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Instantaneous Power Quality Indices Detection Under Frequency Deviated

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Article in IET Science, Measurement & Technology · October 2019

DOI: 10.1049/iet-smt.2018.5123

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IET Science, Measurement & Technology

Research Article

Instantaneous power quality indices detection ISSN 1751-8822

Received on 16th April 2018
Revised 14th May 2019
under frequency deviated environment Accepted on 20th June 2019
E-First on 22nd August 2019
doi: 10.1049/iet-smt.2018.5123
www.ietdl.org

Jianyang Deng1,2,3, Chi-Seng Lam1,2,3 , Man-Chung Wong1,3, Sai-Weng Sin1,2,3, Rui Paulo Martins1,2,3,4
1State Key Laboratory of Analog and Mixed-Signal VLSI, University of Macau, Macao, People's Republic of China
2Institute of Microelectronics, University of Macau, Macao, People's Republic of China
3Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Macao, People's Republic of

China
4Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The proliferation of massive non-linear loads, large motor loadings, renewable energy generation systems etc.
creates many problems to the electrical power systems, such as harmonics, oscillations, which lead to the unnecessary
economic cost. It is critical to implement satisfying continuous monitoring of the power quality (PQ) over the power systems.
Previous works have proposed many PQ detection methodologies with promising accuracy and performance, but as more and
more renewable energy is integrated into the power systems, a new challenge of frequency deviation has been raised. The
accuracy of the conventional methodologies will be degraded under the frequency deviated environment, then the authors
proposed in this study an instantaneous PQ indices (PQIs) detection methodology based on adaptive data resampling
technique to improve the accuracy of PQIs detection within a frequency deviated environment. Finally, they validated the
effectiveness of the proposal, which obtains better accuracy and performance under a frequency deviated environment with less
readjustment, through simulation and measurement. Furthermore, the proposed methodology satisfies the definitions and
recommendations of the IEEE Std 1459 and IEEE Std 519.

Nomenclature The widespread use of non-linear loads such as switching power

converters, capacitor switching, continuous electric machine
t time, s starting, transformer energising, and the integration of renewable
vαβ t input αβ-frame signal, V energies, has led to various negative impacts in the power quality
T /n delay time, s (PQ) [1, 2]. As consequences, unnecessary economic losses, life
T grid fundamental period, s reduction of instrument and equipment, depression of the stability
Fs data resampling frequency, Hz of the power system take place frequently [3]. Harmonics,
Ts data resampling period, s oscillations, and other kinds of distortion are regarded as the main
n delay factor cause of the problems by researchers. Therefore, several PQ
h∗ targeted harmonic order indices (PQIs) are defined to detect and quantify the severity of
h harmonic order these aforementioned distortions by multiple standards. For clarity
H highest considered harmonic order and compatibility, the single-phase system PQIs analysed and
φ initial phase angle discussed in this paper are based on the IEEE Std 1459 [4],
φVh, φIh initial phase angle of voltage and current of hth including root-mean-square (RMS) value, total harmonics
order component, rad distortion (THD), apparent power (S), active power (P),
f power system frequency, Hz fundamental reactive power (Q1), non-active power (N), power
ω angular frequency 2πf, rad/s factor (PF), and fundamental power factor (PF1).
γ phase angle, rad Besides, with growing environmental awareness, the
v t ,i t instantaneous voltage and current, V and A penetration of renewable energy such as wind power and
V 0, I0 RMS value of the DC component of voltage and photovoltaic power has increased gradually [5, 6]. This has led to
current, V and A many projects [7–9], which attempted to interconnect renewable
V h, Ih RMS value of the hth order component of voltage generation systems to isolated power systems, thereby constructing
and current (h = 1, 2, …H), V and A a standalone microgrid. As microgrids, small-scale power
V, I RMS value of the voltage and current, V and A distribution systems, have several advantages, for example,
θh Phase angle between the current and the voltage of reducing capital investment and carbon footprint, diversifying the
hth order component (h = 1, 2, …, H), rad energy sources, and increasing the system reliability, they are
PF, PF1 power factor and fundamental power factor frequently widely used [10]. However, they are more vulnerable to
P active power, W frequency deviations because they are isolated power systems that
Q1 fundamental reactive power, var have weaker equivalent inertia than the conventional power grid
S apparent power, VA [11]. However, PQ is an essential aspect of renewable energy
N non-active power, var integration. The major PQ concerns are: (i) voltage and frequency
THDV , THDI THD of voltage and current, % fluctuations or deviations, which are caused by non-controllable
variability of renewable energy resources. The intermittent nature
of renewable energy resources due to ever-changing weather
1 Introduction conditions leads to voltage and frequency fluctuations or deviations
at the interconnected power grid; (ii) Harmonics, which are

