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htm

3. MATHEMATICIANS ARE FOND OF COLLECTIONS

collections ‘Collections’ are extremely important in life: when we group together objects
that are in some way similar, then it is easier to talk about the unit. The list
of possible ‘collections’ goes on and on: females, democrats, students at Miss
Hall’s School, your relatives, the folders in your personal filing cabinet, your
favorite books, . . .

Collections are also extremely important in mathematics. A group of similar

objects can be given a name, making the group easier to refer to. Tools can be
developed for working with the objects in a particular collection. Furthermore,
you’ve probably noticed the fondness that mathematicians have for using let-
ters (like x): every time you see such a letter, there’s a ‘collection’ associated
with the letter lurking in the background. (More on this in the next section—
Holding This, Holding That.) In mathematics, people study collections of
numbers (like R and Z); collections of sentences; even collections of collections!
The idea of ‘collection’ is made precise by the mathematical construct called a
set.

DEFINITION A set is a collection with the following property: given any object, either the
set object is in the collection, or isn’t in the collection.

understanding The key idea is this: to qualify as a set, one need only be certain that every
the definition object (like the number 2 , or ‘chair’, or ‘grasshopper’) is either IN the collec-
tion, or NOT IN the collection. It’s not necessary to know which of these two
cases occurs (i.e., whether the object is IN or NOT IN the collection); it’s only
necessary to know that exactly one of these two situations occurs!

This idea is a bit subtle; a couple of examples should provide some clarification.

EXAMPLE ‘The collection of some people’ is not a set. Is the author of this book in
a non-set the collection? Maybe. Or maybe not. That is, given the object ‘author of
this book’ (or any other person, for that matter), it is impossible to state with
certainty that either the author IS in the collection, or IS NOT in the collection.
Roughly, ‘vagueness’ prevents this collection from being a set.

EXAMPLE Consider the collection of numbers having 3 , 6 , 9 , 12 , 15 , 18 , . . . as mem-

a set bers. Observe that 3 goes into each of these numbers evenly; and, there are
infinitely many members in this collection. Is this a set? That is, given any
object, can we definitively say that either it IS in the collection, or IS NOT in
the collection? Let’s try a few:

Is ‘grasshopper’ in the collection? Certainly not: it’s not even a number, so it

doesn’t have a chance.

Is 7 in the collection? Well, it’s a number, but 3 doesn’t go into it evenly. So,
it’s not in the collection.

Is 72 in the collection? It’s a number, and 3 goes into it evenly, so it is in the

collection.

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Of course, it’s impossible to ‘test’ all possible objects. However, we CAN with
certainty conclude that, given any object, either it’s IN the collection, or it
ISN’T. For example, consider the (very large) number

35, 983, 205, 119, 780, 238, 482, 108, 222, 239, 407, 290, 981, 239 . (*)

Is this number in the collection? You can’t use your calculator to help you
decide, because the number is way too large. And (unless you’re a very patient
person) you probably don’t want to take the time to divide it by 3 , by hand.
(There is a shortcut to decide whether 3 goes in evenly, but it won’t be discussed
here!) However, we CAN with complete certainty say the following: either 3
goes in evenly, or it doesn’t. One or the other must happen. So, the collection
is a set.
mathematics One part of the previous example brings to light a subtle fact about mathemat-
is primarily ics: it has primarily evolved to be a written language, not a spoken language.
a written language Consequently, people sometimes run across mathematical stuff that is not con-
venient to read aloud. The number in (*) is one such case. Although standard
vocabulary allows us to read many large numbers aloud, (*) is so large that it
goes beyond the words supplied. If forced to read (*) aloud, then most people
would either change its name to one more suited to large numbers (scientific
notation), or else say: ‘the large number whose digits are: three, five, comma;
nine, eight, three, comma; . . . ’ .
a set is an Whenever you are presented with any new mathematical concept, you should
EXPRESSION, immediately address its most primary classification: is it an expression, or a
not a sentence sentence? A set is a mathematical expression: it is a name given to some
collection of interest. It doesn’t make sense to ask if a set is TRUE or FALSE,
because a set is not a sentence. Sets (like expressions in general) can have lots
of different names. The remainder of this section is devoted to notation used
in connection with sets.
members of a set; The objects in a set are called its elements, or its members (the two terms
elements of a set are used interchangeably). A set can have no members (0 members), 1 member,
2 members, 3 members, etc. If a set has n members, where n is a whole number,
finite set; then it is called a finite (FI–nite) set. Otherwise, it is called an infinite (IN–
infinite set fi–nit) set.
For example, a set with 203 members is a finite set. A set with no members is
a finite set. The set of integers that lie between −3 and 985 is a finite set. The
set of all integers is an infinite set. The set of real numbers is an infinite set.
The set of all real numbers between 2 and 3 is an infinite set.

