C.V.

RAMAN POLYTECHNIC, BHUBANESWAR

LECTURE NOTE

STRUCTURAL MECHANICS, (Th.1)

SEM-3RD
BRANCH- CIVIL ENGINEERING
Prepared by

SUMITRA PARIDA
(Asst. Prof. in Civil Engineering)
 STRUCTURAL MECHANICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
CHAPTER-
1. Properties of Materials Classification of materials, elastic materials, plastic materials, ductile
materials, brittle materials. Tensile test, compressive test, impact test, fatigue test, torsion test.
2. Simple Stresses and Strains Concept of stress, normal and shear stresses due to torsion Concept of
strain, strain and deformation, longitudinal and lateral strain, poison’s ratio, Volumetric strain
Hooke’s law, modulli of elasticity and rigidity, Bulk modulus of elasticity, relationship between
the elastic constants. Stresses and strains in bars subjected to tension and compression. Extension of
uniform bar under its own weight, stress produces in compound bars (two or three) due to axial load.
Stressstrain diagram for mild steel, mechanical properties, factor of safety
Temperature stresses and strains
3. Bending Moment and Shear Force Concept of a beam and supports (Hinges, Roller and Fixed),
types of beams: simply supported, cantilever, fixed and continuous beams
Types of loads (point, uniformly distributed and varying loads) Concept of
bending moment and shear force, sign conventions Bending Moment and shear force diagrams for
cantilever, simply supported and over hanging beams subjected to concentrated, uniformly distributed
and uniformly varying loads (B.M. and S.F. diagrams should preferably be drawn on graph paper.
Relationship between load, shear force and bending moment, point of maximum bending moment and
contraflexure.
4. Second Moment of Area Concept of second moment of area, radius of gyration
Theorems of parallel and perpendicular axes Second moment of area for sections
of Rectangle, Triangle, Circle, Trapezium, Angle, Tee,
I, Channel and Compound sections. (No derivation)
5. Bending and Shear Stresses Theory of simple bending Application of the equation M / I= sigma / Y=
E/R (No derivation is required) Moment of resistance, sectional modulus and
permissible bending stresses in circular, rectangular, I, T and L
sections; Comparision of strengths of the above sections.
6. Slope and Deflection Necessity for determination of reflection Moment area theorems (no derivation)
Computation of slopes and deflections using moment area theorems for: (a) Simple supported
beam with UDL over entire span and concentrated load at any point
(c) Cantilever with UDL over entire span and concentrated load at free end
7. Columns Theory of columns, Euler, Rankine’s and I.S. formulae. Combined Direct and Bending
Stresses Concentric and eccentric loads, eccentricity Effect of eccentric load on
the section, stresses due to eccentric loads, examples in the case of short columns. Effect of wind
pressure on walls and chimneys; water pressure on dams and earth pressure on retaining
walls their causes of failures and their stability.
8. Analysis of Trusses Concept of a frame, redundant and deficient frame, End supports, ideal and
practical trusses. Analysis of trusses by: (i) Methods of joints (ii) Method of sections and
(iii) Graphical method
CHAPTER-1 PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

 Elasticity: Ability of a body to resist a distorting influence or stress and to return to its original size and
shape when the stress is removed.
 Plasticity: Ability of a material to undergo irreversible or permanent deformations without breaking or
rupturing; opposite of brittleness.
 Malleability: Ability of the material to be flattened into thin sheets under applications of heavy
compressive forces without cracking by hot or cold working means.
 Ductility: Ability of a material to deform under tensile load (% elongation).
 Flexibility: Ability of an object to bend or deform in response to an applied force; pliability;
complementary to stiffness.
 Toughness: Ability of a material to absorb energy (or withstand shock) and plastically deform without
fracturing (or rupturing); a material's resistance to fracture when stressed; combination of strength and
plasticity
 Brittleness: Ability of a material to break or shatter without significant deformation when under stress;
opposite of plasticity,examples:glass,concrete,cast iron,ceramics etc.

TEST OF MATERIALS

1.TENSILE TEST-

TENSILE TESTS are performed for several reasons. The results of tensile tests are used in selecting materials
for engineering applications. Tensile properties frequently are included in material specifications to ensure
quality. Tensile properties often are measured during development of new materials and processes, so that
different materials and processes can be compared. Finally, tensile properties often are used to predict the
behavior of a material under forms of loading other than uniaxial tension. The strength of a material often is the
primary concern. The strength of interest may be measured in terms of either the stress necessary to cause
appreciable plastic deformation or the maximum stress that the material can withstand. These measures of
strength are used, with appropriate caution (in the form of safety factors), in engineering design. Also of interest
is the material’s ductility, which is a measure of how much it can be deformed before it fractures. Rarely is
ductility incorporated directly in design; rather, it is included in material specifications to ensure quality and
toughness. Low ductility in a tensile test often is accompanied by low resistance to fracture under other forms
of loading. Elastic properties also may be of interest, but special techniques must be used to measure these
properties during tensile testing, and more accurate measurements can be made by ultrasonic techniques.

Tensile Specimens and Testing Machines

Tensile Specimens- Consider the typical tensile specimen . It has enlarged ends or shoulders for gripping. The
important part of the specimen is the gage section. The cross-sectional area of the gage section is reduced
relative to that of the remainder of the specimen so that deformation and failure will be localized in this region.
The gage length is the region over which measurements are made and is centered within the reduced section.
The distances between the ends of the gage section and the shoulders should be great enough so that the larger
ends do not constrain deformation within the gage section, and the gage length should be great relative to its
diameter. Otherwise, the stress state will be more complex than simple tension. Detailed descriptions of
standard specimen shapes are given and in subsequent chapters on tensile testing of specific materials. There
are various ways of gripping the specimen, some of which are illustrated .The end may be screwed into a
threaded grip, or it may be pinned; butt ends may be used, or the grip section may be held between wedges.
There are still other methods .The most important concern in the selection of a gripping method is to ensure that
the specimen can be held at the maximum load without slippage or failure in the grip section. Bending should

be minimized.

2- COMPRESSIVE TEST
Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads
tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile strength, which withstands loads tending to elongate. In other
words, compressive strength resists compression (being pushed together), whereas tensile strength
resists tension (being pulled apart). In the study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength,
and shear strength can be analyzed independently.
Some materials fracture at their compressive strength limit; others deform irreversibly, so a given amount of
deformation may be considered as the limit for compressive load. Compressive strength is a key value for
design of structures.
3- TORSION TEST
A torsion test measures the strength of any material against maximum twisting forces. Itis an extremely
common test used in material mechanics to measure how much of a twist acertain material can
withstand before cracking or breaking. This applied pressure is referred to astorque. Materials typically used
in the manufacturing industry, such as metal fasteners andbeams, are often subject to torsion testing to
determine their strength under duress.There are three broad categories under which a torsion test can take
place: failure testing, prooftesting and operational testing. Failure testing involves twisting the material until it
breaks. Prooftesting observes whether a material can bear a certain amount of torque load over a given
periodof time. Operational testing tests specific products to confirm their elastic limit before going onthe
market.It is critical for the results of each torsion test to be recorded. Recording is done through creatinga
stress-strain diagram with the angle of twist values on the X-axis and the torque values on theY-axis. Using
a torsion testing apparatus, twisting is performed at quarter-degree increments withthe torque that it can
withstand recorded. The strain corresponds to the twist angle, and the stresscorresponds to the torque
measured.

4- IMPACT TEST
The Charpy impact test, also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is a standardized high strain-rate test which
determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. This absorbed energy is a measure of a
given material's notch toughness and acts as a tool to study temperature-dependent ductile-brittle transition. It is
widely applied in industry, since it is easy to prepare and conduct and results can be obtained quickly and
cheaply. A disadvantage is that some results are only comparative.
The Test was developed around 1900 by S.B. Russell (1898, American) and Georges Charpy (1901,
French).The test became known as the Charpy test In the early 1900s due to the technical contributions and
standardization efforts by Charpy. The test was pivotal in understanding the fracture problems of ships during
World War II.
Today it is utilized in many industries for testing materials, for example the construction of pressure vessels and
bridges to determine how storms will affect the materials used.
he apparatus consists of a pendulum of known mass and length that is dropped from a known height to impact
a notched specimen of material. The energy transferred to the material can be inferred by comparing the
difference in the height of the hammer before and after the fracture (energy absorbed by the fracture event).
The notch in the sample affects the results of the impact test, thus it is necessary for the notch to be of regular
dimensions and geometry. The size of the sample can also affect results, since the dimensions determine
whether or not the material is in plane strain. This difference can greatly affect the conclusions made.

CHAPTER-2 SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN

BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS
1. Introduction
When a force is applied on a body it suffers a change in shape, that is, it deforms. A force to resist the
deformation is also set up simultaneously within the body and it increases as the deformation continues. The
process of deformation stops when the internal resisting force equals the externally applied force. If the body is
unable to put up full resistance to external action, the process of deformation continues until failure takes place.
The deformation of a body under external action and accompanying resistance to deform are referred to by the
terms strain and stress respectively.
2. Stresses
Stress is defined as the internal resistance set up by a body when it is deformed. It is measured in N/m2
and this unit is specifically called Pascal (Pa). A bigger unit of stress is the mega Pascal (MPa).
1 Pa = 1N/m2,
1MPa = 106 N/m2 =1N/mm2.
Three Basic Types of Stresses
Basically three different types of stresses can be identified. These are related to the nature of the
deforming force applied on the body. That is, whether they are tensile, compressive or shearing.
Tensile Stress
x
P
P

x
x
P
R P

Consider a uniform bar of cross sectional area A subjected to an axial tensile force P. The stress at any
section x-x normal to the line of action of the tensile force P is specifically called tensile stress pt . Since
internal resistance R at x-x is equal to the applied force P, we have,
pt = (internal resistance at x-x)/(resisting area at x-x)
=R/A
=P/A.
Under tensile stress the bar suffers stretching or elongation.
Compressive Stress
If the bar is subjected to axial compression instead of axial tension, the stress developed at x-x is
specifically called compressive stress pc.
pc =R/A
= P/A.
 X
P P

X
Under compressive stress the bar suffers shortening.
Shear Stress
Consider the section x-x of the rivet forming joint between two plates subjected to a tensile force P as
shown in figure.

P
X X
q q A
P X X

X X
P P
P

The stresses set up at the section x-x acts along the surface of the section, that is, along a direction
tangential to the section. It is specifically called shear or tangential stress at the section and is denoted by q.
q =R/A
=P/A.
Normal or Direct Stresses
When the stress acts at a section or normal to the plane of the section, it is called a normal stress or a
direct stress. It is a term used to mean both the tensile stress and the compressive stress.
Simple and Pure Stresses
The three basic types of stresses are tensile, compressive and shear stresses. The stress developed in a
body is said to be simple tension, simple compression and simple shear when the stress induced in the body is
(a) single and (b) uniform. If the condition (a) alone is satisfied, the stress is called pure tension or pure
compression or pure shear, as the case may be.
Volumetric Stress
Three mutually perpendicular like direct stresses of same intensity produced in a body constitute a
volumetric stress. For example consider a body in the shape of a cube subjected equal normal pushes on all its
six faces. It is now subjected to equal compressive stresses p in all the three mutually perpendicular directions.
The body is now said to be subjected to a volumetric compressive stress p.

p p

p p

p
p
 Volumetric stress produces a change in volume of the body without producing any distortion to the
shape of the body.
3. Strains
Strain is defined a the ratio of change in dimension to original dimension of a body when it is deformed.
It is a dimensionless quantity as it is a ratio between two quantities of same dimension.
Linear Strain
Linear strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the change in length of the body due to the
deformation to its original length in the direction of the force. If l is the original length and δl the change in
length occurred due to the deformation, the linear strain e induced is given by
e=δl/l.

P P

δl δl
l l

Linear strain may be a tensile strain , et or a compressive strain ec according as δl refers to an increase in
length or a decrease in length of the body. If we consider one of these as +ve then the other should be
considered as –ve, as these are opposite in nature.
Lateral Strain
Lateral strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the change in length (breadth of a rectangular
bar or diameter of a circular bar) of the body due to the deformation to its original length (breadth of a
rectangular bar or diameter of a circular bar) in the direction perpendicular to the force.
Volumetric Strain
Volumetric strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio of the change in volume of the body to the
deformation to its original volume. If V is the original volume and δV the change in volume occurred due to the
deformation, the volumetric strain ev induced is given by ev =δV/V
Consider a uniform rectangular bar of length l, breadth b and depth d as shown in figure. Its volume V is
given by,
l

Z
b
Y

V = lbd
δV = δl bd + δb ld + δd lb
δV /V = (δl / l) + (δb / b) + (δd / d)
ev = ex +ey +ez
This means that volumetric strain of a deformed body is the sum of the linear strains in three mutually
perpendicular directions.
Shear Strain
 Shear strain is defined as the strain accompanying a shearing action. It is the angle in radian measure
through which the body gets distorted when subjected to an external shearing action. It is denoted by Ф.
D Q D’ C C’





A Q B
Consider a cube ABCD subjected to equal and opposite forces Q across the top and bottom forces AB
and CD. If the bottom face is taken fixed, the cube gets distorted through angle  to the shape ABC’D’. Now
strain or deformation per unit length is
Shear strain of cube = CC’ / CD = CC’ / BC =  radian
4. Relationship between Stress and Strain
Relationship between Stress and Strain are derived on the basis of the elastic behaviour of material
bodies.
A standard mild steel specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing pull by Universal Testing
Machine. The stress-strain curve obtained is as shown below.

A -Elastic Limit
B - Upper Yield Stress
C - Lower Yield Stress
D -Ultimate Stress
E -Breaking Stress

Elasticity and Elastic Limit

Elasticity of a body is the property of the body by virtue of which the body regains its original size and
shape when the deformation force is removed. Most materials are elastic in nature to a lesser or greater extend,
even though perfectly elastic materials are very rare.
The maximum stress upto which a material can exhibit the property of elasticity is called the elastic
limit. If the deformation forces applied causes the stress in the material to exceed the elastic limit, there will be
a permanent set in it. That is the body will not regain its original shape and size even after the removal of the
deforming force completely. There will be some residual strain left in it.
Yield stress
 When a specimen is loaded beyond the elastic limit the stress increases and reach a point at which the
material starts yielding this stress is called yield stress.
Ultimate stress
Ultimate load is defined as maximum load which can be placed prior to the breaking of the specimen.
Stress corresponding to the ultimate load is known as ultimate stress.
Working stress
Working stress= Yield stress/Factor of safety.
Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law states that stress is proportional to strain upto elastic limit. If I is the stress induced in a
material and e the corresponding strain, then according to Hooke’s law,
p / e = E, a constant.
This constant E is called the modulus of elasticity or Young’s Modulus, (named after the English
scientist Thomas Young).
It has later been established that Hooke’s law is valid only upto a stress called the limit of
proportionality which is slightly less than the elastic limit.