IET Sci. Meas. Technol., 2019, Vol. 13 Iss. 8, pp. 1111-1121 1111
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2019
introduced by power electronic devices utilised in renewable Std 1459 [4] and IEEE Std 519 [26], such as: the primary PQIs for
energy generation. When the penetration level of renewable energy single-phase systems, the names of the PQIs, the concrete formulas
is high, the influence of harmonics could be significant [12]. It is of the PQIs, and the order number of the respective harmonics. The
crucial to monitor the PQIs within a frequency reliably deviated specific PQIs here considered are follows: the instantaneous
environment to prevent potential faults and economic losses. frequency of the electrical system (based on a voltage signal), f; the
Taking the IEEE Std 421.5 [13] into consideration, the maximum RMS value and THD of the voltage and current signals, Vrms, Irms,
allowable frequency deviation is 5%, which means ±2.5 Hz THDV, THDI; the apparent power, S; the active power, P; the
deviation for the system with a nominal frequency of 50 Hz. For fundamental reactive power, Q1; the non-active power, N; the
the simplicity of explanation, we present the 52.5 Hz case for power factor, PF; the fundamental power factor, PF1. The main
verification of the proposed methodology.
contributions of this paper are:
According to the IEEE Std 1459 [4], the PQIs can be computed
by using the magnitude and phase of the spectral components in the
i. to analyse and discuss the existing PQIs detection
current and voltage signals. Numerical algorithms for the
methodologies;
acquisition of these parameters are developed worldwide. One
famous and accurate methodology for stationary signal analysis is ii. to propose an instantaneous PQIs detection methodology based
named short-time Fourier transform (STFT) [14], but its on an adaptive data resampling technique, ACD technique, and
performance may be degraded under a non-stationary or frequency CDSC technique to improve the accuracy of PQIs detection
deviated environment. Moreover, the time-resolution of the STFT under a frequency deviated environment;
[14] is highly limited. It can be improved by utilising the iii. to verify the proposed methodology in comparison with the
overlapped STFT [14], but a high computing burden should be paid conventional methods, such as STFT [14], SSM [3] etc. with
as a trade-off relationship [15]. plenty of simulation and experimental results.
Besides, multiple techniques or methodologies based on the
wavelet transform (WT) have been proposed [3, 16, 17]. The Here, simulation and experimental environments are designed to
concept of equivalent voltage and current after the WT has been verify the effectiveness of the proposal. In the simulation, we use
applied for three-phase systems in [16], and the wavelet packet mathematical models for the voltage and current signals with/
transform (WPT) used to obtain the parameters for PQIs in [17]. without harmonics and with/without frequency deviation; whereas
However, only odd order harmonics can be considered if the direct in the experiment, we use a programmable power source, a variable
WPT is used, which limits this methodology in real applications. load and a data acquisition recorder. For comparison purposes, we
To solve this problem, single-side band modulation (SSM) can be work with SSM [3] and STFT [14] for both the 50 Hz and the 52.5
used to shift the frequency before passing into WPT in [3]. The Hz systems.
harmonic components are moved to the centres of these WPT sub-
passbands by SSM, with all the desired components filtered out, 2 Theoretical background
respectively. However, this is based on the usual frequency
In this section, three main concepts are introduced, including ACD
condition without any frequency deviation. On the contrary, when
technique, CDSC technique, and the formulas of PQIs.
the fundamental frequency deviates, all the harmonic components
would deviate correspondingly, with some of the desired
components no longer staying at the centres of the expected WPT 2.1 Anti-conjugate decomposition
passbands, but in the attenuation bands or even the stop bands. For In signal processing, space vector-based concept is widely used and
example, in a 50 Hz electrical system, when the fundamental efficient. For a single phase system, the quadrature signal
frequency deviates to 52.5 from 50 Hz, the frequency of the 5th generation (QSG) is required during the transformation from
harmonic will deviate to 262.5 from 250 Hz. Since the SSM single-phase signal into an αβ-frame vector, which is by either
process shifts the frequency by 12.5 Hz, the frequency of the SSM phase shifting or delaying the original input signal or manipulating
processed 5th harmonic will deviate to 275 from 262.5 Hz. the output estimates (closed-loop QSG). Unnecessary computing
Unfortunately, 275 Hz locates in a stop band of the used WPT and burden or time delay would be inevitable.
the 5th harmonic will be missed. Considerable errors will come out Thus, the ACD concept is proposed in [21], and within it, the β-
when the PQIs are obtained with this frequency deviation. component is set as the single-phase input signal, while the α-
Kalman filter [18] is a powerful tool for monitoring the PQIs, component is set as constant zero. This newly composed space
but it requires an appropriate initial value and a priori information →
vector v αβ within the αβ-frame is regarded as the sum of two space
of the monitored system. Time–frequency distribution [19] exhibits →−
promising results, but their accuracy relies on the selected time vectors, a negative-sequence one, v αβ, and a positive-sequence
window function and suffers from the frequency deviated →+
one, v αβ. The positive-sequence one would be in phase with the
condition. Similarly, S-transform (ST)'s main limitation is its single-phase input signal. Moreover, they are always symmetrical
spectral-leaking effect, requiring a high computing burden when with the imaginary axis and the magnitudes of them are half of the
high time resolution is necessary [20]. In [21–23], a frequency input signal.
feedback loop is utilised with a cascaded delayed signal As illustrated in Fig. 1, the single-phase input signal v and the
cancellation (CDSC) technique to detect the harmonic components composed αβ-frame space vector would be assumed as:
in the frequency deviated signals, but it demands a complex
recalculation and readjustment, which may bring unnecessary and v = V sin γ = Vsin ωt + φ (1)
extra computing burden. More complex algorithms, adaptive neural
networks (NNs) [24, 25], were also presented. To update the vα vα+ vα−
→ →+ →− 0
representative formulation of the signals and ensure the correct v αβ = = v αβ + v αβ = + = (2)
convergence in time, fast and accurate adjustment algorithms are vβ +
vβ −
vβ v
required, which are difficult to obtain.
In this paper, we propose a new methodology based on adaptive where V denotes the magnitude, γ denotes the phase angle, ω = 2πf
data resampling frequency, anti-conjugated (ACD) technique [21], denotes the angular frequency, φ denotes the initial phase angle, vα
CDSC technique [21–23] to improve the accuracy of the calculated →
denotes the α-component of v αβ, vβ denotes the β-component of
PQIs within a frequency deviated environment. Usually, it is vital → →+
for the monitoring of the PQIs of the power systems, being capable v αβ, v αβ denotes the decomposed positive-sequence space vector
of quantifying the severity of the PQ problems during the transient with vα+ and vβ+ as its α-component and β-component, respectively,
and steady-state in such frequency deviated environment, which is →−
v αβ denotes the decomposed negative-sequence space vector with
due to the rapid increase of renewable energy integration. vα− and vβ− as its α-component and β-component, respectively.
Furthermore, for compatibility purposes, our upcoming proposal
strictly follows the definitions and recommendations of the IEEE

