PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING

(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
Dr. Buku, Dr. Appianing, Mr. Ziggah,
Mr. Ofosu-Dwamena, Ms. Ogah, Mr. Esia-Donkoh
9/6/2021 1
 UNIT 1

THE CONCEPT/NATURE OF TEACHING

AND TEACHING PHILOSOPHY

9/6/2021 2
Outline

§ Principles of effective teaching.

§ Qualities of a good teacher.

§ Teaching as a profession.
9/6/2021 3
Principles of Effective Teaching: Activities

§ How would you explain principles?

§ Share with your colleagues the principles you

have as a student of the University of Education,
Winneba.

9/6/2021 4
Principles of Effective Teaching
§ In education, principles are the fundamental practices in
teaching and learning which serve as guide for teachers
to effect worthy learning outcomes.
§ Teaching is an intentional or purposeful activity that is
ultimately geared toward learning.
§ Certain principles guide effective teaching and these
include:
- principle of understanding.
- principle of appropriate and effective use of resources.
- principle of self-activity.
9/6/2021 5
Principles of Effective Teaching
- principle of sequencing and continuity.
- principle of selection.
- principle of adequate preparation.
- principle of individual differences.
- principle of review/recapitulation.
- principle of relationship/correlation.
- principle of interest.
9/6/2021 6
Principles of Effective Teaching
- Creating an active learning environment.
- Focusing attention.
- Connecting knowledge.
- Helping learners to manage their time productively.
- Ensuring and demanding quality.
- Providing timely and constructive feedback.
- Balancing high expectations with learner support.
9/6/2021 7
Principles of Effective Teaching
- Enhancing motivation to learn.
- Encouraging teacher-learner and learner-
learner interaction and communication.
- Encouraging teamwork, co-operation, and
collaboration.
- Encouraging independent/self learning.
- Helping learners to organise their knowledge.
9/6/2021 8
Qualities of a Good Teacher
§ Arguably, the single most important factor in any teaching
and learning process is the teacher.
§ A motivated, a good and an effective teacher is key to any
successful instructional process. However, what is
considered good or effective is fluid, relative, and
subjective.
§ In spite of the arguments confusion there are some
attributes or qualities every teacher should possess and
demonstrate.
§ Throughout your education, who do you consider as your best
teacher
9/6/2021
and what makes him or her so? 9
… Qualities of a Good Teacher
 Categories of Qualities of a Good Teacher

Academic

Leadership GOOD Professional

TEACHER

Personal
9/6/2021 11
Group these Qualities Under the Four Categories
Sense of Self Reinforcing Good Understanding
responsibility confidence behaviour relationship
Fair and firm Knowledge of Sincerity Dedication Enthusiasm
subject matter
Ability to vary Current and Appropriate
learning lifelong learner and effective
situations use of learning
resources
Humility Integrity Creativity Flexibility
Sense of Class control Good Sound Appropriate and
humour and discipline questioning knowledge of effective use of
skills child varied of learning
9/6/2021 development strategies 12
Reading Assignment

§ Read for further information on academic, personal,

professional, and leadership qualities of an
effective teacher. (Your responses would be shared
on a forum discussion on the LMS (VCLASS).

9/6/2021 13
Teaching as a Profession: Introduction
§ The issue of teaching being regarded as a full
profession has been of a great concern to
educators and stakeholders for a long time.

§ Teaching could be determined as a profession

only when it is rated on the ideal characteristics
of a profession identified by many educators.

9/6/2021 14
What is a Profession?
§ An occupation based on intellectual training
with the aim of giving skilled service to clients
for a definite fee or salary.
§ An occupation which needs advanced
education and special training.
§ A paid occupation which involves extensive
training and a formal qualification.
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… What is a Profession
§ It is for this reason that jobs like medicine,
engineering and law are often regarded as
‘professions’.

§ It is not clear from the definitions whether

teaching is a full profession.

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Characteristics of a Profession
§ In determining the status of teaching in terms of
profession, there is the need to consider the
various characteristics of a profession including
the following:
- A sense of public service and a lifetime
commitment to career.
- A defined body of knowledge and skills beyond the
grasps of lay persons.
- Application of research and theory to practice.
9/6/2021 17
Characteristics of a Profession
- A lengthy period of specialized training.
- Control over licensing standards and/or entry
requirements.
- Autonomy in making decisions about selected
spheres of work.
- Professional groups regulate their own activities
rather than having outsiders to set policies and
enforce compliance to standards.
9/6/2021 18
… Characteristics of a Profession
§ A high level of public trust and confidence in
individual practitioners.
§ A code of ethics (safeguarded by law) that set
standards for the practice of the profession and
behaviour of its members.
§ Professional associations organized into
effective pressure groups and/or elite groups
provide recognition for individual achievement.
9/6/2021 19
… Characteristics of a Profession
§ A shared sense among members of what they
seek to accomplish (common goals and
purpose).
§ A commitment to works and client by
emphasising on services rendered more than
financial rewards.
§ High prestige and economic standing.
9/6/2021 20
Assignment

Based on the characteristics of a profession, advance

cogent arguments to discuss the assertion that teaching in
Ghana is a profession. You may consider the following:
Specialised body of knowledge, Code of ethics,
Professional associations, Conditions of service,
Registration of entry, Freedom to practice the profession
and Status in the eyes of the public

9/6/2021 21
Reading Assignment
§ Meaning of methods, techniques, and
strategies of teaching.
§ Teacher centred method (meaning,
assumptions, characteristics, advantages,
disadvantages).
§ Techniques of teacher centred method (e.g.
lecture, drill and practice).
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PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
Dr. Buku, Dr. Appianing, Mr. Ziggah, Mr. Ofosu-
Dwamena, Ms. Ogah, Mr. Esia-Donkoh
9/6/2021 24
 UNIT 2 WEEK 3

METHODS, TECHNIQUES AND

STRATEGIES OF TEACHING

9/6/2021 25
Outline
§ Meaning of methods, techniques, and
strategies of teaching.
§ Types of teaching methods (teacher-centred
and learner-centred).
§ Teacher-centred method (meaning,
assumptions, characteristics, advantages, and
disadvantages).
§ Some techniques of teacher-centred method
(lecture, drill and practice, etc.).
Brainstorming

How do you understand the following terms?

Methods
Techniques
Strategies
Skills

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Meaning of Methods of Teaching
§ The term method, is the orderly arrangement or pattern
of structuring an activity.
§ Method of teaching thus refers to the orderly plan,
procedure, organisation, or arrangement of
instructional activities (teaching and learning activities)
in order to attain maximum learning outcomes.
§ It is the general procedure in which the process of
teaching is structured and implemented.
§ It refers to all the things the teacher does in the
classroom to enable the learner learn (Amadi, 1992).
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... Meaning of Methods of Teaching
It is the way a teacher decides on what and how the
students will learn.
It is an orderly arrangement of learning activities and
systematic procedure of the teaching and learning
process to achieve desired learning outcomes.
It sets the guidelines for the pattern of behaviour the
teacher expects from the learners in the course of the
teaching and learning process (Lawal & Oyeleye, 2004).
It is the systematic way in which a teacher approaches his
or her teaching.
9/6/2021 29
… Meaning of Methods of Teaching

Different processes lead to different forms of

interaction between the teacher and learners
which results in learning.
In one circumstance, the teacher is seen to be
at the centre of the instructional process
teaching with very little interaction with and
involvement of the learners.

9/6/2021 30
… Meaning of Methods of Teaching
In another situation the teacher places the
learner at the centre of the teaching and
learning process where the teacher serves as
a facilitator.
These two situations are referred to as
teacher-centred method and learner-centred
method of teaching respectively.

9/6/2021 31
Meaning of Teaching Techniques
Techniques refer to the specific ways one performs or
makes use of a method.
Teaching techniques are the exact, precise, or specific
ways a teacher applies or performs a teaching method.
They are the specific actions and processes through
which the goal of a particular method of teaching is
achieved.
They enhance the development of skills that can be used to
encourage and help learners understand the concepts and
processes needed to achieve learning outcomes of any teaching
and learning process. 32
… Meaning of Teaching Techniques
Teaching techniques are therefore the activities
performed to realise the methods of teaching.
They are the building blocks of learning, remembering,
and effective learning.
Teaching technique is the way or procedure a teacher
handles the different aspects or phases of an
instructional method.
This implies there are different techniques to be
considered when a teacher is using a particular method
of teaching.
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... Meaning of Teaching Strategies
Strategies are important actions which are necessary to
realise directional decisions to achieve set goals.
Strategy is a general term popularised over time by the
military to suggest the plan for success at the battle field.
When applied to teaching and learning, our battle ground
is the classroom.
Teaching strategy is thus seen as a plan made to achieve
success in teaching and learning.

