Introduction to computers

Computer : is an electronic device that operates (works) under the control of programs stored in its own
memory unit.
OR
An electronic device that accepts data as input, and transforms it under the influence of a set of special
instructions called Programs, to produce the desired output (referred to as Information).

What is Computer?

The term "computer" is derived from the Latin word "computare" which means to calculate.

A computer is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions through integrated
hardware and software components.

It works with the help of programs and represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits.
It also has a memory that stores the data, programs, and result of processing. The components of a
computer such as machinery that includes wires, transistors, circuits, hard disk are called hardware.
Whereas, the programs and data are called software.

It is believed that the Analytical Engine was the first computer which was invented by Charles Babbage
in 1837. It used punch cards as read-only memory. Charles Babbage is also known as the father of the
computer.

The basic parts without which a computer cannot work are as follows:

o Processor: It executes instructions from software and hardware.

o Memory: It is the primary memory for data transfer between the CPU and storage.
o Motherboard: It is the part that connects all other parts or components of a computer.
o Storage Device: It permanently stores the data, e.g., hard drive.
o Input Device: It allows you to communicate with the computer or to input data, e.g., a keyboard.
o Output Device: It enables you to see the output, e.g., monitor.
 TYPES OF DATA.
There are two types/forms of data:

a). Digital (discrete) data:

Digital data is discrete in nature. It must be represented in form of numbers, alphabets or symbols
for it to be processed by a computer. Digital data is obtained by counting. E.g. 1, 2, 3 …
b). Analogue (continuous) data:
Analogue data is continuous in nature. It must be represented in physical nature in order to be
processed by the computer. Analogue data is obtained by measurement.
o E.g. Pressure, Temperature, Humidity, Lengths or currents, etc. The output is in form of smooth
graphs from which the data can be read.

History of Computers
The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones and bones as counting tools. As
human mind and technology improved with time more computing devices were developed. Some of the popular
computing devices starting with the first to recent ones are described below;

Abacus
The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first computer. It is said that Chinese
invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.

It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads were moved by the abacus operator
according to some rules to perform arithmetic calculations. Abacus is still used in some countries like China, Russia and
Japan. An image of this tool is shown below;

Napier's Bones
It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier (1550-1617) of Merchiston. In this
calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to multiply and divide. So, the tool became
known as "Napier's Bones. It was also the first machine to use the decimal point.
Pascaline
Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented between 1642 and 1644 by a French
mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it was the first mechanical and automatic calculator.

Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only perform addition and subtraction. It was a
wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. When a wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A
series of windows is given on the top of the wheels to read the totals. An image of this tool is shown below;

Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of Modern Computer". It was a
mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations. It was a steam driven calculating machine designed to
solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.

Analytical Engine
This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a mechanical computer that used punch-
cards as input. It was capable of solving any mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent memory.
Tabulating Machine
It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a mechanical tabulator based on punch
cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or sort data or information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census.
Hollerith also started the Hollerith?s Tabulating Machine Company which later became International Business Machine
(IBM) in 1924.

Differential Analyzer
It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an analog device invented by Vannevar
Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals to perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in
few minutes.

Mark I
The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken planned to develop a machine that
could perform calculations involving large numbers. In 1944, Mark I computer was built as a partnership between IBM
and Harvard. It was the first programmable digital computer.
OPERATING SYSTEM
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as
disk drives and printers.
An operating system is software that enables applications to interact with a computer's hardware. The
software that contains the core components of the operating system is called the kernel.
The primary purposes of an Operating System are to enable applications (spftwares) to interact with a
computer's hardware and to manage a system's hardware and software resources.

Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating System, VMS,
OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc. Today, Operating systems is found almost in every device like mobile phones,
personal computers, mainframe computers, automobiles, TV, Toys etc.

MEMORY:-

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location
or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the
computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of
these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types −

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which
are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to
cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

  Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It
has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be
processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these
memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are
first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD,
etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.

Input and output device:

Input Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which helps us enter data into a computer is
called an input device. For example keyboard, mouse, etc.