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 decided by the so-called delayed factor, n. The DSC operator with
targeted harmonic order h∗ and delayed factor n is denoted as
DSCnh* in Fig. 2. As the final output of the CDSC operator is the
product of all the involved DSC operators, it is possible to build an
adjusted CDSC that can extract the desired component with the
order h∗, eliminating all the other components.
h∗
A ‘clean’ signal vαβ would come out after the CDSC operator
and then be fed to a magnitude and phase detection (MPD) block to
calculate the exact magnitude and the phase angle of the desired
component of v by the following formulas:

V h∗ = 2 vh2 ∗α + vh2 ∗ β
vh∗ β (6)
θV h∗ = tan−1
vh∗α

2.3 Power quality indices

Fig. 1 Illustration of the ACD of a single-phase signal decomposed into a To quantify the PQ of an electrical system, PQI is defined
pair of oppositely rotating space vectors according to IEEE Std 1459 [4]. The measurement of the PQIs is a
crucial part of monitoring and maintaining the operation of an
electrical system.
Refer to the IEEE Std 1459 [4], the following mathematical
models would be used in this paper, and the symbols used in (7)–
(18) are explained in Nomenclature.
H
v t = V 0 + 2 ∑ V hsin hωt − φvh (7)
h=1

H
i t = I0 + 2 ∑ Ihsin hωt − φih (8)
h=1
Fig. 2 Diagram of a general CDSC operator and the included DSC
operators
H
− + + −
As shown in (2) and Fig. 1, vα = − vα and vβ = vβ = vβ /2. As a
V= ∑ Vh 2
(9)
h=0
result, vα is always zero, while the vβ would equal to v. Harmonics
within the single-phase input signal can also be paired with the H
corresponding decomposition and transformed into αβ-frame space I= ∑ Ih 2
(10)
vectors. h=0

H
2.2 Cascaded delayed signal cancellation V 02 + ∑h = 2 V h2
THDV = ⋅ 100% (11)
The CDSC technique is renowned for its ability to extract the V1
magnitude and phase of a selected component in an αβ-frame space
H
vector, including both the fundamental and harmonics. I02 + ∑h = 2 Ih2
THDI = ⋅ 100% (12)
As shown in Fig. 2, the CDSC operator is a series of cascaded I1
delay signal cancellation (DSC) operators, which are here defined
as follows: H
P = V 0I0 + ∑ V hIhcosθh (13)
→ 1 → → T h=1
DSCn v αβ t = v t + R γr v αβ t − (3)
2 αβ n
Q1 = V 1I1sinθ1 (14)
where the R γr denotes the ‘rotation matrix’ and is defined as
follows: S = VI (15)

cos γr sin γr N = S2 − P2 (16)

R γr = (4)
−sin γr cos γr
PF1 = cosθ1 (17)
where the ‘rotation angle’
P
PF = (18)
2πh ∗ S
γr = − . (5)
n
3 Proposed methodology
The definitions of the used abbreviations are listed in the The main steps of the proposed methodology for measuring the
Nomenclature. The most remarkable feature of the DSC operator is PQIs are illustrated in Fig. 3.
its magnitude responses with periodic unity-gain and zero-gain. Step 1: The voltage and current signals would be sampled with
There is always a unity-gain at the targeted harmonic order h∗ in a sampling frequency of 10 MHz, which is directly makes use of
the magnitude response of each DSC block, while the zero-gains the sampling circuit in the laboratory for simplicity, and this
are located with a certain distance with the adjacent unity-gains. sampling frequency should be sufficient to verify the proposed
The distance between the adjacent unity-gain and zero-gain is idea.

