Risk Assessment: Purpose, Procedure and Tasks

The goal of chemical risk assessment is to have a full understanding of the nature, magnitude and
probability of a potential adverse health or environmental effect of a chemical. It takes into
account of both hazard and exposure. Risk assessment forms the foundation of regulatory
decisions for industrial chemicals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food additives and
food contact substances in developed countries today.

In general, chemical risk assessment consists of the following three steps:

 Hazard characterization:
Dose-response determination (LD50/LC50, NOAEL, T25, EC50, NOEC, etc), determining the
relationship between the magnitude of exposure to a hazard and the probability and severity of
adverse effects.
 Exposure assessment: identifying the extent to which exposure actually occurs. Exposure
levels are usually estimated or measured.
 Risk characterization: combining the information from the hazard characterization and the
exposure assessment in order to form a conclusion about the nature and magnitude of risk, and,
if indicated, implement additional risk management measures.
The picture below summarizes the complete procedure of chemical risk assessment under REACH.
The table below summarizes the detailed tasks of hazard characterization, exposure assessment and
risk characterization for human health and the environment.