Output Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which gives out the result of the entered
input, once it is processed (i.e. converts data from machine language to a human-understandable
language), is called an output device. For example printer, monitor, etc.

List of Input Devices

Given below is the list of the most common input devices along with brief information about each of
them.

1. Keyboard

 A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an alphabet, number or number
commands which can be given to a computer for various actions to be performed
 It has a modified version of typewriter keys
 The keyboard is an essential input device and computer and laptops both use keyboards to give
commands to the computer

2. Mouse

 It is also known as a pointing device

 Using mouse we can directly click on the various icons present on the system and open up
various files and programs
 A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom which helps in selecting
and moving the mouse around, respectively
 In case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a replacement of the mouse which helps in the
movement of the mouse pointer

3. Joy Stick

 It is a device which comprises a stick which is attached at an angle to the base so that it can be
moved and controlled
 Mostly used to control the movement in video games
  Apart from a computer system, a joystick is also used in the cockpit of an aeroplane, wheelchairs,
cranes, trucks, etc. to operate them well

4. Light Pen

 It is a wand-like looking device which can directly be moved over the device’s screen
 It is light-sensitive
 Used in conjunction with computer’s cathode ray tube

5. Microphone

 Using a microphone, sound can be stored in a device in its digital form

 It converts sound into an electrical signal
 To record or reproduce a sound created using a microphone, it needs to be connected with an
amplifier

6. Scanner

 This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal
 When we place any piece of a document on a scanner, it converts it into a digital signal and
displays it on the computer screen

7. Barcode Reader

 It is a kind of an optical scanner

 It can read bar codes
 A source of light is passed through a bar code, and its aspects and details are displayed on the
screen
All the devices mentioned above are the most commonly used input devices. Several other such types of
equipment are used in different fields which can be counted as an input device.

List of Output Device

The commonly used output devices have been listed below with a brief summary of what their function is
and how they can be used.

1. Monitor

 The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a screen is called the Monitor
 When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that action is displayed on the
monitor
 Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years

2. Printer

 A device which makes a copy of the pictorial or textual content, usually over a paper is called a
printer
  For example, an author types the entire book on his/her computer and later gets a print out of it,
which is in the form of paper and is later published
 Multiple types of printers are also available in the market, which can serve different purposes

3. Speakers

 A device through which we can listen to a sound as an outcome of what we command a computer
to do is called a speaker
 Speakers are attached with a computer system and also are a hardware device which can be
attached separately
 With the advancement in technology, speakers are now available which are wireless and can be
connected using BlueTooth or other applications

4. Projector

 An optical device which presents an image or moving images onto a projection screen is called a
projector
 Most commonly these projectors are used in auditoriums and movie theatres for the display of the
videos or lighting
 If a projector is connected to a computer, then the image/video displayed on the screen is the
same as the one displayed on the computer screen

5. Headphones

 They perform the same function as a speaker, the only difference is the frequency of sound
 Using speakers, the sound can be heard over a larger area and using headphones, the sound is
only audible to the person using them
 Also known as earphones or headset

TYPES OF COMPUTER
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computer exist in different sizes, weight and shapes. The major ways in which computers are classified
are
i) Classification according to Functionality in this category, computers are categorized according to the
way they process data and kind of data a computer can process.
Example of this data are,
a) Analog Data
b) Digital data

ii) Classification according to the purpose

iii) Classification according to physical size
iii) classification according to functionality

ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL SIZE

TYPES OF COMPUTER

Analog computer

Analog computer measures and answer the questions by the method of “HOW MUCH”. The input data is
not a number infect a physical quantity like temp, pressure, speed, velocity.

 Signals are continuous of (0 to 10 V)

 Accuracy 1% Approximately
 High speed
 Output is continuous

ANALOG COMPUTER

DIGITAL COMPUTERS
Digital computer counts and answer the questions by the method of “HOW Many”. The input data is
represented by a number. These are used for the logical and arithmetic operations.

 Signals are two level of (0 V or 5 V)

 Accuracy unlimited
 low speed sequential as well as parallel processing
 Output is continuous but obtain when computation is completed.

MICRO COMPUTERS

Micro computer are the smallest computer system. There size range from calculator to desktop size. Its
CPU is microprocessor. It also known as Grand child Computer.