9/6/2021 34
… Meaning of Teaching Strategies
Teaching strategy is a generalized plan for a lesson(s)
which include structure, desired learner behaviour in
terms of goals of instructions and an outline of planned
tactics necessary to implement the strategy.
It is sequencing of the appropriate techniques which a
teacher has selected for the teaching and learning
process (Oyeleye, 2003).
It is also the overall plan developed by a teacher to
satisfy and achieve desired learning outcomes
(Ogunyemi, 2000).
9/6/2021 35
… Meaning of Teaching Strategies
For instance, a teacher using problem solving teaching
technique may apply a combination of strategies such as
using reaction of students to posters, followed by
questioning, and later group discussion.
This shows the teacher is strategising to achieve
effective lesson objectives.
This implies the importance of a teacher acquiring a skill
of strategising which involves the knowledge,
consideration, and combination of variety of techniques
to be used in teaching.
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… Meaning of Teaching Strategies
There are different types of teaching strategies
used by the teacher.
He/she manipulates them according to the need of
the students, subject matter and of course, the
instructional objectives, and implements them in
classroom teaching.
Selection and manipulation of teaching strategies is
done at pre-active phase of teaching while
implementation is done at interactive phase of
teaching.
9/6/2021 37
Methods, Techniques, Strategies: Relationship
Methods, techniques and strategies are concepts that are
related activities even though they differ from one another
in meaning.
They are different but they are all part of planning to
enhance effective teaching and learning.
A professional teacher should be mindful of a variety of
them when preparing to teach any lesson.
If a method is accepted as a teacher’s approach to
teaching, techniques would mean the specific activities
performed while using the method.
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… Methods, Techniques, Strategies: Relationship
The strategy would be the sequence
adopted/adapted for using the techniques during a
lesson.
If a teacher decides to use learner-centred method to
teach a topic, he/she would also need to select a
combination of techniques (activities) such as whole
case study, role play, and small group discussion.
The strategy would require the teacher to determine
which of these techniques would come first and
which will follow.
9/6/2021 39
… Methods, Techniques, Strategies: Relationship
The teacher can decide to present a relevant case on the
topic for the students to react to them, followed by a role
play, and finally a small group discussion on their
observations on the case presented and the roles played.
The appropriate use of techniques and strategies in a
teacher’s method of teaching reflects a likelihood of
realising desired learning outcomes through a practical
lesson.
Identifying the method, techniques, and strategies for
delivering a lesson is an indication of how ready a teacher
is for a lesson.
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… Methods, Techniques, Strategies: Relationship
Methods, techniques and strategies describe how a
lesson is to be taught.
This should start from the general method to the
specific techniques and strategies for using such
techniques with the learners.
Thus, methods, techniques and strategies of
teaching describe what the teacher will do, and how
it is going to be done at the appropriate time in the
course of the lesson.
9/6/2021 41
Meaning of Teaching Skills
Skill is the ability or competence to do something
using the right methods, techniques, and strategies.
Teaching involves a lot of skills with the major ones
including:
learning plan preparation,
setting SMART learning outcomes/objectives,
introducing a lesson,
questioning,
communicating, and using appropriate examples,
9/6/2021 42
Meaning of Teaching Skills
Communicating,
using appropriate examples,
using the chalkboard/whiteboard,
using appropriate teaching and learning
resources,
using effective non-verbal cues,
using evaluation or assessment, etc.

9/6/2021 43
Meaning of Teacher-centred Method
This is also known as teacher transmission method
(Ghanney & Bentil, 2020).
The teacher takes the centre role in the teaching and
learning situation.
The reason is that the activities in the classroom result in
very little interaction between the teacher and the learners.
The teacher dominates the teaching and learning process
by telling students what they need to know.
The main attention is more on what is taught than the
learner being taught.
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Teacher-centred Method: Purpose
Many teachers tend to use teacher-centred method for
three main reasons:
To cover a large area of knowledge in order to
prepare learners for examinations.
To provide information otherwise not available to
learners (e.g. lack of textbooks and other learning
resources).
To introduce new knowledge which may be mainly
theoretical or needs the teacher first to tell
learners what to do.
9/6/2021 45
Teacher-centred Method: Assumptions
The teacher knows best and as such he/she is
considered the source of knowledge.
Students have no knowledge.
Students are passive.
Knowledge can be gained by passive transfer.
Teachers know what learners need to learn.
All learners learn in the same way.
All learners have the same learning needs.
NB: By definition, assumptions are not supposed to have
been proven.
9/6/2021 46
Teacher-centred Method: Characteristics
Teacher selects what the learner will learn, the techniques,
strategies and the pace of learning.
The teacher’s role is to communicate knowledge to
learners.
Teacher teaches all the time and does not allow learners
to learn on their own.
Learners learn when the teacher is present and they are
encouraged to think that they cannot learn on their own.
Learners are regarded as more or less uniform group of
learners, rather than individuals with diverse needs,
interests, talents, and abilities.
9/6/2021 47
Brainstorming Activity

Pick an elbow partner and discuss the

advantages of teacher-centred method of
teaching. This activity should be done in five
minutes.
Share with the rest of the class the advantages
you discussed.

9/6/2021 48
Teacher-centred Method: Advantages
It saves time as all learners are exposed to new
knowledge which they learn at the same time.
It allows faster coverage of the syllabus/curriculum.
The teacher has control of the teaching and
learning situation which helps to maintain good
class control.
Learners are exposed to new
information/knowledge in a uniform manner.
9/6/2021 49
Brainstorming Activity

Pick a different elbow partner and discuss the

disadvantages of teacher-centred method of
teaching. This activity should be done in five
minutes.

Share with the rest of the class the advantages

you discussed.
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Teacher-centred Method: Disadvantages
Learners play a more passive role in learning as listeners,
and they do not actively participate in the lesson.
Lessons are planned according to the teacher’s wishes,
interests, and abilities.
Learners’ interests and abilities are not given adequate
consideration.
Learners with difficulties may be behind while bright
ones are slowed down because of the need to have the
whole class follow. This may lead to indiscipline problems
in the class.
9/6/2021 51
Teacher-centred Method: Some Techniques

Lecture technique.
Drill and practice technique.
Questioning and responding technique.
Whole class discussion technique.
Teacher-led demonstration technique.

9/6/2021 52
Reading Assignment
Read on the following for a forum discussion on the
LMS.
- Lecture technique.
- Drill and practice technique.
- Questioning and responding technique.
- Whole class discussion technique.
- Teacher-led demonstration technique.
9/6/2021 53
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
Dr. Buku, Dr. Appianing, Mr. Ziggah, Mr. Ofosu-
Dwamena, Ms. Ogah, Mr. Esia-Donkoh
9/6/2021 55
 UNIT 3 WEEK 5

INTEGRATED PEDAGOGIES

9/6/2021 56
Outline

Introduction

Meaning of integrated pedagogies.

Objectives of integrated pedagogies.

Examples of integrated pedagogies.

9/6/2021 57
Introduction
A key trend in recent pedagogic thinking, and its
matching implementing practices, is centred on the
important concepts of integration and competence.
This progress is the consistent outcome of
numerous pedagogic developments that have
impacted the teaching practices of the 21st century.
After years of indecisiveness with the idea of
competence in education, many authors nowadays
tend to settle on the definition of competence.
9/6/2021 58
… Introduction
Competence is the natural mobilisation and use of a set of
resources with the view of addressing a situation and responding
to it in an appropriate way (Dolz & Ollagnier, 2002; Roegiers, 2001,
2003).
Competence can only occur in the existence of a precise situation
through the integration of diverse skills, made up of knowledge
and know-how.
These are necessary elements needed to develop competence.
For example, to be able to drive one may have acquired the
necessary skills but not attained the required competence
because the skills are not integrated.
What
9/6/2021
are some of the skills needed to drive? 59
… Introduction
Lacking one of the skills needed to drive will equally not
make the person competent.
An individual may be competent in a specific situation
(driving under normal conditions), but incompetent in a
different situation (driving in a rainy condition).
An education concentrated on learning competences, as
opposed to the simple comparison of skills, is vital for the
application of integrated pedagogy (Roegiers, 2001).
Such a pedagogy will assist the learner to master the
situations to be dealt with in professional and/or private
life.
9/6/2021 60
Integrated Pedagogies: Meaning
It usually refers to the integration of different
pedagogical techniques and strategies in the
teaching and learning process.