EXERCISES 1. Sometimes a definition is embedded in a paragraph, instead of putting it

in a nice box labeled DEFINITION. This just happened. You were actually
given four definitions: element (of a set), member (of a set), finite set, infinite
set. State the definitions of these four things.
2. Consider the sentence:
‘n is a whole number.’
This sentence can be true or false, depending upon the number chosen for n .
What value(s) of n make the sentence true? False?

list method Some sets (but not all) can be easily described using the list method: in this
for naming method, the members are separated by commas, and enclosed in braces { } .
(some) sets

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the order of the For example, the set {0, 1, 2} has three members: 0 is a member, 1 is a member,
members in the list and 2 is a member. When using the list method with a finite number of ele-
doesn’t make ments, the order in which the elements are listed doesn’t make any difference.
a difference Therefore,

{0, 1, 2} and {0, 2, 1} and {1, 0, 2} and {1, 2, 0} and {2, 0, 1} and {2, 1, 0}

are all just different names for the same set. Notice that there are 3 · 2 · 1 = 6
ways to rearrange the three elements in this set.

How is ‘ {0, 1, 2} ’ You can read ‘ {0, 1, 2} ’ as:

read aloud? • ‘the set with members 0 , 1 , and 2 ’ ; or
• ‘open brace, zero, one, two, close brace’ .
The first way expresses an understanding of the symbols; the second is a ‘literal’
reading of each symbol.

EXERCISES 3. It’s important to be able to write braces { } correctly. (Braces are ‘curly’,
like the things on teeth.) In particular, braces must be easy to distinguish from
parentheses ( ) and brackets [ ] . Trace the following as practice:

{ } { } { } { } { } { }

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

4. What do the centered dots in the expression 3 · 2 · 1 mean?

5. How many members are in the set {a, b, c, d, e} ? Make a conjecture (i.e., an
educated guess) as to how many different re-arrangements of this set there are.

A set can have The set {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } has an infinite number of members.
lots of different names! Indeed, this is the set of integers, denoted by the symbol Z . Since Z and
{. . . , 3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } are just different names for the same set, the
sentence
Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
is true.

there are sets Not all sets can be described using the list method. For example, the real
that can’t be described numbers shaded below can’t be described using the list method. You could
using the list method certainly try: {2 , 2.001 , 2.002 , 2.003 , . . . , 3} ; but you’d be missing infinitely
many numbers between, say, 2.001 and 2.002 .

•2 •3
a verb to discuss To talk about membership in a set, we need the verb ∈ , which is called the
membership in a set: ‘ is in ’ or ‘ is an element of ’ or ‘ is a member of ’ symbol. A precise discussion
∈ of this verb follows.