Elastic Constants
Elastic constants are used to express the relationship between stresses and strains. Hooke’s law , is
stress/strain = a constant, within a certain limit. This means that any stress/corresponding strain = a constant,
within certain limit. It follows that there can be three different types of such constants. (which we may call the
elastic constants or elastic modulae) corresponding to three distinct types of stresses and strains. These are
given below.
(i) Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus (E)
Modulus of Elasticity is the ratio of direct stress to corresponding linear strain within elastic limit. If p is
any direct stress below the elastic limit and e the corresponding linear strain, then E = p / e.
(ii) Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus (G)
Modulus of Rigidity is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain within elastic limit. It is denoted by N,C or G. if q
is the shear stress within elastic limit and  the corresponding shear strain, then G = q / .
(iii) Bulk Modulus (K)
Bulk Modulus is the ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain within the elastic limit. If pv is the
volumetric stress within elastic limit and ev the corresponding volumetric strain, we have K = pv / ev.
5. Poisson’s Ratio
Any direct stress is accompanied by a strain in its own direction and called linear strain and an opposite
kind strain in every direction at right angles to it, lateral strain. This lateral strain bears a constant ratio with the
linear strain. This ratio is called the Poisson’s ratio and is denoted by (1/m) or µ.
Poisson’s Ratio = Lateral Strain / Linear Strain.
Value of the Poisson’s ratio for most materials lies between 0.25 and 0.33.
6. Complementary Strain
Consider a rectangular element ABCD of a body subjected to simple shear of intensity q as shown. Let t
be the thickness of the element.
Total force on face AB is , FAB = stress X area = q X AB X t.
Total force on face CD is, FCD = q X CD Xt = q XAB Xt.
 q'
q
q q t
D C
q
A B
q'

FAB and FCD being equal and opposite, constitute a couple whose moment is given by,
M =FAB X BC = q XAB X BC X t
Since the element is in equilibrium within the body, there must be a balancing couple which can be
formed only by another shear stress of some intensity q’ on the faces BC and DA. This shear stress is called the
complementary stress.
FBC = q’ X BC X t
FDA = q’ X DA X t = q’ X BC Xt
The couple formed by these two forces is M’ = FBC X AB = q’ X BC X t
For equilibrium, M’ = M.
Therefore q’ = q
This enables us to make the following statement.
In a state of simple shear a shear stress of any intensity along a plane is always accompanied by a
complementary shear stress of same intensity along a plane at right angles to the plane.
7. Direct Stresses Developed Due to Simple Shear.
Consider a square element of side a and thickness t in a state of simple shear as shown in figure. It is
clear that the shear stress on the forces of element causes it to elongate in the direction of the diagonal BD.
Therefore a tensile stress of same intensity pt is induced in the elements along BD. ie, across the plane of the
diagonal AC. The triangular portion ABC of the element is in equilibrium under the action of the following.

q
D C
C
a Pt
q
q q √2 a
a

0
a 45
B A B
A q q

(1)FAC = Normal force on face AC = pt X AC X t = pt X √2 aXt

(2)FAB = Tangential force on face AB = q X BC X t = q aXt
(3)FBC = Tangential force on face BC = q X BC X t = q aXt
For equilibrium in the direction normal to AC,
FAC – FAB cos45 – FBC cos45 = 0
Pt X √2 at – q at X 1/√2 - q at X 1/√2 = 0
√2 pt – 2 q /√2 = 0
pt = q
 It can also be seen that the shear stress on the faces of the element causes it to foreshorten in the
direction of the diagonal BD. Therefore a compressive stress pc is induced in the element in the direction AC,
ie across the plane of the diagonal BD. It can also be shown that pc = q.
It can thus be concluded that simple shear of any intensity gives rise to direct stresses of same intensity
along the two planes inclined at 45º to the shearing plane. The stress along one of these planes being tensile
and that along the other being compressive.

8. Relationship among the elastic constants

Relationship between modulus of elasticity and modulus of rigidity
Consider a square element ABCD of side ‘a’ subjected to simple shear of intensity q as shown in figure.
It is deformed to the shape AB’C’D under the shear stress. Drop perpendicular BE to the diagonal DB’.
Let Ф be the shear strain induced and let N be the modulus of rigidity.
The diagonal DB gets elongated to DB’. Hence there is tensile strain et in the diagonal.
et = (DB’ – DB) / DB = EB’ / DB
since this deformation is very small we can take L BB’E = 45º
EB’ = BB’ / √2 = AB tan Ф / √2 = a tan Ф / √2
DB = √2 a
et = (a tan Ф / √2)/ √2 a = tan Ф /2 = = Ф / 2 since Ф is small
ie et = ½ X q/N ---------------------------(1)
We know that stress along the diagonal DB is a pure tensile stress pt = q and that along the diagonal AC
is a pure compressive stress pc also equal to q. hence the strain along the diagonal DB is et = q/E + 1/m X q/E
Ie et = q/E (1+1/m) ----------------------(2)
From (1) and (2) we have,
E = 2N(1+1/m)
This is the required relationship between E and N.
Relationship between Modulus of Elasticity E and Bulk Modulus K
pυ
pυ

pυ pυ

pυ
pυ
Consider a cube element subjected to volumetric tensile stress pυ in X,Y and Z directions. Stress in each
direction is equal to pυ. ie px = py = pz =pυ
Consider strains induced in X-direction by these stresses. px induces tensile strain , while py and pz
induces compressive strains. Therefore,
ex = px/E – 1/m[py/E + pz/E] = pυ/E[1-2/m]
due to the perfect symmetry in geometry and stresses
ey = pυ/E[1-2/m]
ez = pυ/E[1-2/m]
K = p υ / e υ =p υ/(ex+ey+ez) = pυ/[3pυ/E(1-2/m)]
ie E = 3K(1-2/m ) is the required relationship.

Relationship among the constants

From above,
E = 2N[1+(1/m)] and E = 3K[1-(2/m )]
 E = 3K[1-2(E/2N -1)] = 3K[1-E/N +2]
9K = E[1+(3K/N)] = E[(N+3K)/N]
E = 9NK/(N+3K)

9. Bars of uniform section

Consider a bar of length l and Cross sectional area A. Let P be the axial pull on the bar,p the stresss
induced ,e the strain in the bar and δl is the elongation.
Then p= P/A
e= p/E =P/(AE)--------------------- (1)
e= δl/l ----------------------- (2)
equating (1) and (2)
δl = Pl / (AE)

CHAPTER-3 BENDING MOMENT AND SHEAR FORCE

TYPES OF LOADS
A beam is usually horizontal member and load which will be acting over the beam will be usually vertical
loads. There are following types of loads as mentioned here and we will discuss each type of load in detail.
 Point load or concentrated load
 Uniformly distributed load
 Uniformly varying load
 Point load or concentrated load
Point load or concentrated load, as name suggest, acts at a point on the beam. If we will see practically,
point load or concentrated load also distributed over a small area but we can consider such type of
loading as point loading and hence such type of load could be considered as point load or concentrated
load.

Following figure displayed here indicates the beam AB of length L which will be loaded with point load
W at the midpoint of the beam. Load W will be considered here as the point load.

 Uniformly distributed load

Uniformly distributed load is the load which will be distributed over the length of the beam in such a
way that rate of loading will be uniform throughout the distribution length of the beam.

Uniformly distributed load is also expressed as U.D.L and with value as w N/m. During determination
of the total load, total uniformly distributed load will be converted in to point load by multiplying the
rate of loading i.e. w (N/m) with the span of load distribution i.e. L and will be acting over the midpoint
of the length of the uniformly load distribution.

Let us consider the following figure, a beam AB of length L is loaded with uniformly distributed load
and rate of loading is w (N/m).
 Total uniformly distributed load, P = w*L
 Uniformly varying load
Uniformly varying load is the load which will be distributed over the length of the beam in such a way
that rate of loading will not be uniform but also vary from point to point throughout the distribution
length of the beam.

Uniformly varying load is also termed as triangular load. Let us see the following figure, a beam AB of
length L is loaded with uniformly varying load.

We can see from figure that load is zero at one end and increases uniformly to the other end. During
determination of the total load, we will determine the area of the triangle and the result i.e. area of the
triangle will be total load and this total load will be assumed to act at the C.G of the triangle.

Total load, P = w*L/2

TYPES OF BEAMS
The four different types of beams are:
1. Simply Supported Beam
2. Fixed Beam
3. Cantilever Beam
4. Continuously Supported Beam
1. Simply Supported Beam
If the ends of a beam are made to rest freely on supports beam, it is called a simple (freely) supported beam.
 2. Fixed Beam
If a beam is fixed at both ends it is free called fixed beam. Its another name is a built-in beam.

3. Cantilever Beam
If a beam is fixed at one end while the other end is free, it is called cantilever beam.

4. Continuously Supported Beam

If more than two supports are provided to the beam, it is called continuously supported beam.

TYPES OF SUPPORT
Different types of external supports are as follows:

o Fixed support

o Pinned support or hinged support

o Roller support

o Link support

o Simple support
Below a force of 10N is exerted at point A on a beam. This is an external force. However because the beam is a
rigid structure,the force will be internally transferred all along the beam. This internal force is known as shear
force. The shear force between point A and B is usually plotted on a shear force diagram. As the shear force is
10N all along the beam, the plot is just a straight line, in this example.

The idea of shear force might seem odd, maybe this example will help clarify. Imagine pushing an object along
a kitchen table, with a 10N force. Even though you're applying the force only at one point on the object, it's not
just that point of the object that moves forward. The whole object moves forward, which tells you that the force
must have transferred all along the object, such that every atom of the object is experiencing this 10N force.
Please note that this is not the full explanation of what shear force actually is.

Basic shear diagram

What if there is more than one force, as shown in the diagram below, what would the shear force diagram look
like then?

The way you go about this is by figuring out the shear force at points A,B,C,E (as there is an external force
acting at these points). The way you work out the shear force at any point, is by covering (either with your hand
or a piece of paper), everything to right of that point, and simply adding up the external forces. Then plot the
point on the shear force diagram. For illustration purposes, this is done for point D:
Shear force at D = 10N - 20N + 40N = 30Newtons

Now, let's do this for point B. BUT - slight complication - there's a force acting at point B, are you going to
include it? The answer is both yes and no. You need to take 2 measurements. Firstly put your piece of paper, so
it's JUST before point B:

Shear force at B = 10N

Now place your paper JUST after point B:

Shear force at B = 10N - 20N = -10N

(B' is vertically below B)

Now, do point A, D and E, and finally join the points. your diagram should look like the one below. If you don't
understand why, leave a message on the discussion section of this page (its at the top), I will elaborate on the
explanation:

Notice how nothing exciting happens at point D, which is why you wouldn't normally analyse the shear force at
that point. For clarity, when doing these diagrams it is recommended you move you paper from left to right, and
hence analyse points A,B, C, and E, in that order. You can also do this procedure covering the left side instead
of the right, your diagram will be "upside down" though. Both diagrams are correct.

Basic bending moment diagram

Bending moment refers to the internal moment that causes something to bend. When you bend a ruler, even
though apply the forces/moments at the ends of the ruler, bending occurs all along the ruler, which indicates
that there is a bending moment acting all along the ruler. Hence bending moment is shown on a bending
moment diagram. The same case from before will be used here:

To work out the bending moment at any point, cover (with a piece of paper) everything to the right of that
point, and take moments about that point. (I will take clockwise moments to be positive). To illustrate, I shall
work out the bending moment at point C:

Bending moment at C = 10Nx3m - 20Nx2m = -10Nm

(Please note that the two diagrams below should show units in "Nm", not in "N" as it is currently showing)

Notice that there's no need to work out the bending moment "just before and just after" point C, (as in the case
for the shear force diagram). This is because the 40N force at point C exerts no moment about point C, either
way.
Repeating the procedure for points A,B and E, and joining all the points:
Normally you would expect the diagram to start and end at zero, in this case it doesn't. This is my fault, and it
happened because I accidentally chose my forces such that there is a moment disequilibrium. i.e. take moments
about any point (without covering the right of the point), and you'll notice that the moments aren't balanced, as
they should be. It also means that if you're covering the left side as opposed to the right, you will get a
completely different diagram. Sorry about this... Upon inspection, the forces are unbalanced, so it is
immediately expected that the diagram will most likely not be balanced.

Point moments
Point moments are something that you may not have come across before. Below, a point moment of 20Nm is
exerted at point C. Work out the reaction of A and D:

Force equilibrium: R1 + R2 = 40
Taking moments about A (clockwise is positive): 40·2 - 20 - 6·R2 = 0
R1 = 30N , R2 = 10N
If instead you were to take moments about D you would get: - 20 - 40·4 + 6·R1 = 0
I think it's important for you to see that wherever you take moments about, the point moment is always taken as
a negative (because it's a counter clockwise moment).
So how does a point moment affect the shear force and bending moment diagrams?
Well. It has absolutely no effect on the shear force diagram. You can just ignore point C when drawing the
shear force diagram. When drawing the bending moment diagram you will need to work out the bending
moment just before and just after point C:
Just before: bending moment at C = 3·30 - 1·40 = 50Nm
Just after: bending moment at C = 3·30 - 1·40 - 20 = 30Nm
Then work out the bending moment at points A, B and D (no need to do before and after for these points). And
plot.
Cantilever beam
Until now, you may have only dealt with "simply supported beams" (like in the diagram above), where a beam
is supported by 2 pivots at either end. Below is a cantilever beam, which means - a beam that rigidly attached to
a wall. Just like a pivot, the wall is capable of exerting an upwards reaction force R1 on the beam. However it is
also capable of exerting a point moment M1 on the beam.

Force equilibrium: R1 = 10N

Taking moments about A: -M1 + 10·2 = 0 → M1 = 20Nm

Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)

Below is a brick lying on a beam. The weight of the brick is uniformly distributed on the beam (shown in
diagram A). The brick has a weight of 5N per meter of brick (5N/m). Since the brick is 6 meters long the total
weight of the brick is 30N. This is shown in diagram B. Diagram B is a simplification of diagram A. As you
will see, you will need to be able to convert a type A diagram to a type B.
To make your life more difficult I have added an external force at point C, and a point moment to the diagram
below. This is the most difficult type of question I can think of, and I will do the shear force and bending
moment diagram for it, step by step.

Firstly identify the key points at which you will work out the shear force and bending moment at. These will be
points: A,B,C,D,E and F.
As you would have noticed when working out the bending moment and shear force at any given point,
sometimes you just work it out at the point, and sometimes you work it out just before and after. Here is a
summary: When drawing a shear force diagram, if you are dealing with a point force (points A,C and F in the
above diagram), work out the shear force before and after the point. Otherwise (for points B and D), just work it
out right at that point. When drawing a bending moment diagram, if you are dealing with a point moment (point
E), work out the bending moment before and after the point. Otherwise (for points A,B,C,D, and F), work out
the bending moment at the point.
After identifying the key points, you want to work out the values of R1 and R2. You now need to convert to a
type B diagram, as shown below. Notice the 30N force acts right in the middle between points B and D.

Force equilibrium: R1 + R2 = 50
Take moments about A: 4·30 + 5·20 + 40 - 10·R2 = 0
R1 = 24N , R2= 26N
Update original diagram:

Shear force diagram

point A:

point B:

Notice that the uniformly distributed load has no effect on point B.

point C:
Just before C:

Now convert to a type B diagram. Total weight of brick from point B to C = 5x4 = 20N
Shear force before C: 24 - 20 = 4N

Shear force after C: 24 - 20 - 20 = -16N

point D:

Shear force at D: 24 - 30 - 20 = -26N

point F:
(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)
Finally plot all the points on the shear force diagram and join them up:

Bending moment diagram

Point A

Bending moment at A: 0Nm

Point B

Bending moment at B: 24·1 = 24Nm

point C:
(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)

Bending moment at C: 24·5 - 20·2 = 80Nm

point D:
(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)

Bending moment at D: 24·7 - 30·3 - 20·2 = 38Nm

point E:
(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)
point F:
(I have already converted to a type B diagram, below)

Bending moment at F: 24·10 - 30·6 - 20·5 + 40 = 0Nm

Finally, plot the points on the bending moment diagram. Join all the points up, EXCEPT those that are under
the uniformly distributed load (UDL), which are points B,C and D. As seen below, you need to draw a curve
between these points. Unless requested, I will not explain why this happens.
Note: The diagram is not at all drawn to scale.
I have drawn 2 curves. One from B to C, one from C to D. Notice that each of these curves resembles some part
of a negative parabola.

Rule: When drawing a bending moment diagram, under a UDL, you must connect the points with a curve. This
curve must resemble some part of a negative parabola.
Note: The convention used throughout this page is "clockwise moments are taken as positive". If the
convention was "counter-clockwise moments are taken as positive", you would need to draw a positive
parabola.
Hypothetical scenario
For a hypothetical question, what if points B, C and D, were plotted as shown below. Notice how I have drawn
the curves for this case.
If you wanted to find the peak of the curve, how would you do it? Simple. On the original diagram (used at the
start of the question) add an additional point (point G), centrally between point B and C. Then work out the
bending moment at point G.