It is the pedagogical plan that incorporates

rich set of teaching, learning, and
technological techniques and strategies to
achieve desired learning outcomes.
9/6/2021 61
Integrated Pedagogies: Objectives
To make sense of the learning process
Ensuring the learning process is situated in an
expressive context that makes sense to the learner
in line with real-life situations needed for future life.
To differentiate matters by relevance
Focusing on the importance either because it is
necessary and practical for daily life, or because it
may becoming the basis for future learning.
9/6/2021 62
… Integrated Pedagogies: Objectives
To applying the learning to practical situations
It involves not just filling the learner’s head with
knowledge.
It includes teaching the learner to relate the
learned material to values, such as becoming a
responsible citizen, a competent worker, an
independent individual.
It also involves appraising the learner in a complex
scenario.
9/6/2021 63
… Integrated Pedagogies: Objectives
To associate the learned elements
Involves responding to one of society’s main
tasks of providing a learner with the ability to
organise knowledge and skills to deal
effectively with daily events as well as
unexpected ones.
This fourth objective is based on the close
interlinking of the first three objectives
(process, relevance, and application).
9/6/2021 64
Examples of Integrated Pedagogies
Active learning;
Co-operative and collaboration learning;
Experiential learning;
Guided discovery learning;
Enquiry-based learning;
Problem-based learning; and
Project-based learning.
9/6/2021 65
Active Learning: Meaning
§ Active learning is generally defined as any instructional approach
that engages or actively involves learners in the learning process.

§ It requires learners to perform meaningful learning activities and

think about what they are doing (meta-cognition) as individuals,
pairs or structured groups.

§ Active involvement is characterised by learner choice or

independence in terms of the task, and how and when learners
respond to the task.
9/6/2021 66
Active Learning: Meaning
§ Active learning influences learners’ own interests to engage them
in the learning process.

§ It uses hands-on, authentic, real-world related activities with

teachers serving as facilitators rather than instructors.

§ The core elements of active learning are learner engagement in

the learning process.

9/6/2021 67
Active Learning: Meaning
§ The teacher’s role in active learning includes:

- asking questions to focus on what is to be learned,

- encouraging sharing of knowledge with other learners,

- recording anecdotal observations,

- providing learning materials and resources to enhance learning

experiences.
9/6/2021 68
Active Learning: Benefits
§ It creates meaningful learning opportunities because it integrates
learners’ experiences from home and school settings.
§ It encourages social interactions through the use of small group
activities and peer learning.
§ Learners are actively engaged in the learning process (it focuses
on the learner and learning).
§ It is iterative because learners investigate and explore new
concepts and ideas in active learning environments.
9/6/2021 69
Active Learning: Benefits
§ It creates a positive learning environment which is fun and
enjoyable.

§ It aids in information retention.

§ It helps develop good communication and critical thinking skills.

§ It provides variety of learning opportunities and improves

motivation to learn.
9/6/2021 70
Active Learning: Enabling Factors
§ Successful implementation of active learning approaches depends on
various factors such as:
- Regular and ongoing reflective dialogue among teachers in professional
learning communities (groups).
- Use of valuable evidence to link changed classroom practices to improved
learning outcomes for learners.
- Planning and implementing simple activities to generate positive learning
outcomes.
- Provision of whole school level support in the form of peer support and
mentoring, creating communities of practice, leadership support, and
resources.
9/6/2021 71
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Meaning
§ Collaborative learning refers to any instructional situation in which
learners work together in small groups to achieve a common goal.
- The core element of collaborative learning is its focus on learner
interactions rather than on learning as a lonely activity.
§ Cooperative learning could be defined as a structured form of group
work where learners pursue common goals while being assessed
individually.
§ The core element of cooperative learning is that it focuses on
cooperative incentive rather than competition to promote learning.
9/6/2021 72
Collaborative & Cooperation Learning: Meaning
§ Cooperative learning involves:
- individual learner accountability,
- mutual interdependence,
- face-to-face interaction,
- appropriate practice of interpersonal skills,
- regular self-assessment of group/team functioning.
9/6/2021 73
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Meaning
§ Both collaborative learning and cooperative learning are
instructional techniques and strategies planned to make the most of
positive peer social interaction by grouping learners together to
complete an assignment or task.
§ The definitions for collaborative and cooperative learning are
largely interchangeable.
§ The unique features of these approaches include:
- meaningful tasks
- active participation of learners
- learners working together and helping each other.
9/6/2021 74
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Meaning
§ Effective groups could be mixed or homogenous ability or age of
learners depending on the task to be performed or the learning context.
§ Groups can work individually on tasks that lead to a shared goal.
§ Groups can also work together on a shared task.
§ Importantly, certain essential strategies underpin the effectiveness of
collaborative and cooperative learning.
§ Effective use of these strategies provides a greater assurance that the
intended learning outcomes, and associated knowledge and skills,
could be achieved, regardless of the composition of the group (Cheng,
Lam & Chan, 2008).
9/6/2021 75
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Strategies
§ Positive interdependence
- This is when learners know that they are linked with their group in a
way that they cannot succeed unless all group members perform the
task at hand.
- Positive interdependent groups see their work as benefiting each other,
share resources, provide mutual support, and share in joint success.
- There are no “free riders” as each group member makes a unique
contribution to the achievement of group task.
9/6/2021 76
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Strategies
§ Face-to-face promotive action

- When learners help, support, praise, and encourage each other in

groups, it promotes positive interdependence, fosters verbal and
interpersonal skills, motivate, and learners get to know each other.

- The role of the teacher in using this strategy is to describe, model,

and reinforce this condition through the group work activities.

9/6/2021 77
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Strategies
§ Individual accountability and personal responsibility

- Group work activities should be structured to ensure that

individual performance could be easily identified, assessed, and
feedback given to the group and individuals in the group.

- Individual feedback may be done through individual quizzes or

random selection and presentation of individual work or
contribution to the achievement of the group task.
9/6/2021 78
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Strategies
§ Interpersonal and small group skills

- The ability to interact effectively is a learned skill.

- This may be achieved through clear and direct teaching.

- The role of the teacher in this strategy is to intentionally teach

social skills for effective group tasks.

9/6/2021 79
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Strategies
§ Group processing

- This is a situation where group members reflect and discuss how

well they achieved their group tasks and maintain effective
working relationships.

- This process deepens cognitive and metacognitive learning and

creates the basis for improved future task performance (Johnson
& Johnson, 1991).
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Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Benefits
§ Meaningful learning is achieved when collaborative and cooperative
learning strategies are applied to meaningful tasks, and by scaffolding
which builds on and extends learners’ social and interpersonal skills.
§ Learners develop deeper understanding of cooperative activity content,
concepts, process, and their own self-efficacy through group
processing.
§ Collaborative and cooperative learning encourage improved
communication, social, and interpersonal skills, which are
transferrable to new social situations and contexts outside the
classroom, and remain relevant and useful for a lifetime.
9/6/2021 81
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Benefits
§ Active engagement in collaborative or cooperative learning
encourages a positive interdependence and individual accountability.
- Learners become aware they could depend on each other and have a
clear sense of their own responsibilities.
§ Iteration is promoted because learners formulate ideas, share, revise,
and recalibrate their thinking based on the inputs of the group.
- As learners disagree, discuss, explain, and persuade one another,
new positions, new ideas, and new thinking occurs (Fitch & Hulgin,
2008).
9/6/2021 82
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Enabling Factors

§ Small group sizes (two to five members) should be used to enhance greater
individual accountability, and less redundant effort on the part of learners.
§ The use of specific cooperative learning strategies is essential since it is not
enough to group learners and tell them to cooperate.
- Conditions for effective group work should be clearly created and
reinforced by teachers.
- Group work should be thoughtfully structured but it does not suggest total
control by the teacher.
§ Collaborative and cooperative learning should be used for conceptual or
complex tasks to foster problem solving, creativity, critical thinking, high
level reasoning, and higher order thinking skills.
9/6/2021 83
Experiential Learning: Meaning
§ It refers to learning in a natural setting through play.
§ It involves experiences in an out of the classroom.
§ It involves reflection and performing learning activities.
§ Its effectiveness is based on the interest and motivation of learners.
§ In addition to classroom experiential learning, activities commonly
associated with experiential learning include:
- outdoor learning,
9/6/2021 84
Experiential Learning: Meaning
- outdoor adventure education,
- service learning,
- excursions and incursions,
- environmental education,
- local and international community initiatives,
- creative arts programmes

9/6/2021 85
Experiential Learning: Benefits
§ It fosters meaningful interactions in and outside the classroom.
§ It leads to better understanding of concepts.
§ It encourages better social interaction and interpersonal skills.
§ It is actively engaging as hands-on learning, group discussion, and
reflections are combined in performing tasks.
§ It is iterative since it encourages investigation, exploration,
experimentation with different situations in context.
§ Learners are motivated and interested in what they learn because
they are provided with the opportunity to discuss their learning at
home, and make home-to-school connections about their learning.
9/6/2021 86
Experiential Learning: Enabling Factors
§ Teachers must be knowledgeable, skilled, and specialised
facilitators.
§ Learners must be provided with opportunities to decide on how an
activity should be done.
§ Learners must be provided with safe and enabling learning
environments.
§ Teachers must make good use of highly quality formative and
summative assessment strategies.
9/6/2021 87
Experiential Learning: Enabling Factors
§ Teachers must design and deliver experiential learning to eliminate
barriers that may exist among individuals and groups in the
classroom.
§ Teachers must ensure that there is effective structuring, setting, and
preparation to successfully implement experiential learning.
- This would enable learners to be versed in the structure of activities,
their roles, and expectations of them.
- It will also enable learners to self-direct and complete their tasks with
less or no close supervision.
9/6/2021 88
Reading Assignment

§ Read on the following for our next lecture.