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sentence: Let x represent any object, and let S represent any set. The sentence
x∈S
x∈S
is read as:
• ‘ ex is in S ’ or
• ‘ ex is an element of S ’ or
• ‘ ex is a member of S ’ .
These three phrases are used interchangeably.
naming conventions The sentence ‘ x ∈ S ’ illustrates a couple naming conventions for sets. Firstly,
for sets: the letter S is commonly used to name sets, since it is the first letter in the word
sets are named with ‘set’. Secondly, sets are usually represented by uppercase (capital) letters—
capital letters; more on this in the section Holding This, Holding That. Furthermore, this
is a good time to mention that, in mathematics, uppercase and lowercase letters
uppercase and lowercase
are NOT interchangeable: the lowercase (like t) and uppercase (like T ) versions
are NOT interchangeable
of letters usually represent totally different objects.
When is the sentence When is the sentence ‘ x ∈ S ’ true? False?
‘ x ∈ S ’ true? If x really IS a member of S , then the sentence ‘ x ∈ S ’ is TRUE. And, if the
False? sentence ‘ x ∈ S ’ is TRUE, then x must be a member of S .
Similarly, the sentence ‘ x ∈ S ’ is FALSE precisely when x IS NOT a member
of S .
Before looking at some examples, it’s necessary to point out a sentence structure
that is commonly used in mathematics when something is being given a name.
What does the phrase In mathematics, the phrase
‘ LET S = {1, 2, 3}’ LET S = {1, 2, 3}
mean?
means: take the set {1, 2, 3} and give it the name S, so that it will be easier to
refer to. More generally, a sentence of the form
LET NAME = EXPRESSION
is used to give the name NAME to the expression EXPRESSION . The word
‘LET’ is the key to knowing that something is being named. Here are
some examples:
• Let x = 4.217 . (The name x is being given to the number 4.217 .)
• Let W = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } . (The name W is being given to the set of whole
numbers.)
• Let t = 21 + 31 . (The name t is being given to the sum of 12 and 13 .)

EXAMPLE Here are some examples using the verb ‘ ∈ ’ . Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Then, the
using the verb ‘ ∈ ’ following sentences are all true:
6 16−7
1∈S 2∈S 3∈S 3 ∈S 3 ∈S
6 16−7
(Note: is just another name for 2 ; and
3 3 is just another name for 3 .)
The following sentences are false:
4∈S 1.000001 ∈ S 0∈S

EXERCISES 6. In mathematics, how would you say: ‘Take the set {a, b, c, d, e}, and give it
the name T ’ ?
7. In mathematics, how might you more compactly say: ‘Take all the whole
numbers greater than or equal to 7, and give this collection the name S ’ ?

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EXERCISES 8. Let W = {3, 4, 5, . . . } . Decide whether the following sentences are true,
false, or sometimes true/sometimes false (ST/SF):
(a) 3 ∈ W
(b) 107 ∈ W
(c) 83 ∈ W
(d) 93 ∈ W
(e) x ∈ W
Step 1: Step 2:
....
............................. ......
........ ............
............... .....
..
. ...
.
.....
...
.........................................
... .......
9. It’s important to be able to write the symbol ∈ correctly. Trace the
... ...
.....
........................
....
....... ........
........... following as practice:

∈ ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈ ∈

10. Classify each entry below as an expression or a sentence.

If an expression, state whether it’s a number or a set.
If a sentence, state how you might read it aloud, and state whether it is true,
false, or ST/SF.
(a) 5
(b) {5}
(c) Z
(d) 5 ∈ R
(e) 5.1 ∈ Z

the ‘not in’ verb: ∈

/ A verb is frequently negated by putting a slash through it. Consequently, the
the sentence: x ∈ /S sentence ‘ x 6∈ S ’ is read as ‘ ex is not in S ’ or ‘ ex is not an element of S ’ or
‘ ex is not a member of S ’ .
The sentence ‘ x ∈ / S ’ is true when x is not a member of S; it is false otherwise.
For example, the sentence ‘ 5 ∈ / {1, 2, 3} ’ is true.
a slash / is used Here are more examples of using a slash to negate a verb:
to negate action verb how to read negated verb how to read

∈ is in ∈
/ is not in
∈ is an element of ∈
/ is not an element of
∈ is a member of ∈
/ is not a member of
= is equal to 6= is not equal to
= equals 6= does not equal
> is greater than 6> is not greater than
< is less than 6< is not less than
Notice the variety of ways that some symbols can be read.

EXERCISE 11. For each sentence below, make a number line, and shade the value(s) of
x that make the sentence true. Be careful to distinguish between hollow dots
(numbers not included) and solid dots (numbers included).
(a) x ∈ {0, 3, 5}
(b) x is a real number and x 6= 2
(c) x is a real number and x ∈/ {0, 3, 5}

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the empty set There is exactly one set that has NO members: it is appropriately called the
has no members: empty set, and is denoted using either the symbol Ø , or a pair of braces with
Ø nothing inside: { } . Consequently, the sentence x ∈ Ø (or x ∈ { } ) is always
{} FALSE, since the empty set has no members!
The astute reader may have noticed the similarity between the symbols ∅ (some-
times used for the number zero) and Ø (the empty set). Context will help to
clarify the correct interpretation, since numbers and sets get used in different
types of places.