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Fig. 3 Proposed methodology for estimating the PQIs under frequency deviated environment

Step 2: A software resampler would resample the sampled CDSC block treats the input αβ-frame signal as a periodical signal
voltage and current signals with a data resampling frequency of Fs with 128 samples in one single period constantly, without the need
= f * 27. However, at the beginning, when f is not detected, Fs of considering about the input signal frequency. The rotation
matrices inside are designed in advance, no need for recalculation
would be set as 50 * 27 = 6400 Hz. According to IEEE Std 519
for them even when the signal frequency deviates since the number
[26], the considered harmonics are up to 50th, as the negative
sequence would be introduced after the ACD process, the total of samples in one cycle is fixed at 27 and the delay operation is
number of the considered components in the CDSC block is 101 based on the sample shifting only. The extracted signals would be
(50 of the positive sequence, 50 of the negative sequence, 1 DC fed to the MPD block.
component). To avoid the spectral leakage problem, the gap of the Step 5: In this step, the magnitude and phase angles of all the
unity-gain points of the designed CDSC magnitude response, extracted components by the CDSC blocks would be computed
which is decided by the delay factor n according to (3) [27], has to according to (6). Only one four-quadrant arctangent, one square
be long enough to cover all the considered components. Under this root, two square, and one division functions are involved for such
consideration, to ensure the successful decomposition of all algebraic operations.
considered harmonic components, the delay factors n of the DSC Step 6: In this step, all the instantaneous PQIs would be
blocks used in the CDSC block are set as 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 and calculated. Since the information of f is contained in the
continuously computed φv1, which is with a time resolution of Fs.
128, respectively, which with the largest value of 128 = 27 > 101.
For the convenience of delay operation with n = 128, the value of For the simplicity of analysis, φv1 can be regarded as a function of
Fs is designed to be common multiple of the f and 128 rather than t, when f deviates, the slope of the function φv1(t) also deviates
other numbers. The Fs would adaptively change according to the proportionally. f can be calculated using the slope of the φv1(t) and
Δf. Fs as follows:
Step 3: By using ACD technique, both the resampled voltage
and current signals would be transformed into composited αβ- φv1 t − φv1 t − T s
f = (19)
frame time-domain input signals in this step. The β component 2πFs
would be set as the resampled voltage or current signals, while the
α component is set as constant zero. Newly composited signals The newly acquired f would be fed back to the resampler used in
would be fed to the CDSC blocks as input signals. Step 2 for adaptive data resampling. Other instantaneous PQIs
Step 4: In this step, the input αβ-frame signal would be would be obtained according to (7)–(18).
‘cleaned’ by the CDSC block. All the desired components would
be extracted individually, in phase with the corresponding
components in the sampled signal. Seven DSC operators are
4 Simulation and experimental verification
involved in the CDSC block in this paper, with delay factors of 2, To evaluate and verify the effectiveness of the proposed
4, 8, 16, 32, 64 and 128. Since the input αβ-frame signal is methodology, simulation and experimental studies are carried out
resampled with Fs = f * 27, even if the f deviates, the number of the in this section. To validate the proposed methodology compared
samples in one single cycle is 27 = Fs / f. As a consequence, the with other methods, the following simulation and experimental
parts will be tested under a step change of frequency situation,

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which is due to the worst case consideration. In reality, the experimental equipment setting. For comparison, PQIs obtained by
frequency changes constantly, even from cycle-to-cycle. Once the using other methods are provided, including SSM [3], STFT [14]
proposed methodology satisfies the step change of frequency test, for the 50 Hz system and the 52.5 Hz system. The sampling rate of
it must also satisfy the constant change of frequency in reality. 6400 Hz (common multiple of 50 and 27) is used in the SSM [3]
method and STFT [14] method for the 50 Hz system, while 6720
4.1 Simulation Hz (common multiple of 52.5 and 27) is used in the STFT [14]
method for the 52.5 Hz system. The error produced by using
Three-staged signals of voltage and current are used as input
different methods is given by:
signals in this simulation. The mathematical model of the used
voltage and current signals are given as follows:
PQIX − PQIREF
%EX = ⋅ 100% (21)
3 PQIREF
vt = ∑ vm t u t − tm − 1 − u t − tm
m=1 where the subscript ‘X’ represents the proposal, STFT [14] for 50
3
(20) Hz, STFT [14] for 52.5 Hz or SSM [3]. PQIREF denotes the
it = ∑ im t u t − tm − 1 − u t − tm reference PQI value.
m=1 f is obtained from the system fundamental frequency of the
voltage via the phase-locked loop. A time window of 200 ms (5 Hz
where u(t) is the unit step function, t0 = 0 s, t1 = 1 s, t2 = 2 s, t3 = 3 of time-resolution) is used in the STFT [14] method as
s, vm(t) and im(t) are the compound voltage and current signals in recommended by the IEEE Std1459 [4] and IEC 61000-4-7 [28].
stage m, respectively, and the parameters of magnitude, frequency, To carry out the comparison accurately and fairly, the results given
and phase of each component in each stage are shown in Table 1 by the proposal need to be averaged with the same time frame of
and their corresponding waveforms are shown in Fig. 4. As the other methods, STFT [14] and SSM [3]. However, unlike them,
reference values are known a priori, the ideal values for PQIs can two moving average filters are involved for each PQI except f as
be calculated easily. shown in Fig. 3, the time-frame for each moving average filter in
The simulated staged sampled signals of voltage and current are the proposal is chosen as 100 ms, which is half of the time-frame
with high time-resolution, 10.01 MHz, which is consistent with the of the STFT [14] and SSM [3].