That's it! If you have found this article useful, please comment in the discussion section (at the top of the page),
as this will help me decide whether to write more articles like this. Also please comment if there are other
topics you want covered, or you would like something in this article to be written more clearly.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
OBJECTIVE

1. 1. The bending moment for a certain portion of the beam is constant. For that section, shear force would be
Zero
Increasing
Decreasing
Constant
2. Hoop stress induced in a thin cylinder by winding it with wire under tension will be
Compressive
Tensile
Shear
Zero
3. What is the limiting value of Poisson's ratio?
0 and 0.5
1 and -0.5
-1 and -0.5
-1 and 0.5
4. Slenderness ratio has a dimension of
 m
m^-1
m^2
Dimensionless quantity
5. Young's modulus of elasticity for a perfectly rigid body is
Zero
Unity
Infinity
None of these
6. Which material has the highest value of Poisson's ratio?
Rubber
Wood
Copper
Steel
7. Radial stress in a thin spherical pressure vessel is
Equal to hoop stress
Double the hoop stress
Half the hoop stress
Zero
8. The area under stress strain curve represents
Breaking strength of material
Toughness of material
Hardness of material
Energy required to cause failure
9. For a thin spherical shell subjected to internal pressure , the ratio of volumetric strain to diametrical
circumferential strain is
1.25
1.5
2.0
3.0

10. Which of the following beam is likely to have the point of contraflexture?
Cantilever beam
 Simply supported beam
Beam with overhangs
Beam fixed at both ends
11. The forces are used are used in the method of sections for the calculation of the internal
forces.
a) Internal rotational
b) Couple rotational
c) Translational
d) External
12. Every point on the force vector which is the internal force is having the same magnitude and the same
direction as the whole force vector have.
a) True
b) False

13. For getting the normal force on the supports, we do what?

a) Make the vertical sum of the forces equal to zero
b) Make the horizontal sum of the forces equal to zero
c) Make the moment sum of the forces equal to zero
d) Make the rotational sum of the forces equal to zero

14. For getting the horizontal component of the support reactions what do we do?
a) Make the vertical sum of the forces equal to zero
b) Make the horizontal sum of the forces equal to zero
c) Make the moment sum of the forces equal to zero
d) Make the rotational sum of the forces equal to zero

15. Twisting moment is also called as

a) Moment of line
b) Moment of section
c) Moment of plane
d) Torsional moment

16. The loading generally act upon the of the body.

a) Centroid
b) Symmetrical centre
c) Rotational centre
d) Chiral centre
17. The area of does make the difference in the internal forces, that is if the area is large the internal force
acting is also large and vice versa.
a) True
b) False

18. The magnitude of each loading will be at various points along the axis of the member of the
beam.
a) Same
b) Different
c) Slightly different
d) Slightly same

19. Torsional moment is applied at the part of the beam.

a) The centroid
b) The left end
c) The right end
d) The axis beyond the body of the beam

20. Normal force is equal to

a) The net horizontal force
b) The net vertical force with a negative sign
c) The net horizontal force with a negative sign
d) The net vertical force

21. If the normal force creates a tension then the force is said to be
a) Positive
b) Negative
c) Rotational
d) Collinear

22. If the shear force creates a clockwise rotation then the force is said to be
a) Positive
b) Negative
c) Rotational
d) Collinear
 SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Define Elastic Materials ?
2. Define Plastic Materials ?
3. Define Brittle Materials ?
4. Define ductile Materials ?
5. Give Any Two Example Of Ductile Materials ?
6. Give Any Two Example Of Brittle Materials ?
7. Describe tensile test?
8. Rigid body?
9. Describe compresion test?
10.Bulk modulus?
11. FOS
12. define load?
13.Define tensile load ?
14. Define compressive load ?
15. Define shear stress load ?
16. define stress?
17. define strain?
18. Define hooke’s law?
19. define volumetric strain ?
20. unit of stress, strain. Modulus of rigidity?
21. define bending moment?
22.Define shear force?
23. define types of load?
24. define types of beam?
25. define types of supports ?
26. define types of reactions ?
27. define point of contraflexure?
28.define elastisity ?
29. relation between modulus canstant?
30. define bulk modulus ?
LONG QUESTIONS
1. Describe compresion test?
2. Describe tensile test?
3. discribe stress-strain digram/graph ?
4. define hooke’s law?
5. derivate the formula of elongation of bars?
6. Describe E,C,K. Relationship also?
7.Define mechanical properties of materials ?
8. defferentiate between load and stress?
9.describe sfd &bmd and point of contraflexure.?
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Shear Force and Bending Moment

TYPES OF FORCES: Basically, structural members experience two types of forces.

External Forces: Actions of other bodies on the structure under consideration are known as
external forces.

Internal Forces: Forces and couples exerted on a member or portion of the structure by the rest
of the structure. Internal forces always occur in equal but opposite pairs.

TYPES OF LOAD

The following are the important types of load which act on a beam.

1. Concentrated or point load,

2. Uniformly distributed load, and
3. Uniformly varying load
1. Concentrated or Point Load: Load acting at a point or over very limited area compared to
the length of the beam is known as concentrated load or point load.

2. Uniformly Distributed Load: Load that is spread over a beam with uniform rate of loading,
(‘w’ per unit run) is known as uniformly distributed load or UDL. Uniformly distributed load
is also known as rectangular load.

Dr. S. K. Nayak 1
Shear Force and Bending Moment

3. Uniformly Varying Load: Load that is spread over a beam with the rate of loading
uniformly from one point to the other along the beam is known as uniformly varying load.
Uniformly varying distributed load is also known as triangular load.

4. Parabolic Load: If the variation of load distribution follows the equation of parabola, it is
known as parabolic distributed load or simply parabolic load.

TYPES OF SUPPORTS

1. Simple support
2. Roller Support

Dr. S. K. Nayak 2
Shear Force and Bending Moment

3. Pin (or) Hinge Support

4. Fixed support

Simple Supports

Simple support is just a support on which structural member rests. It is idealized to be a

frictionless surface support. It only resists vertical movement of support. A simple support is free
to rotate and translate along the surface upon which it rests. The resulting reaction force is
always a single force perpendicular to the plane of support.

The horizontal or lateral movement allowed is up to a limited extent and after that the structure
loses its support. For example, if a plank is laid across gap to provide a bridge, it is assumed that
the plank will remain in its place. It will do so until a foot kicks it or moves it. At that moment
the plank will move because the simple connection cannot develop any resistance to the lateral
load.

This type of support is not commonly used in structural purposes. However, Simple supports are
often found in zones of frequent seismic activity.

Roller Supports

Roller supports are free to rotate and translate along the surface upon which they rest. The
surface can be horizontal, vertical, or sloped at any angle. They cannot resist parallel or
horizontal forces and moment. They only resist perpendicular forces. Hence, the resulting
reaction force is always a single force that is perpendicular to the plane of support.

This type of support is provided at one end of bridge spans. The reason for providing roller
support at one end is to allow contraction or expansion of bridge deck with respect to
temperature differences in atmosphere. If roller support is not provided then it will cause severe
damage to the banks of bridge. But this horizontal force should be resisted by at least one support
to provide stability so, roller support should be provided at one end only not at both ends.

Pinned Supports

A pinned support is same as hinged support. It can resist both vertical and horizontal forces but
not a moment. It allows the structural member to rotate, but not to translate in any direction.

Dr. S. K. Nayak 3
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Many connections are assumed to be pinned connections even though they might resist a small
amount of moment in reality. It is also true that a pinned connection could allow rotation in only
one direction; providing resistance to rotation in any other direction. In human body knee is the
best example of hinged support as it allows rotation in only one direction and resists lateral
movements. Ideal pinned and fixed supports are rarely found in practice, but beams supported on
walls or simply connected to other steel beams are regarded as pinned. The distribution of
moments and shear forces is influenced by the support condition.

Best example for hinged support is door leaf which only rotates about its vertical axis without
any horizontal or vertical movement.

Fixed Supports

Fixed support can resist vertical and horizontal forces as well as moment since they restrain both
rotation and translation. They are also known as rigid support for the stability of a structure there
should be one fixed support. A flagpole at concrete base is common example of fixed support In
RCC structures the steel reinforcement of a beam is embedded in a column to produce a fixed
support as shown in above image. Similarly all the riveted and welded joints in steel structure are
the examples of fixed supports Riveted connection are not very much common now a days due to
the introduction of bolted joints.

Table 1. Idealized Structural Supports

Types of Real life Example Symbol Movement allowed Unknown reactions

supports and prevented

Frictionless Prevented: vertical

or Simple translation
support
Allowed: horizontal
translation and
rotation

Roller Prevented: vertical

support translation
Allowed: horizontal
translation and
rotation

Dr. S. K. Nayak 4
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Pinned or Prevented: horizontal

hinged translation and vertical
support translation
Allowed: Rotation

Fixed or Prevented: horizontal

Built-in translation, vertical
support translation and
rotation

BEAM:

A Beam is defined as a structural member subjected to transverse shear loads (load normal to the
axis of the beam) during its functionality. Due to the transverse shear loads, a beam is subjected
to variable shear force and bending moment. Beam is a flexural member, designed primarily for
bending. Analysis of beam pertains to the calculations of shear forces and bending moments
along the length of the beam and drawing of shear force diagram and bending moment diagram.

TYPES OF BEAMS: Depending upon the degrees of freedom and support conditions beams are
of various types.

Beams

Statically determinate beam Statically indeterminate beam

Number of reactions in the beam is Number of reactions in the beam is

equal to number of useful static more than number of useful static
equations of equilibrium equations of equilibrium

Cantilever Simply Overhanging Fixed beam Propped Continuous

beam supported beam Cantilever beam
beam beam

Dr. S. K. Nayak 5
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Statically Determinate Beam

A beam is said to be statically determinate if all its reaction components can be calculated by
applying three conditions of static equilibrium.

Statically Indeterminate Beam

When the number of unknown reaction components exceeds the static conditions of equilibrium,
the beam is said to be statically indeterminate. To determine the unknown reactions additional
equations of deformations are required.

The following are the important types of beam

1. Cantilever beam,
2. Simply supported beam,
3. Overhanging beam,
4. Fixed beams, and
5. Continuous beam.
1. Cantilever beam
A beam which is fixed or built into a rigid support at one end and free at the other end is known
as cantilever beam. Such beam is shown in Fig. The built-in support prevents displacements as
well as rotations of the end of the beam. Cantilever is statically determinate.

2. Simply Supported beam

A beam supported or resting freely on the supports at its both ends is known as simply supported
beam. Such beam is shown in Fig. The end supports are free to rotate and have no moment of
resistance. Simply supported beam is statically determinate beam.

Dr. S. K. Nayak 6
Shear Force and Bending Moment

3. Overhanging Beam
A beam supported over two supports and extended beyond one or both the supports is known as
overhanging beam. An overhanging beam, shown in Fig., is supported by a pin and a roller
support, with one or both ends of the beam extending beyond the supports. It is a statically
determinate beam.

4. Fixed Beam
A beam with both ends fixed or built into the supports or walls, is known as fixed beam. Such
beam is shown in Fig. A fixed beam is also known as a built-in or encastred beam. It is a
statically indeterminate beam.

5. Propped cantilever beam

A beam with one end fixed and the other end simply supported over a roller is known as propped
cantilever beam or simply propped cantilever. Propped cantilever is statically indeterminate.

Dr. S. K. Nayak 7
Shear Force and Bending Moment

6. Continuous Beam
A beam which is supported over more than two supports is known as continuous beam.
Continuous beam is also statically indeterminate.

SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT:

The beams transfer the transverse (vertical) loads to the supports. In the process of load transfer,
they experience shear force and bending moments.

Dr. S. K. Nayak 8
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Shear force at any section of a beam is defined as the net or unbalanced vertical force on either
side of the section. It is the algebraic sum of vertical components of all the forces acting on the
beam on either left side or right side of the section. The effect of shear force is to shear off or cut
the member at a section. It is similar to the effect of scissor cutting the page of paper.

The moment which tends to bend the beam in plane of load is known as bending moment. In
other word bending moment at any section of a beam is the net or unbalanced moment due to
all forces on either side of the section. Bending moment at any section is the algebraic sum of
the moments due to all forces acting on the beam on either right or left side of the section. The
effect of bending moment is to bend the element.

Dr. S. K. Nayak 9
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Sign convention:

The shear force and bending moment are vector quantities and as a matter of convenience are
assigned the following sign convention.

Shear force acting in the upward direction to the left hand side of the section and downward
direction to the right hand side of the section is considered to be positive & vice-versa.

Bending moment is considered to be positive when it is acting in the clockwise direction on the
left hand side of the section (L.H.S) (or) when it is acting in the counter-clockwise direction on
the right hand side of the section (R.H.S) as the section & vice versa.

SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS:

Graphical representation of variation of shear force along the length of the beam for any given
loading condition is known as shear force diagram (SFD). If x denotes the length of the beam,
then shear force ‘F’ is function of x, i.e. F(x).

Similarly, graphical representation of variation of bending moment along the length of the beam
for any given loading condition is known as bending moment diagram (BMD). If x denotes the
length of the beam, then bending moment is function of x, and is denoted as M(x).

Dr. S. K. Nayak 10
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Shear force diagram and bending moment diagram are helpful for further analysis and design of
beam.
SFD and BMD of a beam reveal the following important information at salient points in the
beam. These are maximum shear force, maximum bending moment, point of contralexture or
point of inflexion, etc.

RELATIONS BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

Consider a beam AB carrying generalized loading as shown in the figure. Take an element of
infinitesimal length δx between section 1-1 and 2-2 at a distance of x from the left hand support
A. The free body diagram of the element is drawn with positive sense of the shear forces and
bending moments.

The intensity of loading over the length of the element may be taken as constant, i.e., w.
Considering equilibrium of the element,

Resolving the forces vertically, V  0

F  w x  F   F

 F  w x

F
 w
x

dF
In the limiting case, as  x  0,  w (1)
dx

So, the rate of change of shear force is equal to the intensity or rate of loading.

Taking moments of the forces and couples about the section 2-2, M 2  0
 x 2
M  M  w  M  F x
2

Neglecting small quantities of higher order, we have

M
F
x

Dr. S. K. Nayak 11
Shear Force and Bending Moment

dM
In the limiting case as  x  0, F (2)
dx

The above equation shows that the rate of change of bending moment is equal to the shear force
at the section. Also bending moment would be maximum at a section where shear force is zero.

Evaluation of Shear Force and Bending Moment:

Thus analysis of beam for shear force and bending moment is carried out by the following
process.

Dr. S. K. Nayak 12
Shear Force and Bending Moment

1. Determine the reactions at the supports by considering the entire beam as a rigid body
and applying equations of equilibrium.
2. Take sections at different points on the beam near supports and load application points.
3. Apply equilibrium analyses on resulting free-bodies to determine internal shear forces
and bending moments.
4. Draw shear force and bending moment diagram.
5. Identify the maximum shear and bending-moment from plots of their distributions.
6. Find the position of point of contaflexure or point of inflexion.

Numerical

1. Draw the Shear force and bending moment diagram for a cantilever beam of length L
carrying a point load W at its free end.

Solution:

Evaluation of support reactions:

Considering the equilibrium of the beam and applying static equations of equilibrium,

Sum of the vertical forces, V  0, V A  W ()

Taking moment about A,  M A  0 , W  L  M A  0

MA  WL (counter - clockwise )

Calculation of Shear force and bending moments:

Considering from the right hand side B, as the origin, take a section 1-1 at a distance of x from B
between B and A 0  x  L .
Shear force at 1-1, Fx  W

Shear force at B, i.e., x = 0 FB  W

Shear force at A, i.e, x  L, FA  W
Bending moment at 1-1, M x  Wx

Bending moment at B, i.e, x  0, MB  0

Dr. S. K. Nayak 13
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Bending moment at A, i.e, x  L, M A  WL

2. Draw the Shear force and bending moment diagram for a cantilever beam of length L
carrying uniformly distribute load of intensity w over the entire span.

Solution:

Evaluation of support reactions:

Considering the equilibrium of the beam and applying static equations of equilibrium,

Sum of the vertical forces, V  0, V A  wL

L
Taking moment about A,  M A  0 , wL  M
A
0
2

wL
M A   2 (counter - clockwise )
2
Calculation of Shear force and bending moments:

Dr. S. K. Nayak 14
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Considering from the right hand side B, as the origin, take a section 1-1 at a distance of x from B
between B and A 0  x  L .
Shear force at 1-1, Fx  wx

Shear force at B, i.e., x = 0 FB  0

Shear force at A, i.e, x  L, FA  wL

 x 2
Bending moment at 1-1, M x  wx   2   wx
2
 
Bending moment at B, i.e, x  0, MB  0 

wL2
Bending moment at A, i.e, x  L, M A  
2
3. Draw the Shear force and bending moment diagram for a cantilever beam of length L
carrying uniformly distribute load of intensity w per unit length from the fixed support to the
centre of the beam.