- Guided discovery learning

- Enquiry-based learning

- Problem-based learning

- Project-based learning.
9/6/2021 89
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
Dr. Buku, Dr. Appianing, Mr. Ziggah, Mr. Ofosu-
Dwamena, Ms. Ogah, Mr. Esia-Donkoh
9/6/2021 91
 UNIT 3 WEEK 6

INTEGRATED PEDAGOGIES

9/6/2021 92
Outline

§ Guided discovery.

§ Enquiry-based learning.

§ Problem-based learning.

§ Project-based learning.
9/6/2021 93
Guided Discovery: Meaning

§ This is mostly attributed to Jerome Bruner.

§ He proposed that a process of discovery enables learners
develop a sense of ownership over their own learning.
§ Prior knowledge of what is being discussed in a lesson serves
as the basis for discovery.
§ This suggests the crucial role of guidance in discovery
learning.
9/6/2021 94
Guided Discovery: Meaning

§ When learners expect or are prepared to discover concepts

form their experiences in their environment, they will devise
means of searching and finding.
§ Discovery learning has been critiqued as ineffective with the
argument that it equates to minimal or no teacher guidance
(Hushman & Marley, 2015; Alfieri et al., 2011).
§ Debunking this, researchers have classified and described
different types of discovery learning.
9/6/2021 95
Guided Discovery: Meaning

§ Literature distinguishes between approaches such as guided,

assisted, enhanced, and enriched discovery learning as distinct
from “pure” discovery learning.

§ Pure discovery learning is when the learner is not provided

with the target information or conceptual understanding and
must find it independently with only the provided materials
(Alfieri et al., p. 2).
9/6/2021 96
Guided Discovery: Meaning
§ Guided/assisted/enriched/enhanced discovery learning occurs when
teachers provide a range of support such as hints, direction,
coaching, feedback, worked examples, scaffolding, and elicited
explanations.
§ Arguably, guided discovery offers learners the best opportunity to
adopt discovery mind-set to expect and be prepared to discover
knowledge for themselves.
§ Evidence suggests that guided discovery is superior to instructional
approaches that are unguided, minimally guided or fully teacher-
guided.
9/6/2021 97
Guided Discovery: Benefits

§ It promotes meaningful learning because learners are guided to

integrate new information with their existing knowledge.
§ It often relies on social interaction and this is beneficial to
learner when learning in groups.
§ It produces higher levels of active learning engagement than
direct instruction.
§ It is often used to foster scientific skills development.
§ Learners demonstrate greater achievement and positive changes
in interest, motivation, and joy in learning science.
9/6/2021 98
Guided Discovery: Enabling Factors

§ Teachers must make informed judgements on the type and

quantity of guidance to provide their learners.
§ Teachers must specify the intended learning outcomes.
§ Teachers must view effective guided discovery approaches as
those that activate and prepare the mind to make a discovery.
§ The instructional design and delivery must be quality to have a
positive influence on the learners’ learning habits and
motivation.
9/6/2021 99
Enquiry-Based Learning: Meaning

§ This is a learner-centred approach to teaching and learning

.
where a unit of work is organised around relevant, authentic,
open-ended questions.
§ It is characterised by its emphasis on:
- process,
- questioning,
- building on prior knowledge,
9/6/2021 100
Enquiry-Based Learning: Meaning

- active learner involvement,

- .
involvement of internal and eternal school-community
resources,
- iterative or recursive learning,
- reflection and deep thinking,
- ongoing assessment,
- learning to action.
9/6/2021 101
Enquiry-Based Learning: Meaning

§ It is used as a strategy to enhance scientific thinking skills

.
such as experimentation, evaluating evidence, and making
inferences.
§ It is also used to foster critical thinking, interdisciplinary and
social studies learning.
§ It is beneficial to teachers both as a strategy to transmit
scientific knowledge, and as a tool to talk about the important
work of scientist to their learners.
9/6/2021 102
Enquiry-Based Learning: Benefits

§ It encourages meaningful and authentic/realistic questions,

.
and enhances enquiry-skills development.
§ It encourages learner involvement and cooperative learning
through group activities to solve problems, complete projects,
or design and build artefacts.
§ Learners are cognitively engaged in making meaning,
developing evidence-based explanations, communicating their
ideas.
9/6/2021 103
Enquiry-Based Learning: Benefits

§ It enhances exploration, open-endedness, and investigative

trial and error. .
§ It helps learners to readjust their expectations, and addresses
the worry about not succeeding.
§ Learners become happy and their interest in enquiry-based
learning is increased.
§ Learners are motivated to learn more, and go beyond the task
they are required to perform.
9/6/2021 104
Enquiry-Based Learning: Enabling Factors
§ Successful implementation requires planning and well thought-out
.
approaches to collaboration, classroom interaction and assessment.
§ Teachers must guide the process of enquiry-based learning and this
should depend on the grade level and depth of scientific knowledge
needed to solve the problem.
§ Enquiry-based learning should include:
- everyday problems or enquiry topics with low conceptual load
- combination of independent learner work,
- teacher guiding questions, and
- moments of explicit instruction.
9/6/2021 105
Enquiry-Based Learning: Enabling Factors

§ Teachers must be trained in enquiry-based learning

approaches and strategies..
§ Enquiry-based learning, especially in science programmes,
should include:
- short and long-term learning outcomes,
- content and curricula alignment with interests, knowledge,
understanding, experiences, and abilities of learners,
- academic collaboration across levels and disciplines.
9/6/2021 106
Problem-Based Learning: Meaning

§ This involves working through and reflecting on problems in

small self-directed groups with guidance from the teacher as a
facilitator/guide.
§ The context for learning is set through a real-life problem with
multiple dimensions, around which a unit of task is performed.
§ This is similar to enquiry-based learning where units of work to
be done are planned around questions.
§ Hence, it is considered as a subset of enquiry-based learning
(Barron & Darling-Hammond, 2010).
9/6/2021 107
Problem-Based Learning: Meaning

§ It is used as a strategy to develop problem solving skills.

§ This could be achieved if the following are explicitly taught,

and not self-discovered:

- problem solving strategies.

- processes.

- subordinate skills such as collaboration.

9/6/2021 108
Problem-Based Learning: Meaning

§ Individual learner’s ability to solve problems:

- rests on the organisation of their existing knowledge,

- what they notice, and

- how they represent problems.

9/6/2021 109
Problem-Based Learning: Benefits

§ It dwells on meaningful problems which are line with learners’

experiences.

§ It promotes argumentation, provides opportunities for

feedback, and allows repeated exposure to concepts.

§ It is usually facilitated by small group or peer work which

positively influences learners’ social skills such as cooperation,
group decision making skills, and teamwork.
9/6/2021 110
Problem-Based Learning: Benefits
§ It develops in learners, skills in self-control, planning, and how to
express emotions.
§ It improves learners’ academic achievement and attitudes (self-
efficacy, motivation, and engagements) towards what they learn,
especially in science subjects.
§ Iterative (investigative) cycles of reflection, action, and ongoing
improvement of work underpins effective problem-based learning.
§ It creates a positive learning environment which is enjoyable
through the use of stimulus resources, scenarios, and group work.
9/6/2021 111
Problem-Based Learning: Enabling Factors

§ Teachers must disclose the learning outcomes, guide, and

provide scaffolded instruction to support learners to undertake
experiments to cater for the needs of all learners.
§ Teachers must develop the appropriate knowledge and skills to
implement problem-based learning.
§ Problem-based learning environments must include descriptive
feedback, opportunities for learners to reflect, and clear
learning activities with learner engagement.
9/6/2021 112
Problem-Based Learning: Enabling Factors
§ Teachers must serve as mentors to guide learners by monitoring
discussions, asking questions, assisting to resolve conflict,
enabling equitable contribution, providing examples, and
conducting assessments and evaluations.