EXERCISE 12. State how you might read each sentence. Also, classify each sentence as
true, false, or ST/SF:
(a) 1 ∈ { }
(b) 0 ∈ Ø
(c) 0 ∈/{}
(d) x ∈/Ø

intervals As mentioned earlier, not all sets can be listed. Indeed, there is an important
class of frequently-used sets, called intervals, that cannot be listed. The def-
inition of an interval is given next, and then an important notation used to
describe intervals.
DEFINITION An interval is a set of real numbers that has one of the following forms:
interval ......
..... ....
......
......
..... ....
......
two endpoints, neither endpoint included
• ......
..... ....
......
two endpoints, only left-hand endpoint included
.....
..... .....
...... • two endpoints, only right-hand endpoint included

• • two endpoints, both endpoints included

......
..... .....
.....
...
.........................................
...
one endpoint, not included, with everything to its right
• ...
...........................................
..
one endpoint, included, with everything to its right
...
................................................................
...
......
..... ....
......
one endpoint, not included, with everything to its left
..
•
.....................................................................................................................................
...
one endpoint, included, with everything to its left
.. ...
...............................................................................................................................................................................
.. ...
Everything!

F The empty set and singletons are sometimes considered to be intervals. The
empty set is a ‘degenerate’ form of an open interval (a, b) , when a = b . A
singleton is a ‘degenerate’ form of a closed interval [a, b] , when a = b .

interval notation: Intervals are very common in mathematics, so there is a special notation for
naming them, which is appropriately called interval notation. Notice carefully
the difference between the use of parentheses ( ) and brackets [ ] in the following
∞ ‘infinity’ examples. The symbol ∞ is read as ‘infinity’ (in–FIN–i–tee), and the symbol
−∞ ‘negative infinity’ −∞ is read as ‘negative infinity’.
start here
↓
................... ...
.............. ..... .. .......................
............
..... .
. . ...... ........
................ .......
............... .......... ............
.
..... . ......... . ......
.
..
....
...
Drawing the ‘infinity’ symbol
.....
.....
..............
. ..... .
.........
............ ......
. ........
............ ...............
. ...... .. .......
.. .....
.. ...........
.......... ...............
.....................
... .. ............. ..........
................

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examples SET NAME USING

of interval notation INTERVAL NOTATION:

.....
..... ....
......
.....
..... ....
......
(1, 2)
−2 −1 0 1 2
• ......
..... ....
......
[1, 2)
−2 −1 0 1 2
• • [1, 2]
−2 −1 0 1 2
......
..... ....
......
...
..........................................
...
(1, ∞)
−2 −1 0 1 2
• ...
..........................................
...
[1, ∞)
−2 −1 0 1 2
..
...........................................
...
......
..... ....
......
(−∞, 2)
−2 −1 0 1 2
..
...........................................
... • (−∞, 2]
−2 −1 0 1 2
.. ...
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
... ...
(−∞, ∞)
−2 −1 0 1 2

rules for Here are the rules for interval notation:

interval notation
WHEN THERE ARE TWO ENDPOINTS:
• List the endpoints of the interval, separated by commas; always list the
endpoints in order from left to right on the number line.
• If an endpoint is to be INCLUDED, put a bracket [ ] next to it.
• If an endpoint is NOT to be included, put a parenthesis ( ) next to it.

WHEN THERE IS ONLY ONE ENDPOINT:

• The symbol ∞ is used when you are to continue forever to the right.
• The symbol −∞ is used when you are to continue forever to the left.
∞ is NOT • Note that ∞ is NOT a real number: that is, there is no point on the number
a real number! line corresponding to ∞ . Instead, ∞ suggests the idea that the number
line extends infinitely far to the right: given any real number (no matter
how far to the right of zero it lives), there is always a real number that lives
farther to the right! (What does −∞ suggest?) Consequently, parentheses
( ) are always used with the symbols ∞ or −∞, since they can’t be included.