Dr. S. K. Nayak 15
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Solution:

Evaluation of support reactions:

Considering the equilibrium of the beam and applying static equations of equilibrium,

wL
Sum of the vertical forces, V  0, V A 
2

Taking moment about A, M  0 ,

wL L
 M 0
A A
2 4
2
wL
MA   (counter - clockwise )
8

Calculation of Shear force and bending moments:

Shear force and bending moment at the free end B, FB = 0; MB = 0

Shear force and bending moment anywhere between B and C is zero since there is no load on the
beam in this portion when considered from right side.

Dr. S. K. Nayak 16
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Now, considering C as the origin, take a section 1-1 at a distance of x from C between C and A
 L
0 x .
 
 2 
Shear force at 1-1, Fx  wx

Shear force at A, i.e, x  L, F  w L  wL

A
2 2
 x wx2
Bending moment at 1-1, M x  wx     
2 2
 
 L 2
w 
L
Bending moment at A, i.e, x  , M A    
2
2 2
wL2

8
4. Draw the Shear force and bending moment diagram for a cantilever beam of length L
carrying uniformly distribute load of intensity w per unit length from the free end up to a
distance of a.

Solution:

Evaluation of support reactions:

Considering the equilibrium of the beam and applying static equations of equilibrium,

Sum of the vertical forces, V  0, V

 wa A
 a
Taking moment about A, M  0 , wa  L  M 0
 A 


2  A

wa
M 
A
L  2a (counter - clockwise )
2
Calculation of Shear force and bending moments:

Shear force and bending moment at the free end B, FB = 0; MB = 0

Now, considering B as the origin, take a section 1-1 at a distance of x from B between B and C
0  x  a .
Shear force at 1-1, Fx  wx

Dr. S. K. Nayak 17
 Shear Force and Bending Moment

Shear force at B, i.e, x  0, FC  w 0  0

Shear force at C, i.e, x  a, FC  wa

 x wx2
Bending moment at 1-1, M x  wx     
2 2
 
 wa2
Bending moment at C, i.e, x  a, M A  
2

Now, take a section 2-2 at a distance of x from B between C and A a  x  L.

Shear force at 2-2, Fx  FC  wa

Shear force will remain same as wa from C to A.

 a
Bending moment at 2-2, M  wa  x  
x

 
 2 

Dr. S. K. Nayak 18
 Shear Force and Bending Moment

 a wa
Bending moment at A, i.e., x  L, M     2L  a

x wa L 
 2 2
5. A cantilever of 3.5 m long carries point loads of 15 kN, 15 kN and 7.5 kN at 1 m, 1 m and
1.5 m respectively from the fixed end. Draw the Shear force and bending moment diagram
for the beam.

Solution: Calculation of Shear force and bending moments:

Portion BD: At section 1-1 at a distance x from B between B and D 0  x  1.5m
Shear force at 1-1, Fx  7.5 kN (constant from B to just right of D)
Shear force at B, FB = 7.5 kN
Shear force just right of D, FDL = 7.5 kN

Dr. S. K. Nayak 19
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Bending moment at 1-1, M x  7.5x

Bending moment at B, i.e., at x  0, M B  7.5 0  0

Bending moment at D, i.e., at x  1.5, M D  7.51.5  11.25kN  m
Portion DC: At section 2-2 at a distance x from B between D and C 1.5  x  2.5m
Shear force at 2-2, Fx  7.5  15 (constant from D to just right of C)
Shear force at D, FD = 22.5 kN
Shear force just right of C, FCL = 22.5 kN
Bending moment at 2-2, M x  7.5x  15x  1.5
 22.5x  22.5
Bending moment at C, i.e., at x  2.5, MB  22.5 2.5  22.5  33.75kN  m
Portion CA: At section 3-3 at a distance x from B between C and A 2.5  x  3.5m
Shear force at 3-3, Fx  7.5 15  15 (constant from C to A)
Shear force at C, FC = 37.5 kN
Shear force at A, FA = 37.5 kN
Bending moment at 3-3, M x  7.5x  15x  1.5  15x  2.5
 37.5x  60
Bending moment at A, i.e., at x  3.5m, M B  37.5 3.5  60  71.25kN  m
6. A cantilever of 1.6 m long carries a uniformly distributed load of intensity 1.5 kN/m over the
entire span and a point load of 2.5 kN at the free end. Draw the Shear force and bending
moment diagram for the beam.

Solution:
Calculation of Shear force and bending moments:
Considering from the right hand side B, as the origin, take a section 1-1 at a distance of x from B
between B and A 0  x  1.6m.
Shear force at 1-1, Fx  2.5  1.5x

Shear force at B, i.e., x  0, FB  2.5  1.5 0  2.5kN

Shear force at A, i.e., x  1.6 m, Fx  2.5  1.51.6  4.9 kN

Dr. S. K. Nayak 20
Shear Force and Bending Moment
 x
Bending moment at 1-1, M x  2.5x  1.5x  
 2 
 2.5x  0.75x 2
Bending moment at B, i.e., x  0, M B  0

Bending moment at A, i.e., x  1.6, M B  2.51.6  0.751.62

 5.92 kN  m

7. A cantilever of 1.5 m long is loaded with a uniformly distributed load of intensity 2 kN/m and
a point load of 2.5 kN as shown in the figure. Draw the Shear force and bending moment
diagram for the cantilever.

Calculation of Shear force and bending moments:

Considering from the right hand side B, as the origin, take a section 1-1 at a distance of x from B
between B and D 0  x  0.25m.
Shear force at 1-1, Fx  2x

Dr. S. K. Nayak 21
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Shear force at B, i.e., x  0, FB  2  0  0

Shear force just right of D, i.e., x  0.25m, FD  2 0.25  0.5kN
Shear force at D, i.e., x  0.25m, FD  0.5  2.5  3kN
 x
Bending moment at 1-1, M x  2x    x
2

2 

Bending moment at D, i.e., x = 0.25, M D   0.252  0.0625 kN  m

Dr. S. K. Nayak 22
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Now, take a section 2-2 at a distance of x from B between D and C 0.25  x  1.25m.
Shear force at 1-1, Fx  2x  2.5

Shear force at D, i.e., x  0.25, FB  2 0.25  2.5  3kN

Shear force C, i.e., x  1.25m, FD  21.25  2.5  5kN
 x
Bending moment at 1-1, M x  2x   2.5x  0.25
 2 
  x 2  2.5x  0.625
Bending moment at C, i.e., x = 1.25, MC  1.252  2.5 1.25  0.625
 4.0625 kN  m

8. Calculate the shear force and bending moment for the beam subjected to a concentrated load
of W as shown in the figure. Draw the shear force diagram (SFD) and bending moment
diagram (BMD).

Solution:
Evaluation of support reactions:
Considering the equilibrium of the beam and applying static equations of equilibrium,
L
Taking moment about B,  M B  0 , VA  L  W 
2
W
V 
A
2

Sum of the vertical forces, V  0, V A  VB  W

W
Hence, V 
B
2

Calculation of Shear force and bending moments:

Dr. S. K. Nayak 23
Shear Force and Bending Moment
Considering A as the origin, take a section 1-1 at a distance of x from A between A and C

0  x  L 2.
W
Shear force at 1-1, Fx  VA 
2
W
Shear force at A, i.e., x = 0 F A 
2
L W
Shear force just left of C, i.e., x = 0 i.e., x  ,F 
LC
2 2
W
Bending moment at 1-1, M x  VA  x  x
2
Wx
Bending moment at A, i.e., x = 0, M A  0
2
L
Bending moment at C, i.e., x  ,M 
W L WL
 
C
2 2 2 4

Dr. S. K. Nayak 24
Shear Force and Bending Moment
L 
Take a section 2-2 at a distance of x from A between C and B  xL .
 
2 
W W
Shear force at 2-2, Fx  W   
2 2
 L W
Shear force at C x  , F 
  C
 2 2
W
Shear force at B, x  L, FB 
2
W
Bending moment at 2-2, M  x    L 
x

W x 




2  2 
Wx WL
  Wx 
2 2
Wx WL
 
2 2
Wl WL
Bending moment at B, i.e., x  L, M    0
B
2 2
L
Bending moment at C, i.e., x  ,M W  L  WL WL
    
C
2 2  2 2 4

9. Draw the Shear force and bending moment diagram for a simply supported beam of length L
carrying uniformly distribute load of intensity w per unit length over the entire span.

Solution:
Evaluation of support reactions:
The simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load over the entire span is symmetrically
loaded symmetric beam. Hence, reactions at both supports are equal.

wL
RA  RB 
2

Calculation of Shear force and bending moments:

In a symmetric beam, we need only to analyze half of the beam for shear force and bending
moment. The other half will just be the mirror-image of the first half.

Dr. S. K. Nayak 25
 Shear Force and Bending Moment

Considering A as the origin, take a section 1-1 at a distance of x from A between A and C

0  x  L 2.
wL
Shear force at 1-1, Vx  VA  wx   wx
2
wl
Shear force at A, i.e., x = 0 FA 
2
wL L
Shear force at C, i.e., F   w 0

C
2 2
 x  wL  x 
Bending moment at 1-1, M x  VA  x  wx 2   2 x  wx 2 
   

wL 2
 x  wx
2 2

Dr. S. K. Nayak 26
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Bending moment at A, i.e., x = 0 M x  0

 L 2
wL  L  w  wL2 wL2
Bending moment at C, M   2 
    

C
2  2 2 4 8

wL2

8
Bending moment equation is a quadratic in form, hence the bending moment diagram will be
parabolic between A and B.
Due to symmetry, the bending moment and shear force for the other half at respective point of
symmetry will be same as the first half AB.

10. A simply supported beam shown in the figure carries two concentrated loads and a uniformly
distribute load. Analyze the beam for shear force and bending moment, and draw the SFD
and BMD.

Solution:
Evaluation of support reactions:
Considering the equilibrium of the beam and applying static equations of equilibrium,
Taking moment about B,  M B  0 , VA  8  25 6  15 4  7.5 4 2

VA  33.75kN

Sum of the vertical forces, V  0, 33.75  V B  25  15  7.5 4

Hence, VB  70  33.75  36.25kN

Calculation of Shear force and bending moments:

Considering A as the origin, take a section 1-1 at a distance of x from A between A and C
0  x  2.
Shear force at 1-1, Fx  VA  33.75 kN
Shear force at A, i.e., x = 0 FA  33.75kN
Shear force just left of C, i.e., x  2, FLC  33.75kN

Shear force at C, i.e., x  2, FC  33.75  25  8.75 kN

Bending moment at 1-1, M x  VA  x  33.75x

Dr. S. K. Nayak 27
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Bending moment at C, i.e., x  2, MC  33.75  2  67.5 kN  m

Take a section 2-2 at a distance of x from A between C and D 2  x  4.

Shear force at 2-2, Fx  33.75  25  8.75 kN

Shear force at C, i.e., x = 2, FC  8.75 kN

Shear force just left of D, i.e., x  4, FLD  8.75kN

Shear force at D, i.e., x  4, FD  8.75 15  6.25kN
Bending moment at 2-2, M x  33.75x  25x  2

M x  8.75x  50
Bending moment at C, i.e., x  4, M D  8.75 4  50  85kN  m

Dr. S. K. Nayak 28
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Now, considering from the right side and taking B as the origin, take a section 3-3 at a distance
of x from B between B and D 0  x  4.
Shear force at 3-3, Fx  36.25  7.5x
Shear force at B, i.e., x = 0 FB  36.25kN
Shear force just right of D, i.e., at x = 4, Fx  36.25  7.5  4  6.25 kN

Shear force at D, i.e., x  4, FD  6.25  15  8.75kN

7.5
Bending moment at 3-3, M x  36.25x  x 2  36.25x  3.75x 2
2

Bending moment at D, i.e., x = 4, M D  36.25  4  3.75  42  85 kN  m

11. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for the overhanging beam shown in the
figure.

Solution:
Evaluation of support reactions:
Considering the equilibrium of the beam and applying static equations of equilibrium,
Taking moment about A,  M A  0 , VD  4  20 5  50 2  20 21

VD  60kN

Sum of the vertical forces, V  0, V A  60  20  2  50  20

Hence, VA  110  60  50kN

Calculation of Shear force and bending moments:

Considering A as the origin, take a section 1-1 at a distance of x from A between A and C
0  x  2.
Shear force at 1-1, Fx  50  20x

Shear force at A, i.e., x = 0 FA  50 kN

Shear force just left of C, i.e., x  2, FLC  50  20  2

FLC  10 kN

Shear force at C, i.e., x  2, FC  10  50  40kN

Dr. S. K. Nayak 29
Shear Force and Bending Moment

x2
Bending moment at 1-1, M x  VA  x  20 
2
 50x  10x 2

Bending moment at C, i.e., x  2, MC  50  2  10  22  60 kN  m

Now, considering from the right side and taking B as the origin, take a section 2-2 at a distance
of x from B between B and D 0  x  4.
Shear force at 2-2, Fx  20 kN
Shear force at B, i.e., x = 0 FB  20 kN

Dr. S. K. Nayak 30
Shear Force and Bending Moment

Shear force just right of D, i.e., at x = 1, FD  20kN

Shear force at D, i.e., x  1, FD  20  60  40 kN
Bending moment at 2-2, M x  20x

Bending moment at D, i.e., x = 1, M B  0

Bending moment at D, i.e., M D  201  20 kN  m

Take a section 3-3 at a distance of x from B between D and C 1  x  3.

Shear force at 3-3, Fx  20  60  40 kN

Shear force at D, i.e., x = 1, FD  40 kN

Bending moment at 3-3, M x  20x  60x  1
 40x  60
Bending moment at C, i.e., x = 3, M x  40  3  60  60 kN  m

It is observed that bending moment changes sign between D and C. So, point of contraflexure
exists between D and C.

Equating bending moment equation to zero, we get

40x  60  0
x  1.5 m

Point of contraflexure:

A point of contraflexure is a point where the curvature of the beam changes signs. It is
sometimes referred to as a point of inflexion. In other words, point of contraflexure is a point
where bending moment changes its sign from positive to negative or from negative to positive
through zero. This means, bending moment is zero at point of contraflexure.

Dr. S. K. Nayak 31
 CHAPTER-6

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

Introduction:-

A structural member, subjected to an axial compressive force, is called a strut.

As per definition, a strut may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical. But a vertical
strut, used in buildings or frames, is called a column.
Definition of Column

A long slender bar subjected to axial compression is called a column.

The term is frequently used to describe a vertical member. Sometimes direct

stresses dominate and sometimes flexural or bending stresses dominate.

Axial Compression means the compressive forces act at the two ends of the member
in the opposite direction and are along the same axis.

Difference between columnandstrut

The difference between column and strut is that former is used to describe a vertical
member whereas latter is used for the inclined members.

Short Column

The failure initiates due to crushing of material and direct stresses are dominant. For short
column, if

L < 4d and kL/rmin< 30

Where

d = least lateral dimension.

L = Unbraced length of the column.

k = effective length factor depends upon the end conditions of the column.

rmin = least radius of gyration.

Slender or long Column

In these, failure initiates due to lateral buckling and flexural stresses are dominant. If

L > 30d

or

105
kL/rmin> critical slenderness ratio.