Table 1 Value of magnitude, frequency and phase for the components in the simulated voltage and current signals
Voltage signal Current signal
V h V / f h Hz /θVh ° Ih A / f h Hz /θIh °
h Stage m Stage m
m=1 m=2 m=3 m=1 m=2 m=3
1 55/50/45 55/50/45 55/52.5/45 10/50/20 10/50/20 10/52.5/20
2 0/0/0 1/100/70 1/105/70 0/0/0 1/100/110 1/105/110
3 0/0/0 2/150/50 2/157.5/50 0/0/0 2/150/10 2/157.5/10
4 0/0/0 1/200/0 1/210/0 0/0/0 1/200/-20 1/210/−20
5 0/0/0 4/250/60 4/262.5/60 0/0/0 5/250/30 5/262.5/30

Fig. 4 Simulated input voltage and current signals

(a) Stage 1, (b) Stage 2, (c) Stage 3

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Fig. 5 PQIs detection response via different algorithms in the simulation
(a) Input signals, (b) Vrms, (c) Irms, (d) THDV, (e) THDI, (f) S, (g) P, (h) Q1, (i) N, (j) PF, (k) PF1, (l) f

The involved PQIs are S, P, Q1, N, PF, PF1, THDV, THDI, Irms, cannot during the abrupt changes. For the SSM [3], the errors are
Vrms and f, and they are calculated according to (7)–(19). The PQIs due to some frequency-deviated harmonic components shifting to
detection response of using different algorithms is shown in Fig. 5. stop or attenuation bands, instead of the desired passbands of the
The results and the error in the steady-state condition by using used WPT. As a consequence, both the proposal and SSM [3]
different algorithms are summarised in Table 2. The analysed data methods can obtain fast detection in order to prevent the potential
for the result corresponds to the time windows: 0.4–0.6 s for Stage faults in the electrical system or any equipment connected with it,
1, 1.4–1.6 s for Stage 2, 2.4–2.6 s for Stage 3. Error values >5% are but the accuracy of the PQI detection by using SSM [3] method
in bold to emphasise and each symbol representation is explained may be degraded under frequency deviated environment.
in the bottom part of Table 2. Overall, in the simulation part, the
proposal does not have error value over 5%, the STFT [14] for the 4.2 Experiment
50 Hz system has 9 error values over 5%, the STFT [14] for the
As shown in Fig. 6, the experiment setup can be divided into three
52.5 Hz system has 16 error values over 5%, while the SSM [3] has
main parts: (i) Real signal generation, (ii) Data acquisition, and (iii)
5 error values over 5%. The proposal gives a perfect result of zero
Signal processing.
error of all PQIs. For the STFT [14] of 50 Hz, the results are: a
Firstly, the real signal of voltage and current is generated by a
maximum error of 78.05% (under 52.5 Hz environment), a
simple electrical system, whose circuit configuration and its
minimum error of 0%, and a mean error of 13.27% with a standard
parameters are depicted in Fig. 6a. It consists of a programmable
deviation of 25.01% for the relative errors. While for the STFT
power source, model MX30-3PI by California Instruments, an
[14] of 52.5 Hz, the results are: a maximum error of 70.84% (under
inductor L of 6kVA, a resistor R of 6 kW, a capacitor C of 200 μF
50 Hz environment), a minimum error of 0%, and a mean error of
and a rectifier. Since only two specific conditions of the
21.68% with a standard deviation of 26.89% for the relative errors.
programmable source are adopted, for ease of understanding, the
Finally, for the SSM [3], the results are a maximum error of
programmable source is depicted as two separated constant sources
23.31% (under 52.5 Hz environment), a minimum error of 0%, and
as in Fig. 6a. For the safety of the experiment, the RMS value of
a mean error of 2.27% with a standard deviation of 5.56% for the
the programmable source is selected as 55 V, instead of 110 or 220
relative errors.
V. Breaker 1, BK1, is activated to be closed at 1.00 s and the
As it can be observed in Fig. 5, STFT [14] of 50 Hz gives low
effective load in the electrical system is changed immediately, this
errors under 50 Hz environment, while STFT [14] of 52.5 Hz
is realised by the changeable load (model VILVA-AC380V-20KW-
presents small errors under 52.5 Hz environment. This is expected
RLC-RCD). Breaker 2, BK2, is activated to switch from the 50 Hz
for the STFT [14] method because it is an algorithm proposed for
source to the 52.5 Hz one at 2.00 s, which acts as the fundamental
the analysis of stationary signals. It also proves that both the
frequency change from 50 to 52.5 Hz. In fact, the deviation of
proposal and the SSM [3] can dynamically respond immediately to
frequency is realised by the programmable source. The zoom-in
the abrupt change of the input signal, while the STFT [14] method
experimental input voltage and current signals are shown in Fig. 7.
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Table 2 Results of the simulation
PQIREF PQIP PQIS1 PQIS2 PQISSM EP ES1 ES2 ESSM PQIREF PQIP PQIS1 PQIS2 PQISSM EP ES1 ES2 ESSM
Stage Vrms Irms
1 55.00 55.00 55.00 36.94 49.99 0 0 32.84 0.02 10 10 10 6.57 10 0 0 34.30 0
2 55.20 55.20 55.20 36.93 55.19 0 0 33.10 0.02 11.45 11.45 11.45 6.55 11.43 0 0 42.79 0.17
3 55.20 55.20 35.11 55.20 55.12 0 36.39 0 0.14 11.45 11.45 6.62 11.45 10.87 0 42.18 0 5.07
THDV THDI
1 0 0 0 7.01 0 0 0 7.01 0 0 0 0 4.84 0 0 0 4.84 0
2 8.53 8.53 8.53 7.95 8.47 0 0 6.80 0.70 55.68 55.68 55.68 14.36 55.42 0 0 74.21 0.48
3 8.53 8.53 7.03 8.53 6.73 0 17.58 0 21.10 55.68 55.68 12.22 55.68 42.70 0 78.05 0 23.31
S P
1 550 550 550 242.78 549.95 0 0 55.86 0.01 498.47 498.47 498.47 219.55 498.42 0 0 55.96 0.01
2 631.79 631.79 631.79 241.76 631.03 0 0 61.73 0.12 520.56 520.56 520.56 218.04 520.26 0 0 58.11 0.06
3 631.79 631.79 232.49 631.79 599.41 0 63.20 0 5.13 520.56 520.56 209.88 520.56 511.67 0 59.68 0 1.71
Q1 N
1 232.44 232.44 232.44 103.48 232.41 0 0 55.48 0.01 232.44 232.44 232.44 103.64 232.42 0 0 55.41 0
2 232.44 232.44 232.44 102.06 232.41 0 0 56.09 0.01 358.01 358.01 358.01 104.41 357.11 0 0 70.84 0.25
3 232.44 232.44 96.76 232.44 232.45 0 58.37 0 0 358.01 358.01 100.02 358.01 312.25 0 72.62 0 12.78
PF PF1
1 0.906 0.906 0.906 0.904 0.906 0 0 0.22 0 0.906 0.906 0.906 0.904 0.906 0 0 0.22 0
2 0.824 0.824 0.824 0.902 0.825 0 0 9.47 0.12 0.906 0.906 0.906 0.905 0.906 0 0 0.11 0
3 0.824 0.824 0.903 0.824 0.854 0 9.59 0 3.64 0.906 0.906 0.908 0.906 0.906 0 0.22 0 0
f
1 50 50 50 50 50 0 0 0 0
2 50 50 50 50 50 0 0 0 0
3 52.5 52.50 52.50 52.50 52.50 0 0 0 0
PQIREF: Reference value. PQIP: Result obtained using the proposal. PQIS1: Result obtained using the STFT [14] for 50 Hz. PQIS2: Result obtained using the STFT [14] for 52.5
Hz. PQISSM: Result obtained using the SSM [3]. EP: Error obtained using the proposal. ES1: Error obtained using the STFT [14] for 50 Hz. ES2: Error obtained using the STFT
[14] for 52.5 Hz. ESSM: Error obtained using the SSM [3].