 Application : - personal computer, Multi user system, offices.

MINI COMPUTERS

These are also small general purpose system. They are generally more powerful and most useful as
compared to micro computer. Mini computer are also known as mid range computer or Child computer.

 Application :- Departmental systems, Network Servers, work group system.

MAINFRAME COMPUTERS

Mainframe computers are those computers that offer faster processing and grater storage area. The word
“main frame” comes from the metal frames. It is also known as Father computer.

 Application – Host computer, Central data base server.

SUPER COMPUTERS

 Super computer are those computer which are designed for scientific job like whether forecasting
and artificial intelligence etc. They are fastest and expensive. A super computer contains a
number of CPU which operate in parallel to make it faster. It also known as grand father
computer.
 Application – whether forecasting, weapons research and development.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS

 Desktop
 Workstation
 Notebook
 Tablet PC
 Handheld computer
 Smart Phone

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Computer Hardware and Software, both are essential parts of a Computer System. In short, Hardware
and Software make a System compatible with the user. In this article, we are going to discuss the basic
differences between Computer Hardware and Computer Software.
Computer Hardware
Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer. Computer Hardware is any part of the
computer that we can touch these parts. These are the primary electronic devices used to build up the
computer. Examples of hardware in a computer are the Processor, Memory Devices, Monitor, Printer,
Keyboard, Mouse, and Central Processing Unit.
Types of Computer Hardware
 Input Devices
 Output Devices
 Storage Devices
 Internal Component
1. Input Devices: Input Devices are those devices through which a user enters data and information
into the Computer or simply, User interacts with the Computer. Examples of Input Devices are
Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, etc.
2. Output Devices: Output Devices are devices that are used to show the result of the task performed
by the user. Examples of Output Devices are Monitors, Printers, Speakers, etc.
3. Storage Devices: Storage Devices are devices that are used for storing data and they are also known
as Secondary Storage Data. Examples of Storage Devices are CDs, DVDs, Hard Disk, etc
4. Internal Component: Internal Components consists of important hardware devices present in the
System. Examples of Internal Components are the CPU, Motherboard, etc.
Computer Software
Software is a collection of instructions, procedures, and documentation that performs different tasks on
a computer system. we can say also Computer Software is a programming code executed on a computer
processor. The code can be machine-level code or code written for an operating system. Examples of
software are MS- Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Google Chrome, Photoshop, MySQL, etc.
Types of Computer Software
 System Software
 Application Software
1. System Software: System Software is a component of Computer Software that directly operates
with Computer Hardware which has the work to control the Computer’s Internal Functioning and also
takes responsibility for controlling Hardware Devices such as Printers, Storage Devices, etc. Types of
System Software include Operating systems, Language processors, and Device Drivers.
2. Application Software: Application Software are the software that works the basic operations of the
computer. It performs a specific task for users. Application Software basically includes Word
Processors, Spreadsheets, etc. Types of Application software include General Purpose Software,
Customized Software, etc.
Difference Between Hardware and Software
Parameters Hardware Software

Hardware is a physical part

Basic Software is a set of instructions that tells a computer
of the computer that causes
Definition exactly what to do.
the processing of data.

Development It is manufactured. It is developed and engineered.

Hardware cannot perform

Dependency The software can not be executed without hardware.
any task without software.

Electronic and other

Process of Created by utilizing a computer language to write
materials are used to create
creating instructions.
hardware.

Hardware is tangible as
hardware is a physical Software is intangible as we can see and also use the
Tangible
electronic device, that can software but can’t touch them.
be touched.

Hardware typically wears The software does not wear out with time. However, it
Durability
out over time. may contain flaws and glitches.

It has four main categories:

It is mainly divided into
Types 1. Input Devices
2. Output Devices 1. System software
3. Storage Devices 2. Application software.
4. Internal Components.

Hardware is not affected

Virus effect Software is affected by computer viruses.
by computer viruses.

Transfer It cannot be transferred It can be transferred via a network means.

from one place to another
Parameters Hardware Software

electrically through the

network.