Slenderness Ratio
The tendency of the column to buckle (fail) with ease under the action of axial
compressive load is measured by a parameter known as slenderness ratio which is
usually defined as the ratio of equivalent (or unsupported) length of column to the
least radius of gyration of the column section. It is obviously unit less.
Failure of a Column or Strut:-
It has been observed, that when a column or a strut is subjected to some
compressive force, then the compressive stress induced,
P

A
Where P = Compressive force and
A= Cross-sectional area of the column.
A little consideration will show that if the force or load is gradually increased
the column will reach a stage, when it will be subjected to the ultimate crushing
stress. Beyond this stage, the column will fail by crushing. The load corresponding to
the crushing stress, is called crushing load.
It has also been experienced that sometimes, a compression member does
not fail entirely by crushing, but also by bending i.e., buckling. This happens in the
case of long columns. It has also been observed that all the short columns fail due to
their crushing. But, if a long column is subjected to a compressive load, it is
subjected to a compressive stress. If the load is gradually increased, the column will
reach a stage, when it will start buckling. The load, at which the column is said to
have developed an elastic instability, is called buckling load or crippling load. A little
consideration will show that for a long column, the value of buckling load will be less
than the crushing load. Moreover, the value of buckling load is low for long columns
and relatively high for short columns.
Euler’s Column Theory:-
The first rational attempt, to study the stability of long columns, was made by
Mr. Euler. He derived an equation, for the buckling load of long columns based on
the bending stress. While deriving this equation, the effect of direct stress is
neglected. This may be justified with the statement that the direct stress induced in a
long column is negligible as compared to the bending stress. It may be noted that the

106
Euler’s formula cannot be used in the case of short columns, because the direct
stress is considerable and hence cannot be neglected.
Assumptions in the Euler’s Column Theory:-
The following simplifying assumptions are made in the Euler’s column theory:-
1. Initially the column is perfectly straight and the load applied is truly axial.
2. The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.
3. The column material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic and
thus obeys Hooke’s law.
4. The length of column is very large as compared to its cross-sectional
dimensions.
5. The shortening of column, due to direct compression (being very small) is
neglected.
6. The failure of column occurs due to buckling alone.
Sign Conventions:-
Though there are different signs used for the bending of columns in different
books, yet we shall follow the following sign conventions which are commonly used
and internationally recognized.

1. A moment, which tends to bend the column with convexity towards its
initial central line as shown in (a) is taken as positive.
2. A moment, which tends to bend the column with convexity towards its
initial central line as shown in (b) is taken as negative.
Types of end Conditions of Columns:-
In actual practice there are a number of end conditions for columns. But usually
four types are important from subject point of view. They are as follows:
 Both ends hinged

107
  Both ends fixed
 One end is fixed and other end is hinged, and
 One end is fixed and other end is free.
Columns with both ends hinged (Derivation of expression for Critical load)
Consider a column ABof length lhinged at both of its ends A and B and carrying a
critical load at B. As a result of loading, let the column deflect into a curved form
AX1B as shown in Figure below.
Now consider any section X, at a distance x from A.
Let P = Critical load on the column,
Y = Deflection of the column at X.
 Moment due to the critical load P,
M = -P.y
d2y
 EI 2  P.y … (Minus sign due to
dx
Concavity towards initial
Centre line)
d2y
 EI 2 p.y  0
dx

d2y 9
or  .y  0
2
dx EI

The general solution of the above differential equation is

   
 p   P 
y  A.cos x  B sin x 
 EI   EI 


Where A andB are the constants of integration. We know that when x=0, y=0.
Therefore A=0, Similarly when x=l, then y=0. Therefore
 P 
0  B sinl 
 EI 
 
 P 
A little consideration will show that either B is equal to zero or sin l  0 . Now if
 EI 
we consider B equal to zero, then it indicates that the column has not bent at all. But
 P 
if sinl 0
 EI 
 
 l P   0    2  3  .......
 EI 

108
 Now taking the least significant value,

 P 
l   
 EI 


 2 EI
Or p 
 2
Columns with One End Fixed and the Other Free:-

 2 EI
p
4l 2

109
Columns with Both Ends Fixed:-

4 2 EI
p 
2
Columns with One End Fixed and the Other Hinged:-

2 2 EI
p 
2

110
Equivalent length/Effective length of a column

The equivalent length of a given column with given end conditions, is the length of an
equivalent column of the same material and cross-section with both ends hinged and
having the value of the crippling load equal to that of the given column.
EXAMPLE 1:- A steel rod 5 m long and of 40 mm diameter is used as a column, with
one end fixed and the other free. Determine the crippling load by Euler’s formula.
Take E as 200 GPa.
SOLUTION. Given:-Length (l) = 5 × 103 mm ; Diameter of column (d) = 40 mm and
modulus of elasticity (E)= 200 GPa = 200×103 N/mm2.

We know that moment of inertia of the column section,

 
I    (d )4  (40)4  40000 mm4
64 64
Since the column is fixed at one end and free at the other, therefore
equivalent length of the column,
Le = 2l = 2 × (5 × 103) = 10 × 103 mm
 2EI  2 (200 103) (40000 )
 Euler’s crippling load, PE =   2480 N
Le
2
(10103)2

= 2.48 kN Ans.
EXAMPLE 2:- A hollow alloy tube 4 m long external and internal diameters of 40 mm
and 25 mm respectively was found to extend 4.8 mm under a tensile load of 60 kN.
Find the buckling load for the tube with both ends pinned. Also find the safe load on
the tube, taking a factor of safety as 5.
SOLUTION Given:-Length l, = 4 m ; External diameter of column (D) = 40 mm ;
Internal diameter of column (d) = 25 mm; Deflection (l) = 4.8 mm ; Tensile load = 60
kN= 60 × 103 N and factor of safety = 5.

Buckling load for the tube

We know that area of the tube,

 
  
A =  D 2  d 2  40   25   765.8 mm2
2 2

4 4
And moment of inertia of the tube,

64
   
I =   D4  d 4   40 4  25 4  106 500 mm4
64
We also know that strain in the alloy tube,
l
e   4.8  0.0012
l 4 103
And modulus of elasticity for the alloy,
Load 60 103
E=  65 290 N/mm2
Area  Strain 765.8 0.0012
Since the column is pinned at its both ends, therefore equivalent length of the
column,
Le = l= 4×103 mm

111
  2EI   65290 106500
2
 Euler’s buckling load, PE =   4290 N
Le
2
4 103 2
= 4.29 kN Ans.
Safe load for the tube
We also know that safe load for the tube
Bucklingload  4.29  0.858 kN Ans.

Factorofsafety 5
EXAMPLE 3:- Comparethe ratio of the strength of a solid steel column to that of a
hollow of the same cross-sectional area. The internal diameter of the hollow column
is ¾ of the external diameter. Both the columns have the same length and are
pinned at both ends.
SOLUTION. Given:-Area of solid steel column AS= AH (where AH= Area of hollow
column); internal diameter of hollow column (d) is 3D/4 (where D = External
diameter) and length of solid column (ls) = lH =(where lH =Length of hollow column).
Let D1 = Diameter of the solid column,
kH = Radious of gyration for hollow column and
kS = Radious of gyration for solid column.
Since both the columns are pinned at their both ends, therefore equivalent
lengths of the solid column and hollow column,
L S = l S = L H = lH = L
We know that Euler’s crippling load for the solid column,
 2 EI  2 E.A .k 2
Ps  2  S S
LS L2
Similarly Euler’s crippling load for the hollow column
 2EI  2E.A .k 2
PH  2  H H
LH L2
Dividing equation (ii) by (i), 2
2 D2  d 2  3D 
PH k  D2  d 2 D 2   4 
  H   16    




PS  k S 
2 2
D1
2 D1 D1
16
25D2
=
16D21
Since the cross-sectional areas of the columns 2is equal, therefore
  2   2  3D    7D 2
 D 1  (D  d )  D      
2 2

4   4   4 16
4 4

7D2
 D21 
16
Now substituting the value of D2 1 in equation (iii),
112
 2
PH  25D  25
 2 Ans.
PS 16 7D 7
16

EXAMPLE 4:- An I section joist 400 mm ×200 mm × 20 mm and 6 m long is

used as a strut with both ends fixed. What is Euler’s crippling load for the
column? Take Young’s modulus for the joist as 200 GPa.
SOLUTION. Given:-Outer depth (D) = 400 mm ; Outer width (B) = 200 mm ; Length
(l) = 6 m = 6 ×103 mm and modulus of elasticity (E) = 200 GPa = 200 ×103 N/mm2 .
From the geometry of the figure, we find that inner depth,
d = 400 – (2 ×20)= 360 mm
and inner width, b = 200-20 = 180 mm
We know that moment of inertia of the joist section about X-X a xis.

I XX 
1
BD3  ba3 
12

=
1
200  400 3

 180  360 3 mm4
12
= 366.8 × 106 mm4 …(i)
 2  200   360  20 3
3
4
Similarly IYY = 2    mm
 12  12

= 2.91 ×106 mm4

Since IYY is less than IXX, therefore the joist will tend to buckle in Y-Y direction.
Thus, we shall take the value of I as IYY= 2.91 × 106 mm4. Moreover, as the column
is fixed at its both ends, therefore equivalent length of the column,

 6 10  3103 mm

l 3
L 
e
2 2
 Euler’s crippling load for the column,
 2 EI  200 10 2.9110 
2 3 6
PE  2   638.2103 N
Le 310 
3 2

= 638.2 kN Ans.

113
Mohr’s circle:

Mohr’s circle is a graphical representation of stress transformation equations. The equations of

stress transformation describe a circle if normal stress and shear stress are represented as abscissa
and ordinate respectively. Each point on the circumference of Mohr’s circle represents a plane
through the centre of the circle and the coordinates (σ, τ) of the point represents the normal stress
(σ) and shear stress (τ) on the given plane.

Mohr’s circle can be drawn from a given state of stress at a point in a structural member.
Consider a stress element representing the state of stress at a point as shown in the figure.

Stress transformation equations for normal and tangential components on a plane are given by

 x   y   x   y cos 2   
Normal stress on the plane,     xy sin 2 (12)
2 2

  y  
    sin 2   xy cos 2
x
Shear stress on the plane, (13)
2

Rearranging the equation (12), we have

 x   y   x   y cos 2   
  xy sin 2 (14)
2 2

Squaring both sides of equation (13) and (14) and adding them together, we have
  x  2  x   2  2
 
  y
   2   y 

   xy
 2   2 

 x
  y  2   2       
2
 
2
 
    x    xy 
2
 

 y 

 2   2 
 

  x   y     y
2
 
This is the equation of a circle with centre  ,0 and radius R   x    xy and
2

 2   2 
this circle is known as Mohr’s circle named after the German Civil Engineer Otto Mohr (1835-
1918). It provides a simple and clear picture of an otherwise complicated analysis.

Procedure for drawing Mohr’s circle:

1. Draw coordinates axes in Cartesian coordinate system with O as origin, normal stress (σ)
as abscissa (positive to the right) and shear stress (τ) as ordinate (positive upward).
  x   y 
2. Locate the centre C of the circle at the point having coordinates  ,0 .
 2 
3. Locate point A, representing the state of stress on the vertical plane, i.e., face x of the
element by plotting its coordinates σx and τ. Point A on the circle corresponds to θ = 00
and represents the vertical plane.
4. Locate point B, representing the state of stress on the horizontal plane, i.e., face y of the
element by plotting its coordinates σy and -τ. Point A on the circle corresponds to θ = 900
and represents the horizontal plane.
5. Join AB so as to intersect the normal stress axis at C.
6. With the point C as the centre and CA (= CB) as radius, draw Mohr’s circle through
points A and B. This is the required Mohr’s circle which has radius R.
 The stress state on an inclined plane with an angle θ is represented at point D on the Mohr's
circle, which is measured an angle 2θ counter- clockwise from point A to show the coordinate at
D.

Coordinates of D:

OD'  OC  CD' 
1
 x  
  y  R cos 2  2 
p
2



1
x 
  y  R cos 2 cos 2p  R sin 2 sin 2 p
2

But R cos 2 p 
1

x  y  and R sin 2 p   xy
2
 Therefore, OD' 
1
 x  y   1  x 
  y cos 2  xy sin 2
2 2


Similarly, 
DD'  R sin 2  2 p

DD'  R sin 2 cos 2 p  R cos 2 sin 2 p

DD' 
1
 x 
  y sin 2  xy cos 2
2




Problem. The state of stress in a material is as shown in the figure. Determine

a. the magnitude and directions of principal stresses, and

b. the magnitude of maximum shear stresses and its direction.
Shear stress distribution

Shear Stress Distribution

Except for the case of uniform bending or pure bending as discussed in the section of simple
bending, for general transverse loading condition, a beam is subjected to varying shear force as
well as bending moment along the beam. The bending moment at a section cause normal stresses
(σ) called bending stresses to occur through the depth of the beam. The strength of beam and
hence its design often dominated by bending stress. However, as the beams become short and
thick, traverse shear become dominant.

The shear force at any section of a beam produces vertical (transverse) shear stresses (τ) varying
through the depth of the beam. This vertical shear stress is accompanied by complimentary
longitudinal (horizontal) shear stress of equal magnitude acting perpendicular to the transverse
section in the direction of length.

Shear stress distribution through the depth of the section is as shown in the Fig.

Transverse shear in bending:

Transverse shear can often be difficult to understand. To visualize, let us consider a cantilever
beam, comprising of several wooden planks as shown in the Fig., carries a point load at its free

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 1

Shear stress distribution

end. Imagine two cases, (i) planks are unglued and bend independent of each other (ii) the planks
are bonded together with the help of glue or anchor bolts.

In the first case Fig.(a), the planks will bend independently and slide past each other. In the
second case Fig. (b), the glue or anchor bolts will prevent the planks to slide past each other.
This resistance to sliding or the resistance to horizontal force parallel to the beam’s surface
generates the shear stress within the material.

Distribution of shear stress in beam section:

Consider an elemental length, dx of a beam between two sections AB and CD in a beam under
generalized transverse loading as shown in the Fig. 3. The 3D view of beam element is also
shown in Fig. 4 for better clarity.

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 2

 Shear stress distribution

Let M and M + dM be the bending moment at sections AB and CD respectively as shown in the
Fig. Let, it is required to find the shear stress intensity on section AB at the level of EF at a
distance of y from the neutral axis.

Consider a rectangular element EFGH, of width b and thickness dy. Let da be the area of the
element. Let σ1 and σ2 be the bending stress on the elementary area at the level y at section AB
and CD respectively.

M
Bending stress on the elementary area at the level y at section AB,  1  y
I

M  dM
Bending stress on the elementary area at the level y at section CD,  2  y
I

M
Force on the elementary area at the level y at section AB  y.da
I

M  dM
Force on the elementary area at the level y at section CD  y.da
I

dM y.da  dM
The unbalanced force on the elementary area  y.b.dy
I I




Total unbalanced force on the portion of the beam above EF and between sections AB and CD

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 3

Shear stress distribution
y2 y2
dM dM
 y.bdy 
 I
y1
I  yda
y1

dM
 ay ,
I

where ay is the moment of area above level EF about the neutral axis.

This unbalanced horizontal force tries to shear off the portion of beam above EF and between the
section AB and CD from the rest of the portion below EF. The equilibrium of the portion above
EF is ensured by the shearing resistance of the material of beam on the plane at level EF.

Unbalanced force
Horizontal shear stress at level EF,   
dM ay
shear area I bdx

dM ay

dx Ib

dM
We know, shear force at the section, F 
dx

F
Hence,  ay
Ib

Where A = area of cross section of beam above the level EF

y  Distance of the centroid of the area above the level EF, from the neutral axis

For a given cross section of beam, F I remains constant any point along the depth of the beam.

ay
Therefore, the shear stress at any point on a cross section is proportional to . For sections of
Ib
uniform width, the shear stress will have maximum value at neutral axis, since ay is maximum at
neutral axis. The shear stress will have zero value at top and bottom layers of cross sections,
since ay is zero at these layers.

Shear stress distribution for beams of standard sections:

a) Rectangular section:

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 4

 Shear stress distribution

Consider a rectangular section ABCD of width b and depth d is subjected to a shear force of F.
Let τ be the shear stress intensity at any level EF at a distance of y from the neutral axis as shown
in the Fig.

Fay
We know,  
Ib

Here, ay is the moment of the shaded area above EF.

d 
Area ABFE, a  b  y 

 
2 

1d 
 Centroid of the area ABFE from neutral axis, y  y  y 
 






2 2 

1d 
 
  y 
 2 2 

  Shear stress on EF F
  ay  F b d  y  1  d  y 





Ib  Ib 2


 2 2 

F d2 2 
   y 
2I  4 

Shear stress variation along the depth is parabolic in nature.

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 5

 Shear stress distribution

The maximum shear stress occurs when y = 0, i.e., at neutral axis.

F  d2  Fd 2
 max    0 
2I  4  8I

Fd 2 12
  3
8 bd

3 F
 
2 bd

d
Minimum shear stress, min  0 occurs at the top and bottom edge, i.e., at y 
 .
2

Shear force
Average shear stress,  avge 
Cross - sectional area

F

bd

3 F  1.5
Maximum shear stress, max  avge
2 bd

Thus, maximum shear stress is 1.5 times the average shear stress in rectangular section and
occurs at neutral axis.

b) Circular section:

Consider circular section of radius, r subjected to a shear force of F. Let τ be the shear stress
intensity at any level EF at a vertical distance of y and angular distance of  from the neutral
axis as shown in the Fig.