§ Learners must have some level of knowledge about the context of

the problem to be solved.

§ Assessment must involve rubrics, portfolios, demonstrations or

displays.
9/6/2021 113
Project-Based Learning: Meaning

§ It is a type of enquiry-based learning where the output

(project) is the fundamental idea around which learning is
planned and structured.
§ Key features include learning by doing. This implies:
- undertaking complex tasks and producing realistic products
resulting in events,
- presentations to an audience.
9/6/2021 114
Project-Based Learning: Meaning

§ Thomas (2000, p. 3-4) outlined five different features of

project-based learning as:
- Projects are vital to the curriculum.
- Projects are framed around driving questions or unclear
problems.
- Projects involve learners in constructive investigations which
challenge learners to generate new understanding and skills,
and not only using existing knowledge and skills.
9/6/2021 115
Project-Based Learning: Meaning

- To a large extent, projects are learner-driven, and not teacher-

led.

- Projects are realistic and authentic to learners as determined

by the roles they play, their collaborators, the products,
audience, and the performance or assessment criteria.

9/6/2021 116
Project-Based Learning: Benefits

§ Meaningful projects support the development of learners’

higher order thinking skills.
§ Projects, when performed in small groups with the teacher as
a facilitator, assist learners to develop healthy, positive social
interactions, and social skills.
§ Project-based learning is engaging and associated with
positive changes to learners’ motivation and attitude towards
learning.
9/6/2021 117
Project-Based Learning: Benefits

§ Meaningful projects support the development of learners’

higher order thinking skills.
§ Projects, when performed in small groups with the teacher as
a facilitator, assist learners to develop healthy, positive social
interactions, and social skills.
§ Project-based learning is engaging and associated with
positive changes to learners’ motivation and attitude towards
learning.
9/6/2021 118
Project-Based Learning: Enabling Factors

§ Teachers must encourage learners to initiate an enquiry, direct

an investigation, manage their time, and use technology
productively and responsibly.

§ Teachers must have the time, training, resources, and skills to

support learners to undertake projects.

9/6/2021 119
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
Dr. Buku, Dr. Appianing, Mr. Ziggah, Mr. Ofosu-
Dwamena, Ms. Ogah, Mr. Esia-Donkoh
9/6/2021 121
 UNIT 4 WEEK 7

PLAY-BASED LEARNING

9/6/2021 122
Introduction

§ Since the early 2000s, there has been a shift towards

recommending the use of play-based learning across the
world.
§ Today’s children/learners who are tomorrow’s adults grow up
facing rapid change, global challenges, and connectivity, all
of which affect their prospects of life and work.
§ It is therefore essential to consider the implementation of
play-based learning in our teaching and learning
environments.
9/6/2021 123
Play-Based Learning: Meaning

§ Although the exact definition of play-based learning has

continuously been an area of debate in research.
§ These debates include what activities can be counted as play.
§ However, play-based learning is distinct from the broader
concept of play.
§ Play-based learning is, essentially, to learn while at play.
§ It is a pedagogical approach that emphasises the use of play in
promoting multiple areas of learners’ development and
learning.
9/6/2021 124
Play-Based Learning: Meaning
§ Play-based learning is essential to the development of cognitive,
physical, social, and emotional well-being of learners.
§ It is critical to learners’ development and is seen as a key
component in learning and understanding, cooperating,
establishing relationships, and problem solving with peers and
adults in their environment.
§ It is described as situation for learning through which learners
arrange and make meaning of their social worlds, as they actively
engage with people, objects, and symbols.
9/6/2021 125
Play-Based Learning: Meaning

§ Play-based learning is a concept used to describe how learners

can learn to obtain a meaningful understanding of the world
around them.
§ Play-based learning draws from learners’ natural desire to
engage in experiences based on their interests, strengths, and
developing skills.
§ Play-based learning provides rich opportunities for social and
emotional development, experimentation, and for role-play.
9/6/2021 126
Play-Based Learning: Meaning

§ Almost immediately after engaging in play-based learning

which involves physical activities, learners are better able to:

- concentrate on classroom tasks,

- improve their memory,

- reduce inappropriate behaviour (including being unfocused

and causing others to become distracted) to enhance learning.
9/6/2021 127
Brainstorming Activity

List the kind of qualities you would want your

learners to possess in the future?

Share what you have listed.

9/6/2021 128
Play-Based Learning: Core Competencies

§ Critical thinking and problem solving

- Cognitive and reasoning abilities to analyse issues and resolve

problems.

- Analyse situations from own experiences and prior learning, and

choose from a number of possible solutions.

- Ability to face problems, persevere and take responsibility for

one’s own learning.
9/6/2021 129
Play-Based Learning: Core Competencies

§ Creativity and innovation

- Entrepreneurial skills.
- New ways of solving problems and developing technologies to
address problems.
- Ingenuity of ideas using arts, technology, and enterprise.
- Independent and creative thinking.
9/6/2021 130
Play-Based Learning: Core Competencies

§ Personal development and leadership

- Skills including self-awareness, self-knowledge, health, self-
esteem, and self-confidence.
- Identifying and developing talents, dreams, and aspirations of
self and others.
- Values which include integrity, honesty, empathy, perseverance,
resilience, leadership, self-regulation, responsibility, lifelong
learning, morality, and seeking the well-being of others.
9/6/2021 131
Play-Based Learning: Core Competencies

§ Communication and collaboration

- Making use of languages, symbols and texts to exchange

information about one’s self and one’s lived experiences.

- Sharing ideas, engaging in dialogue, listening and learning from

others while respecting and valuing multiple perspectives.

9/6/2021 132
Play-Based Learning: Core Competencies

§ Digital literacy

- Discovery, acquisition and communication through ICT in order

to support learning and use digital media responsibly.

9/6/2021 133
Play-Based Learning: Core Competencies
§ Cultural identity and global citizenship
- Aactive citizenship to prioritise country and service through environmental,
social, and economic awareness.
- Contribute to socioeconomic development of country and world.
- Critically analyse cultural trends and contribute to global community.
- Responsible citizenship
- Patriotism
- Diversity
- Adaptability
- Tolerance
- Time consciousness
9/6/2021 134
Reflect-Connect-Apply (RCA): Meaning
§ Reflect-Connect-Apply (RCA) is a teaching strategy that helps
the learners process their experiences through reflection and
dialogue with their peers and others.

§ It is a teaching and learning strategy that leads learners through a

3-step discussion about their experience.

9/6/2021 135
RCA Methodology KED

9/6/2021 136
Reflect-Connect-Apply (RCA): Meaning
Reflect (R)
§ This is where the learner recalls the experience through play,
games, or any active learning approach and shapes it.
§ For instance, the learner might arrange and communicate or
express the experience as:
- a simple sequence of events,
- a cause and effect relationship,
- a problem and solution relationship etc.
§ Raw experience is given some order.
9/6/2021 137
Reflect-Connect-Apply (RCA): Meaning
§ Teacher asks questions like:
- What did you just experience?
- What thoughts, feelings, actions or interactions occurred during
the session?
§ Reflect questions might begin with, “During the game …”
§ The learner considers the following:
- What did I just experience?
9/6/2021 138
Reflect-Connect-Apply (RCA): Meaning
- What happened outside me and inside me?
Connect (C)
§ This is where learners compare and contrast what they
experienced through the activities undertaken during the lesson
with previous experiences and prior knowledge.
§ This situation is where experience is further ordered and
integrated.
9/6/2021 139
Reflect-Connect-Apply (RCA): Meaning
§ The teacher asks questions like:

- How does this game connect to what you already know, believe,
have experienced or felt?

- Does this game reinforce or expand your view?

§ Connect questions might begin with, “In the past …”

9/6/2021 140
Reflect-Connect-Apply (RCA): Meaning
§ The learner considers the following:
- How does this experience relate to earlier ones?
- How does this experience connect to what I already know, believe
or feel?
- Does this experience reinforce or expand my views?
- Does this experience challenge or refute my views?

9/6/2021 141
Reflect-Connect-Apply (RCA): Meaning
Apply (A)
§ This is where learners consider and explain how they can use or apply
their experiences in other situations in life.
§ Under this, learning is transferred and applied.
§ The teacher asks questions like:
- How can you use what you have learned from this experience?
- How can you use your new learning to benefit yourself, others, and
your community?
§ Apply questions might begin with, “Next time you are faced with a
similar situation …”
9/6/2021 142
Reflect-Connect-Apply (RCA): Meaning
§ The learner considers the following:

- How can I use what I have learned from this experience?