Fig. 6 Experimental setup

(a) Circuit configuration, (b) Actual setup in the laboratory

Stage 1 is defined as 0–1.0 s, Stage 2 as 1.0–2.0 s, Stage 3 as 2.0– experimental part. The error calculation in the experiment is given
3.0 s in the following. by:
Secondly, the voltage and current signals are sensed by sensors,
the sampled data is collected and stored by the data acquisition PQIY − PQIS1
% EY = ⋅ 100%, for Stages 1 and 2
recorder of model DL850 by Yokogawa. For better data resampling PQIS1
in the subsequent processing, the data is with relatively high time (22)
PQIY − PQIS2
resolution, 10.01 MHz, which is the maximum sampling frequency % EY = ⋅ 100%, for Stage 3
of the used data acquisition recorder. PQIS2
Thirdly, the collected data is transferred to the computer and
read in the MATLAB. MATLAB tool kit (Model: 701991) is used where the subscript ‘Y’ represents the proposal, STFT [14] for 50
for the sampled data importing. All the mathematical operations Hz, STFT [14] for 52.5 Hz or SSM [3].
are implemented in MATLAB, and the imported voltage and The PQIs detection response using different algorithms is
current data are re-sampled by particular ways of discussed depicted in Fig. 8. The results and the error in the steady-state
methods in the simulation section. The same formulas as the condition by using different algorithms are summarised in Table 3.
simulation part are used to calculate the targeted PQIs. In the The analysed data for the result corresponds to the time windows:
simulation, the accuracy of PQIs by using the STFT [14] for the 0.4–0.6 s for stage 1, 1.4–1.6 s for Stage 2, 2.4–2.6 s for Stage 3.
50 Hz system during the first two stages (50 Hz) is perfect with Error values >5% are in bold to emphasise, and each symbol
zero error, while the one by using the STFT [14] for the 52.5 Hz representation is explained in the bottom part of Table 3. The error
system during the last stage (52.5 Hz) is perfect, too. Therefore, the values of THDV in the Stage 1 are very high; this is due to the
reference PQIs values for error calculation are chosen as the PQIS1 small number (close to 0) at the denominator in (22), this problem
during the first two stages and PQIS2 during the last stage in the affects all the methods and does not indicate the significant