Consider an elementary rectangular strip EFGH of thickness dy at a distance of y from the

neutral axis.

Width of the strip, b  2r cos



Vertical distance, y  r sin 



Area of the elementary strip, da  bdy  2r cos.r cos.d

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 6

 Shear stress distribution

 2r cos2 .d




Consider an elementary rectangular strip EFGH of thickness dy at a distance of y from the
neutral axis.

Width of the strip, b  2r cos



Vertical distance, y  r sin 



Area of the elementary strip, da  bdy  2r cos.r cos.d


 2r 2 cos2 .d

Moment of elementary strip about neutral axis,  day  2r 2 cos2 .d .r sin 

 2r 3 cos2  sin .d


  2
Moment of the area above EF about neutral axis, ay  2r 3 cos2  sin .d
 

  2

  2r 3
cos
2
 sin .d
 

Let cos  t  sin .d  dt


  
When    , t  cos ;   , t  cos 0
2 2

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 7

 Shear stress distribution
0

Hence, ay  2r t
3 2
dt

 0
t 3    cos3  
 2r    2r 
3 3

 3    3 

2
 r 3 cos3 
3

 1
Moment of inertia of circular section about neutral axis, I  r 4
4

F 2
 Shear stress  ay  F  r 3 cos3 
Ib I  2r cos 3


F
r 2 cos2  
F
r 2
 r 2 sin 2  
3I 3I


F
r 2
 y2 
3I

Hence, variation of shear stress along the depth is parabolic in nature.

Shear stress is maximum when y = 0, at neutral axis.

   F r 2
max
3I

Fr 2 4 4 F
  4 
3 r 3 r 2
4
  

3 avg

Shear stress is zero at top and bottom layer, i.e., y = r

c) Isosceles triangular:

Consider a isosceles triangular section ABC of base b and height h as subjected to a shear force
of F. Let τ be the shear stress intensity at any level EF at a vertical distance of y from the apex, A
as shown in the Fig. 7.

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 8

 Shear stress distribution

bh3
Moment of inertia of triangular section about neutral axis, I 
36

Let b’ be the width of the triangular portion, AEF above EF.

From similar triangles AEF and ABC, we have

b
b  y
h

Centroid of triangle AEF from the neutral axis, y 

2h

2y

2
h  y
3 3 3
1 1b
Area of the triangular portion AEF, a  by  y2
2 2h
F F 1b 2 2
 Shear stress  ay   y  h  y 

 Ib b
I y 2h 3
  h

yh  y
F
 
3I

At, y = 0, τ=0

At, y = h τ=0

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 9

 Shear stress distribution
2h 2h  2h  2Fh2
F
At neutral axis, y  ,  na    h   
3 3I 3  3  27I
2Fh2 8  F 
    
3
bh 3  bh 
27 
36



d
For maximum shear stress, 0
dy

F
h  2 y   0
3I

h
y
2
F h h  Fh2
Hence, maximum shear stress,  max  3I 2  h  2   12I
 


Fh2 3F
 3

bh bh
12 
36

F 2F
Average shear stress,  avg  1 
bh bh
2

3F

Maximum shear stress  max  bh  1.5
Average shear stress  avg 2F
bh
 max  1.5 avg

8F
Shear stress at Neutral axis  na 4
  3bh 
Average shear stress  avg 2F 3
bh

4
 na   avg
3

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 10

 Shear stress distribution

d) I-section

Consider an I-section of flange width B and overall depth D. Let b and d be the thickness and
depth of web. The section is subjected to a shear force of F.

Shear stress distribution in the flange

Let τ be the shear stress intensity at any level EF on flange at a vertical distance of y from the
neutral axis as shown in the Fig. 8.
D 
Area above EF  B y 

 
2 

1D  1D 
Centriodal distance of this area from the neutral axis  y  y  y 

   
2 2  2 2 





Moment of the area above the plane EF about the neutral axis,
D 1D 
ay  B y y 


   


 2 2 2 
 
B  D  y 2 
2
  
2 4 

F B  D2
F 2 
 


y


Shear stress on EF   ay   
IB IB 2  4 

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 11

 Shear stress distribution
F  D2 2 
   y 
2I  4 


Thus, the shear stress distribution in flange is parabolic in nature.

D
At the top of the flange, i.e., at y  , shear stress intensity, τ = 0.
2
d
At the junction of flange and web, i.e., at y  ,
2
d2  F 2
F  D2 
    D d
2
 
 2I  4 4  8I

Shear stress distribution in the flange

Let τ be the shear stress intensity at any level EF on flange at a vertical distance of y from the
neutral axis as shown in the Fig. 9.

Area above the plane EF = Area of the flange + area of the web above EF
 Dd  d 
aB b

    y 
 2   2 





 Centriodal distance of flange area from the neutral axis y d 1  D d  1  D  d 
     
1   
2 2 2 2  2  2 

1d  1d 
 Centriodal distance of web area from the neutral axis y  y  y  y 

   
 2 2 
2
2 2

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 12

 Shear stress distribution

Moment of the total area above EF about neutral axis,

ay  a y  a y  B D  d   1  D  d   b d  y   1  d  y 
1 1 2 2   
     
 2  2  2   2  2 2 


D2  d 2  b d 

B 2
  y 2 
8  2 4 
 
F
 Shearstress on EF,  ay
Ib

 
 F B 
bd2

  D 2  d    y 2 
2

Ib  8 2 4 


Hence, shear stress distribution in the web is also parabolic in nature.

d
At the junction of flange and web, i.e., at y  ,
2

 Shearstress on EF, 
F

B
D 2
d2 
Ib 8

It can be observed that at the junction of flange and web, there is a sudden jump in the shear
stress intensity.

At neutral axis, i.e., at y = 0, the shear stress is maximum.

F B
  bd 
2
   2
 2

max 8
Ib 
D d
8 



From the shear stress distribution diagram, it is evident that most of the shear stress on the
section is carried by the web.

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 13

Shear stress distribution

Numerical

1. A 2.5 m long rectangular timber beam of 125 mm wide and 250 mm deep is carrying a
uniformly distributed load of 60 kN/m. Determine the maximum shear stress intensity and
draw the variation of shear stress along the depth of the beam.

Solution:

Given: Length of beam, l = 2.5 m, Width, b = 125 mm, Depth, d = 250 mm

Uniformly distributed load, w = 50 kN/m

Maximum shear force in the beam, F  wl  60  2.5  75 kN

2 2

 75103 N
F 751000
Average shear stress,     2.4 N / mm2
avg
bd 125 250

Maximum shear stress,  max  1.5 2.4  3.6N / mm2

2. A rectangular beam of 100 mm wide is subjected to a maximum shear force of 45 kN. If the
maximum shear stress in the beam is 3 N/mm2, calculate the depth of the beam.

Solution:

Given: Width of beam section, b = 100 mm, Maximum shear force, F = 45 kN, and

Maximum shear stress in the beam,  max  3 N / mm2

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 14

Shear stress distribution

Let the depth of the beam be d mm.

Average shear stress,  F 45 1000 450

avg    N / mm2
bd 100d d

Maximum shear stress,  max  1.5 avg

450
3  1.5 
d

 d  225 mm

3. A circular beam section of 150 mm diameter is subjected to a maximum shear force of 50

kN. Evaluate the maximum shear stress and plot the shear stress distribution diagram across
the depth of the section.

Solution:

Given: Diameter of circular section, d = 150 mm,

Maximum shear force, F = 50 kN

 
Area of the section, a d2  150  17671.458 mm
2 2

4 4

 50 1000  2.83 N / mm2

F
Average shear stress,  avg 
a 17671.458

Maximum shear stress,  max  1.5  2.83  4.245 N / mm2

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 15

Shear stress distribution

4. A beam of isosceles triangular section of base width 120 mm and height 150 mm is subjected
to a shear force of 15 kN, Find the maximum shear stress and the shear stress at neutral axis.
Draw the shear stress variation diagram along the depth of the section.

Given: Base width, b = 120 mm, Height, h = 150 mm

Maximum shear force, F = 15 kN

h
Maximum shear stress is at a height of from the base of the triangle.
2

3F 3 15 1000
Maximum shear stress  max    2.5 N / mm2
bh 120 150

8F  8 15 1000  2.222 N / mm2

Shear stress at the neutral axis,  na 
3bh 3 120 150

Alternatively
1 1
Area of the section, a  bh  120 150  9000 mm2
2 2

F 15 1000
Average shear stress  avg    1.667 N / mm2
a 9000

Maximum shear stress,  max  1.5 1.667  2.5 N / mm2

4 4
Shear stress at the neutral axis,  na   avg  1.667  2.222 N / mm
2

3 3

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 16

Shear stress distribution

5. An I-section has an overall depth of 240 mm with horizontal flanges each measuring 120 mm
x 20 mm and a vertical web 200 mm x 20 mm. It is subjected to a vertical shear force of 200
kN. Find the maximum shear stress and its position. Draw the shear stress distribution
diagram.

Solution:

Shear force on the section, F  200 kN

Moment of inertia of the I-section about the neutral axis,

120  2403 100  2003

I    71.573333106 mm4
12 12

Shear stress in the flange at the junction of flange and web:

ay  120  20 110  264000 mm3

Fay  200 103  264000

Shear stress,    6.132 N / mm2
Ib 71.753333333106 120

200 103  264000

Stress in the web at the junction of flange and web   36.792 N / mm2
71.75333310  20
6

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 17

 Shear stress distribution

Shear stress at neutral axis

ay  120  20 110  20 100  50  364000 mm3

Fay 200 103  364000

Shear stress,    50.729 N / mm2
Ib 71.753333333106  20

6. The unsymmetrical I-section shown in the Fig. is subjected to a shear force of 40 kN. Draw
the shear stress distribution across the depth showing the salient points.

Solution:

Distance of the centroid from the bottom fibre,

200  20 
150  20 10  20  200  (20  )  100  20  20  200  

 
yb  2  2 
150  20  20  200  100  20

 107.78 mm

Distance of the centroid from the top fibre, yt  240  yb  240 107.777

 132.22 mm

Moment of inertia about the neutral axis,

  20  2003    200

2 2
150  203 20  
I  150  20 107.78     20  200   20  107.78
12  2  12  2 

 100  203  20 
2

   100  20 132.22  

12  2 

 72655555.60 mm4


Shear stress at the junction of top flange and web:

Area above the bottom of top flange, a  100  20  2000 mm2

20 20
C.G of this area from the neutral axis, y  y   132.22 
t
2 2

 122.22 mm

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 18

Shear stress distribution

F
Stress in the flange at the junction of top flange and web   ay
Ibf


40 103
  100 20122.22
72655555.60 100

 1.346 N / mm2

Stress in the web at the junction of top flange and web

40 103

  100 20122.22
72655555.60  20

 6.728 N / mm2

Shear stress at neutral axis:

ay of area above neutral axis  ay of flange about N.A  ay of web about N.A

 100  20 132.22 
20 
 20  132.22  20
132.22  20
 
 2  2

 370373.284

F
    40 103 


 
Maximum shear stress at neutral axis, max



370373.284
ay
Ib 72655555.6  20
Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 19
Shear stress distribution

 10.195 N / mm2

Shear stress at the junction of bottom flange and web:

Area of the bottom flange, a  150  20  3000 mm2

20 20
C.G of this area from the neutral axis, y  y   107.78   97.78
b
2 2

Stress in the web at the junction of web and bottom flange

40 103
  3000 97.78
72655555.60  20

 8.075 N / mm2

Stress in the bottom flange at the junction of web and bottom flange
40 103
  3000 97.78
72655555.60 150

 1.077 N / mm2

7. A beam of I-section 500 mm deep and 200 mm wide has flanges 25 mm thick and web 20
mm thick. It carries a shearing force of 425 KN at a section. Calculate the maximum
intensity of shear stress in the section. Also calculate the total shear force carried by the web
and draw the shear stress distribution across the depth of the section.

Solution:

200  5003 180  4503

Moment of inertia about neutral axis, I  
12 12

 716458333.333mm4

Maximum shear stress intensity will occur at the neutral axis.

F
 max  ay
Ib

Where F = maximum shear force

ay  moment of the area above the neutral axis about the neutral axis.

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 20

Shear stress distribution

I = Moment of inertia of the section about neutral axis.

b = breath of the web

The section is symmetrical about both horizontal as well as vertical axis.

Hence centroid is horizontal centroidal axis is half-way, i.e., 250 mm from the top as well as
bottom edge.
 25  225
ay  200  25  225   225  20 
 
 2  2

 1693750mm3

F 425000
 max  ay  1693750
Ib 716458333.333 20

 50.236 N / mm2

Shear stress in the flange at a distance y from the neutral axis,

F
   ay 
F 
 B250  y
250  y


IB IB  2 


F
250 2
 y2 
2I

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 21

 Shear stress distribution

  
F
62500  y  2

2I

Shear resistance offered by elementary strip of the flange 200 mm wide and dy mm deep,

 da 
F
62500  y 200dy
2

2I


100F
I

62500  y 2 dy 

 
250
Shear resistance of one flange 100F 


2
I 62500  y dy
225

100F  y3 
250

 62500 y  
I  3  225

100F   2503 2253 

 I 62500250  225   3  
  3 
 
100  425
 151041.67  8.96 kN
716458333.333

Total shear resistance of two flanges  2  8.96  17.62 kN

Total shear force carried by the web  425 17.62  407.08 kN

Shear stress distribution across the section:

Shear stress in the flange at junction of flange and web

F
  Moment of the area about N.A
IB
 25 
425000  200  25 225  
 

 2 
716458333.333 200 
 3.522 N / mm2

200
Shear stress in the web at junction of flange and web   3.522  35.22 N / mm2
20

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 22

Shear stress distribution

8. A simply supported beam of 4 m length carries a uniformly distributed load of intensity 50

kN/m over the entire span. If a T-section of flange size 150 mm x 50 mm and web size 50
mm x 150 mm is used as beam section, find the maximum shear stress and draw the shear
stress distribution diagram across the depth with values at important points.

Solution:

Given: Length of beam, l = 4 m, Uniformly distributed load, w = 50 kN/m

wl 50  4
Maximum shear force at the support, F    100 kN
2 2

50 150  75 150  50  (150  25)

Distance of the centroid from the bottom fibre, yb 
50 150 150  50

 125 mm

Distance of the centroid from the top fibre, yt  150  50 yb  200 125

 75 mm

Moment of inertia about the neutral axis,

50 1503 150 503

I   50150 75  252   50 150 125  752
12 12

 53125000mm4

Shear stress at the junction of flange and web:

Area above the bottom of flange a  150 50  7500 mm2

50
C.G of this area from the neutral axis, y  yt   75  25
2

 50 mm 

F
Stress in the flange at the junction of flange and web   ay
Ibf

100 103
  7500  50
53125000 150

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 23

Shear stress distribution

 4.706 N / mm2

100 103
Stress in the web at the junction of flange and web   7500  50
53125000 50

 14.12 N / mm2

Shear stress at neutral axis:

ay of area above neutral axis  ay of flange about N.A  ay of web about N.A
 50 
 150  50 75   50  25
25
 
 2  2

 390625

F 100 103
Maximum shear stress at neutral axis,  max   ay   390625
Ib 53125000 50

 14.705 N / mm2

Shear stress is zero at the top and bottom fibres.

9. A 2.5 m long simply supported wooden beam, rectangular section of 100 mm wide and 150
mm deep carries a uniformly distributed load over entire span. If the safe stresses are 12

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 24

Shear stress distribution

N/mm2 and 1.5 N/mm2 in bending and shear respectively, find the safe load that the beam can
carry.

Solution:

Let the safe uniformly distributed load = w kN/m.

Case I: Bending stress consideration

wl 2 w  2.52
Maximum bending moment M    0.78125w kN.m
8 8

 0.78125106 w N.mm

Moment of resistance of the beam = Maximum bending moment

1
 allowbd 2  0.78125 106 w
6

1
0.78125 106 w  12 100 1502
6

w  5.76 kN / m

Case II: Shear stress consideration

wl w  2.5
Maximum shear force F    1.125w kN
2 2

 1125w N

3 3 F
Maximum shear stress   Average shear stress  
2 2 bd

3 1125w
   0.1125w N / mm2
2 100 150

For safe load, maximum shear stress on the beam shall at best be equal to safe shear stress of the
material.