- How can I use it in similar situations or different ones?

- How can I use my new learning to benefit myself, others, or my

community?

9/6/2021 143
Benefits of RCA Discussions
§ Play-based activities provide learners with opportunities to learn a
extensive and variety of knowledge, skills, and values.

§ However, much is left to chance.

§ Without encouragement and guidance, learners may not recollect

or apply/transfer what they have learned to their present or future
life.

9/6/2021 144
Benefits of RCA Discussions
§ Play-based activity sessions deal with this challenge in the
following ways:
- play-based activities are structured in a developmentally
appropriate learners’ experiences (and lessons to be learned from
them).
- Teachers teach learners to reflect on their learning, connect it to
what they already know, and apply it in their lives outside of play
or game.
9/6/2021 145
Benefits of RCA Discussions
§ Engaging learners in RCA discussions is important because discussions:
- Draw out learning outcomes (objectives).
- Assist learners to identify the changes they can make in their lives.
- Personalise learning outcome when learners are given the opportunity to
apply it in their daily life activities.
- Promote cognitive development (specifically critical thinking).
- Provide opportunities for learners to form new ideas/concepts by making
connections to prior knowledge and experiences in order to lead to new
knowledge and understanding.
- Promote Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS).
9/6/2021 146
Meaning of Higher-Order Thinking (HOT)
§ Higher-Order Thinking (HOT) involves the transformation of
information and ideas.

§ This take place when learners have the opportunities to:

- Combine facts and ideas,

- Synthesise,

- Generalise,
9/6/2021 147
Meaning of HOT
- Explain,

- Hypothesise.

§ All these are with the view of arriving at some conclusions or

interpretations.

§ Manipulating information and ideas through these processes

allows learners to solve problems, gain understanding, and
discover new meaning of issues.
9/6/2021 148
Risks of Not Including RCA Discussions
§ Learners are not encouraged to take action or make a commitment
to action from the lessons in the practice/game/play.

§ Learners have less opportunities to create new knowledge based

on making relations between prior knowledge and understanding.

§ Learners may miss the learning outcomes/objectives entirely or

learn the wrong ones.

9/6/2021 149
Risks of Not Including RCA Discussions
§ Learners may not have the chance to ask about or clarify myths or
misunderstandings that are integral to the outcomes of their
learning.
§ Learners may take the metaphor of the game/play literally (e.g.
learners who play a game where tuberculosis is represented by a
ball, may leave the activity session thinking that TB is transmitted
by a ball.
- Learners must be provided with opportunities to share and
understand lessons in an clear manner.
9/6/2021 150
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
Dr. Buku, Dr. Appianing, Mr. Ziggah, Mr. Ofosu-
Dwamena, Ms. Ogah, Mr. Esia-Donkoh
9/6/2021 152
 UNIT 5 WEEK 10

TECHNICAL AND TEACHING SKILLS I

9/6/2021 153
Outline

§ Taxonomy of educational goals and objectives.

§ Planning and preparing for learning.
§ Key elements of a lesson/learning plan.
§ Instructional skills.
§ Questioning skills.
§ Classroom management skills.
§ Communication skills.
§ Evaluation skills.
9/6/2021 154
Taxonomy of Educational Goals & Objectives
§ Any instructional process is a deliberate attempt to induce
learning.
§ In order to know the extent to which learning has taken place,
targets (aptitudes and attributes) are set relative to the various
domains of learning and measured.
§ What learners would be able to do are classified/categorised
(taxonomies).
§ Taxonomy of educational objectives is a hierarchical model used
to organize educational learning objectives into levels of
complexity and specificity.
9/6/2021 155
Categories of Objectives: The Three Domains

9/6/2021 156
Cognitive Domain: Bloom et al. (1951)

9/6/2021 157
Cognitive Domain: Anderson & Krathwohl (2001)

9/6/2021 158
Cognitive Domain (About Knowing)
Bloom et al. Anderson & Krathwohl

9/6/2021 159
Affective Domain

9/6/2021 160
Psychomotor Domain

9/6/2021 161
“SMART” Objectives/Outcomes

9/6/2021 162
Preparing and Planning: Essential Decisions

§ Preparing and planning for learning is a teacher’s road map of

what learners need to learn, and how it will done effectively
during the lesson.

§ This implies that certain essential decisions must be taken by

the teacher as he/she prepares and plans for a lesson.

9/6/2021 163
Preparing and Planning: Essential Decisions

§ Identify the topic/lesson to be taught.

§ Consider the level/class and cognitive level of learners (age).

§ Identify and analyse the learning needs of learners as

individuals or a group, and in line with the lesson.

§ Identify “ and desired learning outcomes/objectives

(What is to be learned as a result of the lesson).
9/6/2021 164
Preparing and Planning: Essential Decisions

§ Pl a n t o a l i g n i n st r uc t i o na l st r a t e g i e s w i t h l e a r n i n g
objectives/outcomes .
§ Plan for an introduction of the lesson to arouse and sustain
interest of learners.
§ Plan the specific learning activities which must be sequenced
in an engaging and meaningful manner.
§ Plan for appropriate and varied teaching and learning
resources.
9/6/2021 165
Preparing and Planning: Essential Decisions

§ Plan for specific core values, core competences, and core

skills to be achieved).

§ Plan to evaluate and assess learning at the beginning, during

and after lesson (assess learners’ understanding).

§ Plan to create a realistic timelines.

9/6/2021 166
Writing a Lesson/Learning Plan: Key Elements KED

§ Subject and topic to be taught

§ Class
§ Class size
§ Week/Week ending
§ Day/Date
§ Duration/Period
§ Average age of the class
9/6/2021 167
Writing a Lesson/Learning Plan: Key Elements KED

§ References
§ Strand and sub-strand
§ Learning outcomes/content standard (code)/objectives
§ Indicators (code)
§ Performance indicator(s)
§ Core competencies
§ Key words
9/6/2021 168
Writing a Lesson/Learning Plan: Key Elements KED

§ Teaching and Learning Resources (TLRs)

§ Activity Phase1: Starter (preparing the mind for learning)
§ Activity Phase 2: Main Activities (new learning including
assessment at various stages)
§ Activity Phase 3: Plenary/Reflections
§ Remarks

9/6/2021 169
Reasons for Writing Lesson/Learning Plan
§ It helps the teacher to be well prepared and be aware of what he/she
intends to teach the learners.
§ It helps the teacher to maintain a standard teaching pattern in order
not to deviate from the topic (It serves as a guide).
§ It provides the teacher with learning outcomes/objectives.
§ It helps the teacher to be self-confident while teaching.
§ It helps the teacher to focus more on the basic knowledge first and
take the learners toward the next step.
§ It helps the teacher to clearly understand and ingrain the flow of the
lesson.
9/6/2021 170
Reasons for Writing Lesson/Learning Plan
§ It helps the teacher to pay attention to the learners’ learning process,
and not just the steps the teacher needs to follow.
§ It provides an opportunity to the teacher to think out new ways and
means of making the lesson interesting and introduce thought-
provoking questions (It proves the creativity of the teacher).
§ It helps the teacher to evaluate his/her teaching and to compare with
the outlined learning outcomes/objectives.
§ It shows the systematic record of the teacher’s teaching.
§ It helps other another teacher to teach the lesson in the absence of
the substantive teacher.
9/6/2021 171
Instructional Skills: Issues to Consider

§ State or make known to learners, the purposes, learning

objective/outcomes, and brief procedures for the lesson.
§ Give procedural and instructional directions clearly.
§ Use a range of strategies for whole class, small group, and
individual learning.
§ Make use of varied motivational techniques or strategies.
§ Relate lesson to prior knowledge and life experiences.
9/6/2021 172
Instructional Skills: Issues to Consider

§ Present lesson in a systematic manner.

§ Use effective questioning techniques of the level of learners.
§ Engage learners in critical thinking and problem-solving.
§ Use techniques and strategies that modify and extend learning.
§ Engage learners in lesson closure.

9/6/2021 173
Questioning Skills

§ Questions are statements that require an answer or a response.