Machine- Only machine-level The program accepts human-readable input, interprets it

Level language is known to be in machine-level language, and sends it to hardware for
language understood by hardware. additional processing.

If the hardware is
If the software is damaged, its backup copy can be
Replacement damaged, it is replaced
reinstalled.
with a new one.

Dust, overheating,
Overloading, systematic error, major-minor version
humidity, and other factors
Failures error, and other factors are commonly responsible for
are commonly responsible
software failures.
for hardware failures.

Ex: Keyboard, Mouse,

Monitor, Ex: MS Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Photoshop, MySQL,
Examples
Printer, CPU, Hard etc.
disk, RAM, ROM, etc.

Characteristics / Features of a Computer.

Before 20th century, most information was processed manually or by use of simple machines. Today,
millions of people are using computers in offices and at home to produce and store all types of
information

The following are some of the attributes that make computers widely accepted & used in the day-to-day
activities in our society:

1. Speed.
Computers operate at very high speeds, and can perform very many functions within a very short time.
They can perform a much complicated task much faster than a human being.
The speed of a computer is measured in Fractions of seconds.
Millisecond - a thousandth of a second (10-3)
Microsecond - a millionth of a second (10-6)
Nanosecond - a thousand millionth of a second (10-9)
Picosecond - a million millionth of a second (10-12)

The speed of a computer is usually linked to the technology used to build it.

a). 1st Generation computers (1940s & early 1950s).

• The computers were built using Vacuum tubes, and the speed was measured in Milliseconds. E.g., a
computer could perform 5,000 additions & 300 multiplications per second.

b). 2nd Generation computers (1950s & early 1960s).

Were built using Transistors. Their operation speeds increased & were measured in Microseconds. E.g., a
computer could perform 1 million additions per second.

c). Mid 1960s.

Integrated Circuit (IC), which combined a no. of transistors & diodes together on a silicon chip, was
developed. The speed increased to tens of millions of operations per second.

d). In 1971, Intel Corporation produced a very small, single chip called a Microprocessor, which could
perform all the operations on the computer’s processor. The chip contained about 1,600 transistors.

e). Today’s microprocessors are very powerful, cheaper & more reliable due to the use of the Large Scale
Integration (LSI) & Very Large scale Integration (VLSI) technologies, which combines hundreds of
thousands of components onto a single chip.
The computer speeds are now measured in Nanoseconds & Picoseconds.

2. Accuracy:
Unlike human beings, computers are very accurate, i.e., they never make mistakes.
A computer can work for very long periods without going wrong. However, when an error occurs the
computer has a number of in-built, self-checking features in their electronic components that can detect &
correct such errors.
Usually errors are committed by the users entering the data to the computer, thus the saying Garbage in
Garbage Out (GIGO).
This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer and have it processed, the computer will
give you misleading information.

3. Reliability.
The computer can be relied upon to produce the correct answer if it is given the correct instructions &
supplied with the correct data.

Therefore, if you want to add two numbers, but by mistake, give the computer a “Multiply” instruction,
the computer will not know that you intended to “ADD”; it will multiply the numbers supplied.

Similarly, if you give it the ADD instruction, but make a mistake and enter an incorrect data; let say, 14 &
83 instead of 14 & 38; then the computer will produce the “wrong” answer 97 instead of 52. However,
note that, 97 is ‘correct’ based on the data supplied.

Therefore, the output produced by a computer is only as reliable as the instructions used & the data
supplied.

4. Consistency:

Computers are usually consistent. This means that, given the same data & the same instructions, they will
produce the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.

5. Storage:

A computer is capable of storing large amounts of data or instructions in a very small space.

A computer can store data & instructions for later use, and it can produce/ retrieve this data when
required so that the user can make use of it.

Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals through the use of passwords.

6. Diligence:

Unlike human beings, a computer can work continuously without getting tired or bored. Even if it has to
do a million calculations, it will do the last one with the same speed and accuracy as the first one.

7. Automation:
A computer is an automatic device. This is because, once given the instructions, it is guided by these
instructions and can carry on its job automatically until it is complete.

It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.

8. Versatile:
A computer can be used in different places to perform a large number of different jobs depending on the
instructions fed to it.