0.1125w  1.5

w  13.33kN

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 25

Shear stress distribution

The beam can carry safe uniformly distributed load of 5.76 kN/m.

10. A simply supported rectangular timber beam of length l carries a concentrated load of W at a
distance of l/4 from the left support. The maximum allowable stresses in bending and shear
are 12 N/mm2 and 1.5 N/mm2 respectively. If the depth of the beam is 250 mm, find the
length such that both bending and shear stresses simultaneously reach their maximum
allowable limits.

Solution:

Consider the equilibrium of the simply supported beam in Fig.

3l
R l W 
A
4

3W
 RA 
4

Maximum shear force, F  R  3W

A
4

Maximum bending moment, M  R  l  3W  l  3Wl

A
4 4 4 16

M M 6M
Maximum bending stress in the beam,   1  2
Z bd 2 bd
6

3Wl 
6
 16  9Wl (1)
bd 2 8bd 2

Maximum shear stress,   1.5  Averageshear stress

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 26

 Shear stress distribution

3W
F  1.5  4 4.5W
 1.5   (2)
bd bd 4bd

From Eqn. (1) and (2), we have

9Wl
 8bd 2 l
 
 4.5W d
4bd
 12
l d   250  2000 mm
 1.5

 2m

Dr. S. K. Nayak, PhD 27

 CHAPTER-2
SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
Introduction

When a beam or for that matter any part of a structure is subjected to the action of applied
loads, it undergoes deformation due to which the axis of the member is deflected from its
original position. The deflections also occur due to temperature variations and lack-of-fit of
members. Accurate values for these deflections are sought in many practical cases. The
deflections of structures are important for ensuring that the designed structure is not
excessively flexible. The large deformations in the structures can cause damage or cracking
of non-structural elements. The computation of deflections in structures is also required for
solving the statically indeterminate structures.
The deflection of beam depends on four general factors:
1. Stiffness of the material that the beam is made of,
2. Dimension of the beam,
3. Applied loads, and
4. Support conditions

Elastic curve
The curve that is formed by plotting the position of the neutral axis of the beam under loading
along the longitudinal axis is known as the elastic curve. The curve into which the axis of the
beam is transformed under the given loading is called the elastic curve. The nature of the
elastic curve depends on the support conditions of the beam and the nature and type of
loadings. The slope at a given point may be clockwise or anticlockwise measured from the
original axis of the beam. Figure 1 shows the elastic curves for cantilever and simply
supported beams. Sagging or positive bending moment produces an elastic curve with
curvature of concave upward whereas a hogging or negative bending moment gives rise to an
elastic curve with curvature of concave downward.
Deflection
The vertical displacement of a point on elastic curve of a beam with respect to the original
position of the point on the longitudinal axis of the beam is called the deflection.

Slope
The angular displacement or rotation of the tangent drawn at a point on the elastic curve of a
beam with respect to the longitudinal axis of the original beam without loading is known as
the slope at a given point.
18
 (a) Cantilever beam (b) Simply supported beam

Figure 1

Importance of slope and deflection

Accurate values for these beam deflections are sought in many practical cases. The deflection
of a beam must be limited in order to: (a) provide integrity and stability of structure or
machine, (b) minimize or prevent brittle-finish materials from cracking The computation of
deflections at specific points in structures is also required for analyzing a statically
indeterminate structures.
Equation of elastic curve
The following assumptions are made to derive the equation of the elastic curve of a beam.
Assumptions:
1. The deflection is very small compared to the length of the beam.
2. The slope at any point is very small.
3. The beam deflection due to shearing stresses is negligible, i.e., plane sections remain
plane after bending.
4. The values of E and I remain constant along the beam. If they are constant and can be
expressed as functions of x, then the solution using the equation of elastic curve is
possible.
Let us consider an elemental length PQ = ds of the elastic curve of a beam under loading as
shown in the Figure 1. The tangents drawn at the points P and Q make angles  and   d

with x-axis. Let the coordinates of P and Q be x, y and x  dx, y  dy respectively. The
normals at P and Q meet at C. C denote the centre of curvature and ρ the radius of curvature
of the part of the elastic curve between P and Q.
From the geometry of the curve, it is obvious that ds  d
ds 
or  sass
d

19
 dy dy dx
and  tan  ,  sin  , and  cos
dx ds ds
ds
ds ds dx dx
  
d dx d d
dx
sec
 (1)

d 

dx
dy
Further, tan  
dx
Differentiating with respect to x, one can get
d 2
Asaa sec2    d y
2
dx dx
d2y
d  dx 2

 (2)
dx sec2 
d
Substituting the value of in Eq.(1), one gets
dx
sec3 
 2
d y
dx 2
d2y d2y 
dy 

 dx3  dx 3 2 
1 2 2
dx
 sec  sec   2
1  tan 2  3 2
d2y
1  dx 2 3 2

   dy  2 
1    
dx
   


For real life actual, the slope dy/dx is very small and its square is even smaller and hence the
term  dy  can be neglected as compared to unit. The above expression thus becomes
2

 dx 


1 d2y
 (3)
 dx 2

20
 Figure 2
From theory of pure bending, it is known that
M E

I 
1 M
 (4)
 EI
From Eq, (3) and (4) we get
d2y
EI 2  M (5)
dx
Equation (5) is the governing equation of deflection of beam, also known as equation of
elastic curve.
Boundary condition
The equation of elastic curve or the governing equation for deflection of the beam is a second
order differential equation; hence we need to know two boundary conditions to find out two
constants of integration for complete solution of the problem. The boundary conditions
generally come from the support conditions, where either the slope or the deflection is
known. Sometimes, due to symmetry of the beam, as in the case of a simply supported beam
with point load at the centre of the beam or uniformly distributed load throughout the beam,
an intermediate point representing the point of symmetry may give a boundary condition.

Figure 3
21
General procedure for computing deflection by integration
1. Select the interval or intervals of the beam to be used and place a set of coordinate
axis on the beam with the origin at one end of an interval and then indicate the range
of values of x in each interval.
2. List the variable boundary and continuity or matching conditions for each interval.
3. Express the bending moment M as a function of x for each interval selected and
equate it to EI d 2 y dx 2 .
4. Solve the differential equation from step 3 and evaluate all constants of integration.
Calculate slope (dy/dx) and deflection (y) at the specific points.

Numerical Problems
Problem 1.
Derive the equation of elastic curve and find the slope and deflection at the free end of the
cantilever beam shown in the Figure 4.

Figure 4
Solution.

Figure 5

Determine the support reactions

Sum of the vertical forces , V  0, RA  W
Sum of the vertical forces ,  M A  0, MA W L
Taking moment about any section between A and B over the entire length of the cantilever,
we have

M x  WL  Wx

The equation of the elastic curve may be written as

22
 d2y
EI   WL  Wx
dx 2

Integrating with respect to x, we get

dy 2
EI  EI   WLx  Wx  C1 (6)
dx 2

Integrating again with respect to x, we get

WLx 2 Wx 3
EIy     C1 x  C2 (7)
2 6
The constants integration C1 and C2 may be determined from the boundary conditions.

x  0,   0 and x  0, y  0
Substituting x  0,   0 in Eq. ( ), we get C1  0

Substituting x  0, y  0 in Eq. ( ), we get C2  0

Substituting the values of C1  0 and C2  0 in Eq. ( ) and Eq. ( ), we get

dy 2
General equation for slope EI  EI   WLx  Wx (8)
dx 2
2 3
General equation for deflection EIy  WLx  Wx (9)
2 6

Slope at free end x  L

2
EIB  WL 2  WL
2

WL2
 
B
2EI

Slope at free end x  L

3 3
EIyB  WL  Wx
2 6

WL3
yB  
3EI

Problem 2.
A cantilever beam of length L carries a uniformly distributed load of w per unit length over
its entire length. Determine the slope and deflection at the free end of the beam.

23
 Figure 6

Solution.

Figure 7
Determine the support reactions
Sum of the vertical forces , V  0, RA  wL

w L2
Sum of the vertical forces ,  M A  0, M A  
2

Taking moment about any section between A and B over the entire length of the cantilever,
we have

wL2  wx
2
M x   2  wLx
2

The equation of the elastic curve may be written as

d2y wL2  wx
2
EI  2  wLx
dx2 2

Integrating with respect to x, we get

 wL x  wx  wLx  C1
dy 2 3 2
EI  EI (10)
dx 2 6 2

Integrating again with respect to x, we get

wL2 x2  wx
4
wLx 3
EIy   24  6  C1 x  C2 (11)
4
The constants integration C1 and C2 may be determined from the boundary conditions.

x  0,   0 and x  0, y  0

24
The constants integration C1 and C2 may be determined from the boundary conditions.

x  0,   0 and x  0, y  0
Substituting x  0,   0 in Eq. ( ), we get C1  0

Substituting x  0, y  0 in Eq. ( ), we get C2  0

Substituting the values of C1  0 and C2  0 in Eq. ( ) and Eq. ( ), we get

wL2 x  wx  wLx 2
dy 3
EI  EI 
General equation for slope 6  (12)
dx 2 2

wL2 x2  wx  wLx 3
4
General equation for deflection EIy   24  6 (13)
4
wL3  wx  wL3
3
Slope at free end x  L EIB   6 
2 2

WL3
 
B
6EI

wL4  wx  wL4
4
Slope at free end x  L EIyB   24  6
4

WL3
yB  
8EI

Problem 3.
Determine the slope at the end supports and deflection at centre of a prismatic simply
supported beam of length L carrying a point of W at the mid span.

Figure 8

Solution.

25
 Figure 9
W
The beam is symmetrical, so the reactions at both ends are , The bending moment
2
equation will change beyond the centre position but because the bending will be symmetrical
on each side of the centre we need to only to solve for the left hand side.
Taking moment about any section between the left hand supportA and the centre of the beam,
we have

W
M x   x
2
The equation of the elastic curve may be written as

d2y Wx
EI 2

dx 2

Integrating with respect to x, we get

dy 2
EI  EI  Wx  C1 (14)
dx 4

Integrating again with respect to x, we get

Wx 3
EIy    C1 x  C2 (15)
12

The constants integration C1 and C2 may be determined from the boundary conditions.

At A x  0, y  0 (No deflection at roller supported or hinged ends)

L
At C x  ,   0 (Tangent to the elastic curve is horizontal at the centre)
2

L
  WL2
Substituting x , 0 in Eq. (14 ), we get C1 
2 16

Substituting x  0, y  0 in Eq. (15), we get C2  0

WL2
Substituting the values of C1  and C2  0 in Eq. (14) and Eq. (15 ), we get
16

26
 2 2
General equation for slope EI  EI dy   Wx  WL (16)
dx 4 16

Wx 3 WL2 x
General equation for deflection EIy    (17)
12 16

Slope at end A x  0

2 2
EIA  W (0)  WL
4 16

WL2
A 
16EI
 L  W  L 3 WL2  L 
Deflection at the centre  x  2  EIyC       
  12  2  16  2 

WL3 WL3
EIyC   
96 32
3
yC   WL
48EI

Problem 4.
Determine the slope at the end supports and deflection at the centre of a prismatic simply
supported beam shown in the Figure 10 carrying uniformly distributed load of w per unit
length over the entire span of the beam.

Figure 10

Solution.

Figure 11

27
 wL
The beam is symmetrical, so the reactions at both ends are , The bending moment
2
equation will change beyond the centre position but because the bending will be symmetrical
on each side of the centre we need to only solve for the left hand side.
Taking moment about any section between A and B over the entire length of the cantilever,
we have

wLx  wx 
2
M x  2
2

The equation of the elastic curve may be written as

d2y wLx  wx 
2
EI 2  2
dx 2

Integrating with respect to x, we get

 wLx  wx   C1
dy 2 3
EI  EI (18)
6
dx 4

Integrating again with respect to x, we get

wLx 2  wx 
4
EIy  24  C1 x  C2 (19)
12

The constants integration C1 and C2 may be determined from the boundary conditions.

At A x  0, y  0 (No deflection at roller supported or hinged ends)

L
At C x  ,   0 (Tangent to the elastic curve is horizontal at the centre)
2
L
Substituting x  ,   0 in Eq. (18 ), we get
2

wL  L 2 w  L 3
EI(0)  4 2      C1
  6  2 


wL3 wL3
C1   
16 48

wL3
C1  
24

Substituting x  0, y  0 in Eq. (15), we get C2  0

wL3
Substituting the values of C1   and C2  0 in Eq. (18) and Eq. (19), we get
24
28
 wLx 2  wx   wL 
dy 3 3
General equation for slope EI  EI  (20)
6 24
dx 4
3
wLx 3  wx  wL
4
General equation for deflection EIy  24  x (21)
12 24
wL 2 w 3 wL3
       
Slope at end A x  0 EI A 0 0
4 6 24
3
   wL
A
24EI
 L  wL  L 3w  L 4 wL3  L 
    

Deflection at the centre  x  
 2  EIyC     24  2  24  2 

12 2
wL4 wL4  wL4
EIyC   
96 4 384 48
wL
yC  
384EI

Problem 5.
Determine the slope and deflection of the prismatic simply supported beam under the point
load.

Figure 12
Solution.

Figure 13

Determine the support reactions

Sum of the vertical forces , V  0, RA  RB  W
3L
Sum of the vertical forces ,  M A  0, R x L W x
A
4

29
 3WL
RA
4
Bending moment over the portion AC and CB of the beam may be expressed by two different
functions and hence the equations for elastic curves.
L
For portion A to C (x < )
4
Taking moment about any section between A and C, we have
M  x 
3Wx
1
4
The equation of the elastic curve may be written as
d 2 y1 3Wx
EI 
dx 2 4
where y1 x is function which defines the elastic curve for portion AC of the beam.
Integrating the equation we get,
dy1 3Wx 2
EI1  EI   C1 (22 )
dx 8
Wx 3
EIy1   C1 x  C2 (23)
8
 L
For portion C to B x  
 



 4 
Taking moment about any section between A and C, we have
3Wx  L
M x W x  

2  
4  4 
The equation of the elastic curve may be written as
2
EI d y 2  3Wx  W x  L 
 
 dx 2 4  4 
 On rearrangement of terms, we get
2
Wx WL
EI d y2 2  
dx 4 4
where y2 x is the function which defines the elastic curve for portion CB of the beam.
Integrating the equation we get,

  Wx  WLx  C3
dy2 2
EI2  4 (24)
dx 8
Wx 3  WLx
2
EIy2  8  C 3 x  C4 (25)
24
Determination of constants of integration from boundary conditions and continuity
conditions
Boundary conditions: At support A, x  0, y1  0 and at support B x  L, y2  0

30
Continuity conditions: There can be no sudden change in the slope and deflection at C which
L
requires that at x  , 1   2 and y1  y2
4

Substituting x  0, y1  0 in Eq. (23), we get

C2  0

Substituting x  L, y2  0 in Eq. (25), we get

WL3
0   C3 L  C 4
12
L 
Substituting x  
,    into the Eq. (22) and (24) and equating the slopes at the point C,
1 2
4
the boundary of two segments AC and CB, we get 

3WL2  7WL2
 C1   C3
128 128
L
Substituting x  , y1  y2 into the Eq. (23) and (25) and equating the deflections at the
4
point C, the boundary of two segments AC and CB, we get

WL3 C1 L 11WL3  C3 L  C
  4
512 4 1536 4

Solving these equations simultaneously, we get

7WL2 11WL2 WL3
C1   , C2  0, C3   and C4 
128 128 384
L
Substituting C1 and C2 into Eq. (22) and (23) and for x 
4
3Wx 2
7WL 
2
EI1   128 (26)
8
Wx 3 7WL x
2
EIy1   128 (27)
8
L
Substituting x  into Eq. (26) and (27), we get
4
WL2 3WL3
C   and yC  
32EI 256EI
Macaulay's method
Double integration method is a convenient and effective way for solving the slope and
deflection of prismatic beam as long as the bending moment can be represented by a single
function of M(x). However, it is not always the case. When the loading of the beam is such
that two or more functions are needed to represent the bending moment over the entire length
31
 of the beam, as was the case in the previous problem. In such cases, additional constants of
integration and as many numbers of equations become necessary to express continuity
conditions at the points of load change-over in addition to the boundary conditions. Thus the
process becomes lengthy and cumbersome. To overcome this difficulty, British engineer W.
H. Macaulay proposed an innovative approach of solving such problems by using singularity
function to express the bending moment over the entire length.
The execution of Macaulay's method is explained by way of solution to Problem 5.