§ They play a critical role in any effective teaching and learning
situation.
§ Thus, a teacher CANNOT teach without posing questions to
learners and learners asking questions.
§ Questions can be asked or used at anytime or stage of a
lesson: , during, and at the end of the lesson.
9/6/2021 174
Questioning: Beginning of a Lesson
§ Questions are used at the beginning of a lesson for varied reasons
including the following:
- To explore learners’ entry knowledge about a concepts to be taught
(to find out what learners already know).
- To explore learners’ knowledge and understanding of a topic/
concept, and identify gaps.
- To arouse interest and curiosity about a topic/lesson.
- To scaffold the development of their understanding to enable them
close the gap between what they currently know and the learning
objectives/outcomes
9/6/2021 175
Questioning: During a Lesson

§ Questions are asked during a lesson for varied reasons

including the following:
- To ensure learners are following the discussion.
- To assess learners understanding of concepts.
- To serve as guide and help learners to focus attention on a
particular issue or concept.
- To enable learners to be actively involved in the lesson.
- To develop critical thinking skills among learners.
9/6/2021 176
Questioning: During a Lesson

- To enable learners to predict outcomes.

- To guide learners to argue on an opinion.
- To provide an opportunity for learners to assimilate and
reflect on information.
- To avoid confusion.
- To encourage and construct new understanding.
- To motivate learners.
9/6/2021 177
Questioning: End of a Lesson

§ Questions are asked at the end of a lesson for reasons

including the following:
- To involve learners in summarising and reviewing salient
points in the lesson to be sure learning outcomes have been
achieved (to evaluate learning)
- To explore learners understanding on how to apply concepts
learned to real life situations.
- Stimulate learners to pursue knowledge and understanding on
their own (encourage independent learning)
9/6/2021 178
Types of Questions: Factual

§ Soliciting reasonably simple, straight forward answers based

on obvious facts or awareness.
§ These are usually at the lowest level of cognitive (thinking) or
affective (feeling) processes and answers are frequently either
right or wrong.
§ These questions do not involve personal feelings or opinions.
§ Every response to such a question must be supported with
evidence.
§ For example, answering questions based on a passage read.
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Types of Questions: Convergent

§ They are questions that typically have one correct answer.

§ Answers to these types of questions are usually within a very

finite range of acceptable accuracy.

§ Convergent questions usually begin with “who”, “what”,

“where” or “when”.

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Types of Questions: Divergent

§ Divergent questions allow learners to explore different

avenues and create many different and alternative answers or
scenarios.
§ Correctness may be based on logical projections, may be
contextual, or arrived at through basic knowledge, inference,
imagination etc.
§ These questions often require learners to analyse or evaluate
knowledge, and predict or project different outcomes.
9/6/2021 181
Types of Questions: Divergent

§ Answers to divergent questions mostly fall into a wide range

of acceptability.
§ Mostly, a correct answer is determined subjectively based on
possibilities.
§ There may not be right or definitely correct answers to
divergent questions.
§ Such questions seek to stimulate imaginative and creative
thought, or investigate cause and effect relationships.
9/6/2021 182
Types of Questions: Evaluative

§ These types of questions generally involve sophisticated levels

of cognitive and/or emotional (affective) judgment.
§ In attempting to answer these types of questions, learners may
have to combine various cognitive and/or affective processes or
comparative contexts.
§ Often an answer is analysed at multiple levels and from different
perspectives before arriving at newly formed conclusions
§ For example, What is the relationship between administration
and management?
9/6/2021 183
Brainstorming Activity

§ How should a teacher pose questions to learners?

§ How should a teacher react to responses given by

learners?

9/6/2021 184
Classroom Management Skills

§ How should a teacher pose questions to learners?

§ How should a teacher react to responses given by

learners?

9/6/2021 185
Classroom Management Skills

§ For learning to take place, teachers should be able to manage

their classroom.

§ Classroom management is considered one of the most

challenging tasks for especially beginning teachers.

§ It refers to the wide variety of skills and techniques that

teachers use to keep students organized, orderly, focused,
attentive, on task, and academically productive during a class.
9/6/2021 186
Classroom Management Skills
§ Classroom management refers to a teacher’s efforts to oversee the
activities of a classroom, including learning, social interaction,
and student behaviour (Martin, Yin, & Baldwin, 1998).
§ It is a teacher’s ability to keep order in the classroom, engage
learners in learning, and elicit their cooperation, while balancing
the menial tasks of the classroom (Wong & Wong, 2009).
§ It is the arrangement and appropriate use of all resources
(material, human resource and time) available in the classroom to
enhance the achievement of learning outcomes.
9/6/2021 187
Elements of Classroom Management Skills

§ Instructional management

- Focuses on the physical environment.

- Effective teachers organize a safe classroom environment.

- Teachers strategically organizing furniture, learning centers,

and materials in order to optimize student learning and reduce
distractions.
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Elements of Classroom Management Skills

§ Behaviour management

- This focuses on learners expressed attitudes.

- It is the application of rules and routines to get learners to

behave in more appropriate ways in order to maximize
learning.

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Why do Learners Misbehave in Cass?

9/6/2021 190
Approaches to Classroom Management

§ Assertive approach.
§ Business academic approach.
§ Behaviour modification approach.
§ Group managerial approach.
§ Group guidance approach.
§ Acceptance approach.
§ Success approach.

9/6/2021 191
Assertive Approach (Canter Model)

§ Teacher insists on responsible behaviour by learners.

§ Hence, the teacher and learners agree on specific and clear

rules of behaviour and consequences for disobeying them.

§ The teacher is expected to respond to learners’ behaviours

quickly and appropriately.

9/6/2021 192
Business Academic (Emmer-Everton Model)

§ Teacher focuses on keeping the learners busy by:

- giving learners a lot of exercises,
- guiding and monitoring individual and group work,
- giving feedback to individual and group learners,
- holding learners accountable so they do not misbehave.

§ This approach involves a high degree of time on task with the

hope that when learners are engaged there will be little room
for misbehaviour.
9/6/2021 193
Behaviour Modification (Skinner-Bandura Model)

§ This is based on the belief that behaviour is shaped by the

environment and therefore pay little attention to causes of
problem.
§ Behaviour is shaped by its consequences so teachers use
elaborate system of rewards and punishments to modify
learners’ behaviour.
§ This facilitates the occurrence of positive behaviour and
inhibits reoccurrence of misbehaviour.
9/6/2021 194
Group Managerial Appraoch (Kounin Model)

§ This approach focuses on addressing/responding immediately

to learners’ group misbehaviour in order to prevent problems
from spreading to become more serious.
§ Classroom activities have been put into two groups (learner
a n d t e a c h e r m a n a g e m e n t b e h a v i o u r s ) f o r e ff e c t i v e
management.
§ Learner behaviour includes work involvement and deviancy
(no misbehaviour, mild and serious misbehaviour)
9/6/2021 195
Group Managerial Approach (Kounin Model)
§ Teacher management behaviour include:
- Desist techniques (advising learners to stop undesirable behaviours,
making direct eye contact and being assertive, keeping comments brief,
monitoring until learners comply).
- Movement management (changing seating arrangements, keeping learners
actively engaged, gaining learners’ attention before the start of lesson).
- Group focus (clarifying group task, focusing on accomplishing group task,
modeling appropriate behaviour, monitoring individual and group
progress, time, noise, building interactions among group members to
share meaningful ideas).
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Group Guidance Approach

§ Focuses on managing and changing the student behaviour on

group basis since teachers mostly work with groups.

§ Teachers ensure group focus on task and maintain group

control and discipline to enhance group rapport.

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Acceptance Approach (Dreikurs)
§ This is based on the belief that everyone has the prime need for
acceptance.
§ Learners want to be accepted and be liked by others especially
those who are important to them.
§ Acceptance by peers and teachers is the prerequisite for
appropriate behaviour and achievement in school.
§ Thus, learners will exhibit all kinds of behaviour to get attention.
§ Mistaken goals for misbehaviour may include attention getting,
power seeking, revenge seeking, withdrawal.
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Success Approach (Glasser)

§ This approach focuses on changing negative conditions or

situations in the classroom environment that trigger
misbehaviour in order to help student succeed.

§ Behaviour is a matter of choice; good or bad behaviour results

from good or bad choices.

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Communication Skills: Issues to Consider

§ Communicating with confidence and enthusiasm.

§ Communicating at the level of understanding of learners.

§ Using appropriate and accurate non-verbal, oral/sign, and

written communication.

§ Projecting voice/hand shapes/orientation appropriately.

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Evaluation Skills: Issues to Consider

§ Monitoring learners’ participation and progress.

§ Providing immediate and constructive feedback.

§ Basing evaluation on learning outcomes/objectives.