IET Sci. Meas. Technol., 2019, Vol. 13 Iss. 8, pp. 1111-1121 1117
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 absolute error. Overall, in the experiment part, the proposal has 1
error value over 5%, the STFT [14] for the 50 Hz system has 9
error values over 5%, the STFT [14] for the 52.5 Hz system has 18
error values over 5%, while the SSM [3] has 6 error values over
5%. The proposal gives the following results: a maximum error of
88.23% because of the small number (close to 0) at the
denominator in (22) for the THDV determination, a minimum error
of 0%, and a mean error of 2.81% with a standard deviation of
15.30%. For the STFT [14] of 50 Hz, the results are: a maximum
error of 160.54% (under 52.5 Hz environment), a minimum error
of 0%, and a mean error of 17.27% with a standard deviation of
32.16% for the relative errors. While for the STFT [14] of 52.5 Hz,
the results are: a maximum error of 4029% (under 50 Hz
environment), a minimum error of 0%, and a mean error of
153.99% with a standard deviation of 690.91% for the relative
errors. Finally, for the SSM [3], the results are: a maximum error of
58.82%, a minimum error of 0%, and a mean error of 4.47% with a
standard deviation of 11.86% for the relative errors.
Fig. 8 depicts the dynamic detection response for different PQIs
instantaneous estimation in the experiment part. Similar to the
simulation part, during the signal transitions (1 and 2 s), the PQIs
obtained by the proposal and SSM [3] present can provide a
dynamic response to the abrupt changes. Unfortunately, the PQIs
obtained by using SSM [3] also suffer from some frequency-
deviated harmonic components that are shifted to stop or
attenuation bands in Stage 3, instead of the passbands of the used
WPT. Compared with SSM and STFT methods, the proposal
obtains better PQIs estimation and tracking for transient and abrupt
changes in voltage and/or current under frequency deviation
environment. Therefore, the proposal may help to avoid potential
Fig. 7 Experimental input voltage and current signals
faults in electric networks or any piece of loading connected to the
(a) Stage 1, (b) Stage 2, (c) Stage 3
power lines under a frequency deviated environment.

Fig. 8 PQIs detection response via different algorithms in the experiment

(a) Input signals, (b) Vrms, (c) Irms, (d) THDV, (e) THDI, (f) S, (g) P, (h) Q1, (i) N, (j) PF, (k) PF1, (l) f

1118 IET Sci. Meas. Technol., 2019, Vol. 13 Iss. 8, pp. 1111-1121
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2019
Table 3 Results of the experiment
PQIP PQIS1 PQIS2 PQISSM EP ES1 ES2 ESSM PQIP PQIS1 PQIS2 PQISSM EP ES1 ES2 ESSM
Stage Vrms Irms
1 54.81 54.80 36.41 54.82 0.02 0 33.56 0.04 9.61 9.61 6.29 9.61 0 0 34.54 0
2 54.85 54.84 37.37 54.86 0.02 0 31.86 0.04 8.90 8.88 5.61 8.89 0.22 0 36.82 0.11
3 54.86 33.69 54.86 54.83 0 38.59 0 0.05 8.76 4.98 8.76 8.31 0.00 43.15 0 5.14
THDV THDI
1 0.32 0.17 7.02 0.27 88.23 0 4029 58.82 0.90 0.89 3.58 0.92 1.12 0 302.25 3.37
2 3.74 3.72 6.45 3.70 0.53 0 73.39 0.54 40.47 40.68 7.59 39.92 0.51 0 81.34 1.87
3 3.66 9.51 3.65 2.60 0.27 160.54 0 28.77 42.78 14.67 42.68 31.07 0.23 65.63 0 27.20
S P
1 526.72 526.63 229.02 526.82 0.02 0 56.51 0.04 384.92 385.09 171.83 384.97 0.04 0 55.38 0.03
2 488.16 486.97 209.64 487.70 0.24 0 56.95 0.15 398.02 397.89 176.74 398.31 0.03 0 55.58 0.11
3 480.57 167.77 480.57 455.63 0.01 65.09 0 5.19 397.52 151.79 397.61 394.23 0.02 61.82 0 0.85
Q1 N
1 358.9 358.94 161.13 359.21 0.01 0 55.11 0.08 359.34 359.32 156.83 359.39 0.01 0 56.35 0.02
2 224.31 224.1 107.07 224.45 0.09 0 52.22 0.16 281.48 281.51 108.05 280.45 0.01 0 61.62 0.38
3 205.09 82.39 204.82 204.78 0.13 59.77 0 0.02 270.38 84.62 269.81 241.73 0.21 68.64 0 10.41
PF PF1
1 0.731 0.731 0.719 0.730 0 0 1.64 0.14 0.731 0.731 0.720 0.731 0 0 1.50 0.00
2 0.816 0.817 0.858 0.816 0.12 0 5.02 0.12 0.867 0.869 0.861 0.870 0.23 0 0.92 0.12
3 0.827 0.874 0.828 0.858 0.12 5.56 0 3.62 0.885 0.877 0.887 0.886 0.23 1.13 0 0.11
f
1 50.05 50.06 50.06 50.06 0.02 0 0 0
2 50.06 50.09 50.09 50.06 0.06 0 0 0.06
3 52.51 52.47 52.47 52.50 0.07 0 0 0.06
PQIP: Result obtained using the proposal. PQIS1: Result obtained using the STFT [14] for 50 Hz. PQIS2: Result obtained using the STFT [14] for 52.5 Hz. PQISSM: Result
obtained using the SSM [3]. EP: Error obtained using the proposal. ES1: Error obtained using the STFT [14] for 50 Hz. ES2: Error obtained using the STFT [14] for 52.5 Hz. ESSM:
Error obtained using the SSM [3].