Figure 14
Solution.
Determine the support reactions
Sum of the vertical forces, V  0, RA  RB  W
3L
R x L W x
Sum of the vertical forces,  M B  0, A
4
3WL
RA
4
Bending moment over the portion AC and CB of the beam may be expressed by two different
functions as  L
M  x 
3Wx
0 x 

1  
4
3Wx  L  L 4 
M x W x  xL 

   
 4 4 
2
4
wherex is the distance measured from end A. The functions M 1  x  and M 2 x may be
represented by single expression as
3Wx
M x  W x  L
4 4
L
If we want to compute slope and deflection in the portion CB i.e., when x  , the brackets
4
should be replaced by ordinary parentheses  . Similarly if we want to compute slope
L
and deflection when x < , the brackets should be replaced by zero.
4
Thus the equation of elastic curve over the entire length of the beam may be written as
d 2 y 3Wx L
EI 2  W x 
dx 4 4
Integrate with respect to x considering the bracket as a single variable.
2
EI  EI
dy 3Wx 2 W L
  x  C1 (28)
dx 8 2 4

32
Follow the same rule and integrate again with respect to x.
3
Wx 3 W L
EIy   x  C1 x  C2 (29)
8 6 4

The constants C1 and C2 may be determined from the boundary conditions.

At x = 0, y = 0 and at x = L, y = 0
L
For x = 0< , the brackets are equal to zero, hence C2 = 0
4
L
For x  L  , the brackets may be replaced by parentheses,
4
WL3 W  L 3
0  8  6  L  4   C1 L
 
WL3 9WL3
0   128  C1 L
8
7WL2
C1  
128
Substituting the value of C1 in Eq. (28) and C1 and C2 in Eq. (29), we get
2
dy 3Wx 2 W 7WL2
General equation for slope EI  EI   x
L
 (30)
dx 8 2 4 128
3
Wx 3 W x  L 7WL2
General equation for deflection EIy    x (31)
8 6 4 128
The need for additional constants C3 and C4 as in Problem 5 has been eliminated and hence
need for writing additional equations of continuity for slope deflection.
L
Substituting the value of x  in each of the above equations, we get
4
WL 2
C   and
32EI
3WL3
yC  
256EI

Problem 6.
Determine the slope and deflection at points B of the beam shown in the Figure. 15. Take E =
200 GPa and I = 250(106) mm4.

Figure 15
Solution.

33
 Figure 16
Determine the support reactions
Sum of the vertical forces , V  0, RA  10 kN
Sum of the vertical forces ,  M A  0, M A  10 x 3  30 kN.m
Considering from the left hand side and taking moment about any section between C and B,
we have

M x 10 x  30 10(x  3)

Do not simplify. On simplification the moment becomes zero between B and C which is
obvious.

Thus the equation of elastic curve over the entire length of the beam may be written as

d2y
EI  10 x  30 10 x  3
dx 2

Integrate with respect to x considering the bracket as a single variable.

dy
EI  EI  5 x 2  30x  5 x  3 2
C (32)
1
dx

Follow the same rule and integrate again with respect to x.

5
EIy  x 3  15x 2  5 x  3 3
 C1 x  C 2 (33)
3 3

The constants C1 and C2 may be determined from the boundary conditions.

At x  0,   0 and x  0, y  0

For x = 0< 3 m, the brackets are equal to zero, hence from Eq. (32) C1 = 0 and from Eq. (33)
C2 = 0

Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in Eq. (32) and (33), we get

dy
General equation for slope EI  EI  5 x 2  30x  5 x  3 2
(34)
dx
5 3
General equation for deflection EIy  x  15x 2  5 x  3 3 (35)
3 3
Substituting the value of x  6 in each of the above equations, we get
34
 EI B  5 (6) 2  30 x 6  56  3
2
From Eq. (34) the slope,

45 
 
B
EI 

   45 kN.m2
 6 kN 
x 250 x 106 m4 
B

200 x10 2 
 m 


 B   0.0009 radian

From Eq. (35), the deflection EIy 

5
(6) 3  15(6) 2 
5
6  33
B
3 3

EIyB  360  540  45

225
yB  
EI
225 kN.m3
yB   
 6 kN 
 200 x 10
2 
x 250 x 106 m4 
 m 


yB   0.0045 m   4.5mm

For the equation of elastic curve between A and C, neglecting the bracketed term in Eq. (35),
we get
5
EIy  x 3  15x 2 which is cubic
3

For the equation of elastic curve between C and B, considering the bracketed term in Eq. (35)
and replacing with parentheses, we get
5 5
EIy  x 3  15x 2  (x  3)3
3 3

5 5
EIy  x3  15x 2  (x 3  9x 2  27x  27)
3 3

EIy  45x  45which is linear

The elastic curve of the beam with the salient points is shown in the figure

35
Problem 7.

The cantilevered beam shown is subjected to a uniformly distributed load w per unit length.
Determine the slope and deflection at point C and B. Also draw the elastic curve. EI is
constant.

Figure 17

Solution.

Figure 18
Determine the support reactions
wL
Sum of the vertical forces , V  0, RA 
2
wL 3L 3wL2
Sum of the vertical forces ,  M A  0, MA   x 
2 4 8
Considering from the left hand side and taking moment about any section between C and B,
we have

3wL2  wL x  w  x  L 
2
M x   2  
8 2  2 

36
 Following Macaulay‟s method, the equation of elastic curve over the entire length of the
beam may be written as

d2y 3wL2  wL x  w x  L
2

EI  
dx2 8 2 2 2

Integrate with respect to x considering the bracket as a single variable.

3
 3wL x  wLx  w x  L
dy 2 2
EI  EI  C1 (36)
dx 8 4 6 2
Follow the same rule and integrate again with respect to x.
4
3wL2 x2  wLx3  w L
EIy    x  C1 x  C2 (37)
16 12 24 2
The constants C1 and C2 may be determined from the boundary conditions.

At x  0,   0 and x  0 m, y  0

L
For x = 0< , the brackets are equal to zero, hence from Eq. (36) C1 = 0 and from Eq. (37) C2
2
=0

Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in Eq. (36) and (37), we get

3
EI  EI
dy 3wL2 x  wLx 2 w L
General equation for slope    x (38)
dx 8 4 6 2

4
3wL2 x2  wLx3 w L
General equation for deflection EIy    x (39)
16 12 24 2
L
Substituting the value ofx< in each of the above equations and equating the bracketed term
2
as zero, we get

3wL2 L  wL  L 2
From Eq. (37) the slope at C, EIC   2 4 2 
8  

3wL3 wL3
EIC   
16 16

wL3
 
C
8EI

37
 3wL2  L 2 wL  L 3
From Eq. (39) the deflection at C, EIy       
16  2  12  2 
 4 4
EIy  3wL  wL
64 96

7wL4
yC  
192EI

Substituting the value ofx< L in Eq. (38) and (39) and replacing the brackets by parentheses,
we get

3wL2 L wL 2 w  L  L 
3
From Eq. (38) the slope at B, EIB    L   
8 4 6  2 


3wL3  wL3 wL3

EIB   4  48
8

7wL3
B  
48EI

3wL2 L2 wLL3 w  L 4
From Eq. (39) the deflection at B, EIyB    12  24  L  2 
16
 

3wL wL4 wL4
EIyB  4  12  384

16
41wL4
yB  
384EI

Figure
Problem 8.
Determine the maximum deflection, the slope and deflection at points C of the beam shown
in the figure. Also, draw the elastic curve of the beam. Take E = 200 GPa and I = 60(106)
mm4.

38
Figure 19

39
Solution.

Figure 20

Determine the support reactions

Sum of the vertical forces, V  0, RA  RB  8
Sum of the vertical forces, M B  0, RA x 12  8 x 3
RA  2 kN
Considering from the left hand side and taking moment about any section between C and B,
we have

M x 2x  8(x  9)

Following Macaulay‟s method, the equation of elastic curve over the entire length of the
beam may be written as

d2y
EI  2x 8 x 9
dx 2

Integrate with respect to x considering the bracket as a single variable.

dy
EI  EI  x 2  4 x  9 2
 C1 (40)
dx

Follow the same rule and integrate again with respect to x.

1
EIy  x 3  4 x  9 3
 C1 x  C 2 (41)
3 3

The constants C1 and C2 may be determined from the boundary conditions.

At x  0, y  0 and x  12 m, y  0

For x = 0< 9 m, the brackets are equal to zero, hence from Eq. (41) C2 = 0

and for x = 12 > 6, from Eq. (41)

1 4
EI (0)  123  (12  9)3  C x12
1
3 3

40
 1 4
12C   123  (12  9)3
1
3 3

C1   45

Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in Eq. (40) and (41), we get

dy
General equation for slope EI  EI  x 2  4 x  9 2  45 (42)
dx
1 3 4
General equation for deflection EIy  x  x  9 3  45x (43)
3 3
Substituting the value ofx< 4 in each of the above equations, we get

From Eq. (42) the slope, EIB  (9)2  45

36 
B 
EI 

  36 kN.m2
 6 kN 
x 60 x 106 m 4 
B

200 x10 2 
 m 


 B  0.003radian

1
From Eq. (43), the deflection EIyB  (9)3  45 x 9
3

162
yB  
EI
162 kN.m3
yB   
6 kN 
 200 x 10 x 60 x 106 m4 
2 
 m 


yB   0.0135 m  13.5mm

For maximum deflection, the slope must be zero.

Let us assume that the maximum slope would occur in the portion AC, equating the slope
equation in (42) without the bracketed term to zero

x2  45  0 assa

x   45  6.708 m

Neglecting the – ve sign, the deflection would occur at x  6.708 m

41
 1
Maximum deflection, EIymax  (6.708)3  45 x 6.708
3

1
EIymax  (6.708)3  45 x 6.708
3

200.246
ymax  
EI

200.246 kN.m3
ymax   
 6 kN 
 200 x 10
2 
x 60 x 106 m4 
 m 


ymax   0.01668 m  16.68 mm

Problem 9.
Determine the slope and deflection at points Cof the beam shown in the Figure. 15. Take E =
200 GPa and I = 250(106) mm4.

Figure 21

Solution.

42
Determine the support reactions
Sum of the vertical forces, V  0, RA  RB  1.5 x 6  9
6
Sum of the vertical forces,  M B  0, R x12  1.5 x 6 x
A
2
RA  2.25 kN
Considering from the left hand side and taking moment about any section between C and B,
we have
x  6
M x 2.5x  1.5(x  6) 
2

 2.5x  0.75(x  6)2

Following Macaulay‟s method, the equation of elastic curve over the entire length of the
beam may be written as

d2y
EI 2
 2.5 x  0.75 x  6 2
dx

Integrate with respect to x considering the bracket as a single variable.

dy
EI  EI  1.25 x 2  0.25 x  6 C
3
(
1
dx

Follow the same rule and integrate again with respect to x.

1.25
EIy  x 3 0.25 x  6 4
 C1 x  C 2 (41)
3 4

The constants C1 and C2 may be determined from the boundary conditions.

At x  0, y  0 and x  12 m, y  0

For x = 0< 6 m, the brackets are equal to zero, hence from Eq. ( ) C2 = 0

andx = 12 > 6 from Eq. ( ) the brackets being replaced with parentheses

EI (0) 
1.25
x 12 3 
0.25
12  64  12C
1
3 4
43
 12C1   720  81

639
C   53.25
1
12

Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in Eq. (40) and (41), we get

dy
EI  EI  1.25 x 2  0.25 x  6 3
 53.25
dx

1.25
EIy  x3 0.25 x  6 4
 53.25x
3 4

Slope and deflection of commonly loaded simply supported beam

Beam load and support Deflection

WL3
At centre max 
48EI

23WL3
At centre max 
648EI

WL3
At centre max 
20.1EI

44
 5WL4
At centre max 
384EI

Principle of superimposition
For linear response structures, the structural responses such as slope and deflection due to
several loads acting simultaneously may be obtained by superposing the effects of individual
loads. This is called principle of superposition.
The principle of superposition is valid under the following conditions

1. Hooke's law holds for the material

2. the deflections and rotations are small
3. the presence of the deflection does not alter the actions of applied loads

These requirements ensure that the differential equations of the deflection curve are linear. A
very useful application of the principle of superposition is to determine the deflection of
statically indeterminate beams. In the present discourse we will restrict our study only to
propped cantilever which falls within the scope of the syllabus.

MOMENT-AREA METHOD

Introduction
In this section we will discuss on the evaluation of slope and deflection of beams employing
moment-area method. Unlike previous section, beams with non-uniform EI or flexural
rigidity can be dealt with. Slope and deflection of non-prismatic beams with continuously
varying moment of inertia can be conveniently determined.

Moment- Area Method

The moment-area method is one of the most effective methods for obtaining the bending
displacement in beams and frames. For problems involving several changes in loading, the
area-moment method is usually much faster than the double-integration method;
consequently, it is widely used in practice. In this method, the area of the bending moment
diagrams is utilized for computing the slope and or deflections at particular points along the
45
 Stresses in shafts due to torsion
Concept of torsion:- The body is said to be in torsion, if they are subjected to twisting moments.Due to
torsion the body is subjected to shear stress which is maximum at outer layer and minimum at the neutral
axis through centre.
Basic assumptions of pure torsion:-
1. The shaft is homogeneous and isotropic.
2. The twist along the shaft is uniform.
3. Normal cross section of the shaft which were plane & circular before twist remains same after twist.
4. All diameter of normal cross section which were straight before twist remains straight with their
magnitudes unchanged after twist.
Shear Stress developed in the shaft:-
Let us consider a shaft of length “l” subjected to torsion.
Let ɵ = the angle of twist
Let R = radius of shaft.
Let C = shear modulus of shaft
Let ⱷ = angle of shear
Let ‫ = ﺡ‬shear stress
Let T = twisting moment or Torque transmitted by shaft
Let J = Polar Moment of Inertia
𝜋𝑑4
For solid circular shaft 𝐽 = 32
𝜋(𝐷4− 𝑑4)
For hollow circular shaft 𝐽 = 32

‫ﺡ‬ 𝐶.ɵ T
Then we get = =
𝑅 𝑙 𝐽

The above equation is known as Equation of Torsion. This is similar to Bending equation which we know
earlier.
Torsional Rigidity = C.J , which is defined as:- It is the twisting moment required to produce unit rotation
in a shaft of one unit length.
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Power Transmitted by a shaft P, 𝑃 = in Watts
60
Where N = Speed or Rotation of shaft in RPM
T = Torque transmitted by shaft in (N.M)

Numericals
1. A circular shaft of 50 mm dia is required to transmit torque from one shaft to other. Find the safe torque
the shaft can transmit, if the shear stress is not to exceed 40 MPa. (0.982 KN.M)
2. A solid shaft is to transmit a Torque of 10 KN.M. If the shear stress is not to exceed 45 MPa, find the
minimum dia of the shaft. (104.2 mm)
3. A hollow shaft of external & internal dia of 80 mm & 50 mm respectively is required to transmit torque
from one shaft to other. Find the safe torque it can transmit if the shear stress is not to exceed 40 MPa.
(3.40 KN.M)
4. Calculate the maximum torque that a shaft of 125 mm dia can transmit, if the maximum angle of twist is
10 for a length of 1.5 m. Take shear modulus of the shaft as 70 GPa. (19.01 KN.M)
5. A circular shaft of dia 60 mm is running at a speed of 150 RPM.If the shear stress is not to exceed 50
MPa, find the power that can be transmitted by the shaft. (33.3 KW)
6. A solid circular shaft of 100 mm dia is transmitting 120 KW at 150 RPM. Find the intensity of shear stress
in the shaft. (38.91 MPa)
7. A hollow shaft is to transmit 200 KW at 80 RPM. If the shear stress is not to exceed 60 MPa and internal
dia of the shaft is 0.6 times the external dia, find out the diameters of the shaft. (132.75 mm , 79.65 mm)
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