§ Using formal/informal assessment strategies to assess learners’

learning before, during, and after lesson.
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PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
Dr. Buku, Dr. Appianing, Mr. Ziggah, Mr. Ofosu-
Dwamena, Ms. Ogah, Mr. Esia-Donkoh
9/6/2021 202
 UNIT 6 WEEK 12

NATIONAL TEACHERS’ STANDARS (NTS)

FOR GHANA

9/6/2021 203
Outline

§ Introduction.
§ The need for curriculum reforms.
§ Rationale, vision, and aims for the reform.
§ The reform process.
§ Who are the standards for?
§ Consideration for implementing the reforms.
§ Meaning of National Teachers’ Standards (NTS)
§ Domains of the National Teachers’ Standards (NTS)
§ Conclusion.
9/6/2021 204
Introduction
§ The role of education in the development of the individual and
the society cannot be compromised (Ampofo, Onyango &
Ogola, 2019).
§ Quality education is critical, crucial, essential and necessary in
the strategic plans of improving economies of developing
countries (Kotirde & Yunos (2014).
§ The primary motivation for educational reforms is the keen
interest in improving quality education.
The Need for Reforms
§ All countries face challenges in their education system.
§ Challenges in Ghana’s education system include:
- Indiscipline among learners, and lack of committed/dedicated
teachers.
- Seeming negative attitude of both teachers and supervisors
towards instructional supervision.
- Many minor reforms in the past 20+ years in Ghana have not
yielded the desired learning outcomes of learners.
- Preparation of teachers has not adequately improved learning
outcomes among learners in basic schools.
Rationale, Vision, & Aims for the Review
Rationale
§ To respond to a national priority of shifting the structure and
content of the education system from merely passing
examinations to building character, nurturing values, and raising
literate, confident, and engaged citizens who can think critically.
§ To raise the quality of education at the pre-tertiary level, with
emphasis on science and mathematics as fundamental building
blocks for success in either tertiary education or early entry into
the work place.
Rationale, Aim, & Vision for the Review
§ To address the inherent challenges in the existing curriculum
and ensure that the content of the national curriculum can be
internationally benchmarked.
Aim
§ To instill in new teachers the Nation’s core values of honesty,
integrity, creativity and responsible citizenship and to achieve
inclusive, equitable, high quality education for all learners in
line with the Sustainable Development Goal Four (SDG4)
Rationale, Aim, & Vision for the Review
Vision
§ To prepare new teachers to become effective, engaging and
inspirational, and be fully prepared to teach the basic school
curriculum in order to improve learning outcomes and life
chances of all learners as set out in the NTS.
The Reform Process
§ The process of the curriculum reform was based on the
creation of two policy tools namely:
- National Teachers’ Standards [NTS] (For pre-service and in-
service teachers).
- National Teacher Education Curriculum Framework [NTECF]
(Pre-tertiary & Initial Teacher Education [ITE]).
Who are the Standards for?
§ Student teachers on pre-service teacher training courses.
§ All Beginning Teachers on their Induction Year in schools.
§ All practicing teachers in schools.
§ The National Teaching Council (NTC) will use the Standards in
assessing cases of any misconduct by any member of the
teaching profession.
§ Institutions involved in the training and development of
teachers - Universities and Colleges of Education (public and
private).
Who are the Standards for?
§ Teacher educators will use it as a guide in the preparation of
curricula and courses.
§ District, Municipal and Metropolitan Education Directors.
§ School Improvement Support Officers (SISOs) formerly
Circuit Supervisors.
§ Teacher Unions.
§ Headteachers and mentors in schools will use it as a guide to
inform their work.
Implementing the New Curriculum
§ We must focus on the following:
- Supporting the implementation.
- Building capacity.
- Sustaining the change.
§ These cannot be achieved without knowing, understanding,
and effectively implementing the domains and elements of
the National Teachers’ Standards.
Brainstorm: What are Standards?

In your opinion, what are standards?

Brainstorm: What is/are NTS?

§ What is/are the National Teachers’ Standards

(NTS)?
National Teachers’ Standards (NTS)
§ The NTS provides the determiner of what/who a good teacher
is, and against which all teachers (new and old) will be
assessed for certification and licensing.
§ The NTS set out the minimum levels of practice that all
trained teachers must reach by the end of their pre-service
teacher education programme in order to play the critical role
of inspiring and challenging learners to achieve their potentials.
Domains of NTS
§ The minimum levels of practice are described as
“STANDARDS” that must be met under the :
professional values and attitudes; professional knowledge; and
professional practice.
- Professional Values and Attitudes: Teachers should be guided
by legal and ethical teacher codes of conduct in their
development as professional teachers.
Domains of NTS
- Professional Knowledge: The teacher should understand how
children develop and learn in diverse contexts (cultural,
linguistic, socio-economic and educational backgrounds) and
apply this in their teaching.

- Professional Practice: The teacher should employ a repertoire

of learning strategies or skills in order to meet the learning
needs of all children through the application of relevant
resources.
DOMAINS OF THE
STANDARDS Professional Values and
Attitudes
Professional Development- 3
Community of Practice- 4

(7 standards)

Professional Practice
Professional Knowledge
Managing the Learning-
Knowledge of Educational Environment -4
Frameworks and
Teaching and Learning- 5
Curriculum- 5
Assessment- 6
Knowledge of Learners - 2

(15 standards)
(7 standards)
Professional Values & Attitudes
§ Professional Development (3 Standards)
- Improving teaching and learning through critical and
collective reflection.
- Improving personal and professional development
through lifelong learning and Continuous Professional
Development (CPD).
- Demonstrating effective leadership qualities in the
classroom and wider school.
Professional Values & Attitudes
§ Community of Practice (4 Standards)
- Developing as a professional teacher, guided by legal and
ethical teacher codes of conduct.
- Engaging positively with colleagues, learners, parents, SMCs,
PTAs, and wider public as part of a community of practice.
- Developing a positive teacher identity and acting as a good
role model for learners.
- Playing the role as a potential agent of change in the school,
community and country.
Professional Knowledge
§ Knowledge of Educational Frameworks and Curriculum
(5 Standards)
- Demonstrating familiarity with the education system and
key policies guiding it.
- Having comprehensive knowledge of the official school
curriculum, including learning outcomes.
- Having secure content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge
and pedagogical content knowledge for the school and
grade they teach in.
Professional Knowledge
- Knowing the curriculum for the years appropriate to multi-
grade classes.

- Having good knowledge of how to teach beginning reading

and numeracy, and speaking, listening, reading and writing of
at least one Ghanaian language for instruction, especially at
the pre-primary and primary levels.
Professional Knowledge
§ Knowledge of Students (2 Standards)
- Understanding how children develop and learn in diverse
contexts and apply this in their teaching.

- Taking accounts of and respects learners’ cultural, linguistic

socio-economic and educational backgrounds in their
planning and teaching.
Professional Practice
§ Managing the Learning Environment (4 Standards)
- Planning and delivering varied and challenging lessons, and
showing a clear grasp of the intended outcomes of their
teaching.
- Carrying out small scale action research to improve practice.
- Creating a safe, encouraging learning environment.
- Managing behaviour and learning with small and large
classes.
Professional Practice
§ Teaching and Learning (5 Standards)
- employing a variety of instructional strategies that encourage
learner participation and critical thinking.
- paying attention to all learners, especially girls and students
with Special Educational Needs, ensuring their progress.
- employing instructional strategies appropriate for mixed
ability, multi-grade, multilingual and multi-age classes.
Professional Practice
- setting meaningful tasks that encourage learner collaboration
and leads to purposeful learning.
- explaining concepts clearly using examples familiar to
learners.
- producing and using variety of teaching and learning
resources that enhance learning, including the use of ICT
related tools.
Professional Practice
§ Assessment (6 Standards)
- Integrating variety of assessment modes into teaching to
support learning.
- listening to learners and giving constructive feedback.
- Identifying and remediating learners’ difficulties or
misconceptions, referring learners whose needs lie outside
the competency of the teacher.
Professional Practice
- Keeping meaningful records and communicating learners’
progress regularly to learners and parents.

- demonstrating awareness of national and school learning

outcomes of learners.

- Using objective criterion referencing to assess learners.

Conclusion
§ The rapid changes in knowledge, concepts, technology, and
philosophies as a result of the rapid changes in the world
have brought about some fundamental changes in education.
§ Education is no longer restricted to considering human needs
and the requirements of the present.
§ It seeks to address and reflect on developing human skills
and capacities, and the necessities of the future.
Conclusion
§ Thus, pre-service and in-service teachers must undertake
continuous and sustained CPD to improve standards.
§ Expectations of parents and learners in pre-tertiary schools
are very high.
§ Hence, teachers must be committed to, and continually
engage in pursuing, upgrading, reviewing and reflecting on
their professional learning to function as 21st century
teachers who are also reflective practitioners.
FOR MORE INFORMATION
VISIT

www.t-tel.org/hub.html

For More Information on the New Curriculum for Teacher

Education in Ghana.