To capture the randomness of real field data, the proposed it obtains. In this paper, the monitored voltage and current signals
method has also been tested with the field data (24 h) provided by are sampled with a sampling frequency of 10 MHz, which is
the IEEE Working Group on PQ Data Analytics, the results are directly makes use of the sampling circuit in the laboratory for
shown in Fig. 9. The grey band shows the calculation results of the simplicity. Under 50 harmonic order and data resampling
field data by using the STFT method [14] as a reference, while the frequency of Fs = f * 27 consideration for the proposal, the data
blue line shows the calculation results of the proposal. The x-axis sampling frequency of 10 MHz should be sufficient to verify the
denotes the time (hour), while the y-axis denotes the different PQIs proposed idea. In addition, the sampling frequency of 10 MHz or
values. The proposal obtains consistent results compared with the above can be provided by many analogue-to-digital integrated
STFT method [14], which also verifies the validity and circuits (ICs) [30–32].
effectiveness of the proposed method. The exact input data can be When the measurement of the inter-harmonics is required, the
obtained via :https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/ CDSC block can be adjusted for the new frequency resolution
0B6vSVhUYNe86TGQ3bmgwdG1ySnM requirement. However, the memory overhead, respond speed, and
the computing burden may need further consideration under this
5 Discussion situation.
However, a limitation also exists in the proposed method. When
As shown in the simulation and experimental sections in this paper,
the power system is broken down to a large extent with a long time,
the proposed methodology obtains a better performance in
for example, the voltage is cut off unexpectedly the data
estimating the parameters of the voltage and current signals under a
resampling frequency may deviate to zero or other unexpected
frequency deviated environment than the conventional. As a
values and cannot recover automatically. A suitable range of the
consequence, the proposed method can calculate many extensive
data resampling frequency of the proposal should be studied and
used PQIs stated in many standards in this field, such as IEEE Std
designed in future works to avoid these kind of problems.
1459 [4], IEC 61000-4-7 [28] and IEC 61000-4-30 [29], and also
other PQIs discussed in other paper works [16, 17, 19, 25], with
high accuracy, and no reformulation of the mathematical model is 6 Conclusions
required. Furthermore, PQIs in the three-phase power system can This paper proposed a methodology that integrates and exploits the
also be calculated using the proposal, such as the equivalent RMS advantages of adjustable data resampling frequency, ACD, and
and THD, symmetrical and unbalance components, which are CDSC for the calculation of the instantaneous PQIs, which can
critical for many other applications presented in other works that relax the accuracy problem of the conventional methods under a
need the estimation of PQIs in both steady and transient conditions frequency deviated environment. First, we sampled the monitored
under frequency deviated environment. For the compatibility of the voltage and current signals with a relatively high sampling
proposal, all the formulas of the PQIs used in this paper are frequency. Secondly, we resampled the sampled signal with an
presented in the IEEE Std 1459 [4]. appropriate sampling frequency based on the detected system
Under 50 harmonic order considerations for the proposal, the frequency, the corresponding instantaneous magnitude and phase
Nyquist sampling rate is at least 5 kHz to avoid aliasing. In fact, as of each harmonic component obtained via ACD and CDSC
the adaptive data resampling technique is proposed to improve the techniques. Finally, the PQIs were calculated according to the
accuracy of PQIs detection under frequency deviated environment definitions defined by the IEEE Std 1459, with the help of IEC
in this paper, the higher the sampling frequency uses (also benefits 61000-4-7 and IEC 61000-4-30, and the data resampling frequency
for the accuracy of the resampling process), the better the accuracy

IET Sci. Meas. Technol., 2019, Vol. 13 Iss. 8, pp. 1111-1121 1119
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2019
Fig. 9 Comparison results of the 24 h field data (provided by IEEE Working Group on PQ Data Analytics) between STFT method [14] and the proposed
method
(a) Vrms, (b) Irms, (c) THDV, (d) THDI, (e) S, (f) P, (g) Q1, (h) N, (i) PF1, (j) PF, (k) f

will be updated according to the newly obtained fundamental Fund) and in part by the Research Committee of the University of
frequency from the voltage. Macau (MYRG2017-00090-AMSV).
To verify the effectiveness of the proposal, simulation and
experimental studies were carried out. In the simulation, we used 8 References
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