MEMORY DEVICE Brackets [ ] have sharp corners—and dust collects in corners—so brackets cor-
respond to FILLED-IN endpoints. (Imagine the endpoint filled with dust!) On
the other hand, parentheses ( ) do NOT have corners, so dust can’t collect here;
parentheses correspond to HOLLOW endpoints.

reading interval notation Unfortunately, there’s not always a great way to read interval notation aloud—
another illustration that mathematics is primarily a written language, not a
spoken language. Here are some possibilities at this stage in your mathematical
career:

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line # INTERVAL POSSIBLE WAY TO READ ALOUD

1 (2, 3) the real numbers between 2 and 3 , not including the endpoints
2 (2, 3) parenthesis . . . 2 . . . comma . . . 3 . . . parenthesis

3 [2, 3) the real numbers between 2 and 3 , including 2 but not 3

4 [2, 3) bracket . . . 2 . . . comma . . . 3 . . . parenthesis

5 (2, ∞) the real numbers greater than 2

6 [2, ∞) the real numbers greater than or equal to 2

7 (−∞, 2) the real numbers less than 2

8 (−∞, 2] the real numbers less than or equal to 2

Lines 1 and 3 display an understanding of the symbols; lines 2 and 4 are ‘literal’
or ‘verbatim’ readings of the symbols. Lines 5 through 8 use the words ‘greater
than’ and ‘less than’, which are thoroughly discussed in the section I Live Two
Blocks West Of You.
EXERCISE 13. Classify each entry below as an expression or a sentence. If an expression,
state whether it is a number or a set. If a sentence, state how you might read
it aloud, and state whether it is true, false, or ST/SF.
(a) {1, 2}
(b) [1, 2]
(c) 1 + 2
(d) (1, 2]
(e) 1 ∈ (1, 2]
(f) 1 ∈ [1, 2)

set-builder There are sets that cannot easily be described using either the list method, or
notation interval notation. In such cases, a naming scheme called ‘set-builder notation’
usually comes to the rescue. (Set-builder notation will not be discussed in this
book.)
subset Sometimes, it is necessary to discuss various subcollections chosen from a given
set. This idea of subcollection is made precise as follows:

DEFINITION Let S be a set. Set B is called a subset of S if any one of the following three
subset conditions holds:
(a) B is the set S itself
(b) B is the empty set
(c) each member of B is also a member of S

understanding The first sentence,

the definition ‘Let S be a set.’
means
‘Let S be any set.’
So why don’t mathematicians say ‘any’, if they mean ‘any’ ? Well, the word
‘a’ is shorter than the word ‘any’—and mathematicians are an extremely frugal
lot.

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investigating Now, let’s investigate conditions (a)—(c). Remember that these are the condi-
(a)–(c) tions under which B gets to be called a subset of S .
Condition (a) tells us that a set is a subset of itself; this is the ‘subcollection’
consisting of everything in the original set.
Condition (b) tells us that the empty set is a subset of every set; this is the
‘subcollection’ consisting of nothing from the original set.
By combining conditions (a) and (b), we see that every set (except the empty
set) is guaranteed to have at least two subsets: itself and the empty set. The
next example explores condition (c), and shows that most sets have lots of
subsets:

EXAMPLE Let S = {1, 2, 3} . All the subsets of S are listed below:

{1, 2, 3} (S itself)

{} (the empty set)

{1} {2} {3} (all one-member subsets)

{1, 2} {1, 3} {2, 3} (all two-member subsets)

Thus, the set {1, 2, 3} (or any set with three members) has eight subsets.

EXERCISES 14. List all the subsets of {a, b} . How many subsets are there?
15. List all the subsets of {0, 2, 4} . How many subsets are there?
16. Justify your answers to each of the following questions:
(a) Is {−1, 2, 3} a subset of R ?
(b) Is {−1, 2, 3} a subset of the whole numbers?
(c) Is {−1, 2, 3} a subset of the integers?
(d) Is {−1, 2, 3} a subset of (−2, ∞) ?

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END-OF-SECTION For exercises 17–23: Classify each entry as a mathematical expression (EXP),
EXERCISES or a mathematical sentence (SEN).
If an expression, state whether it is a number or a set.
Classify the truth value of each sentence: (always) true (T); (always) false (F);
or sometimes true/sometimes false (ST/SF).
1 1 1
17. {1, , , , . . . }
2 3 4
1 1 1 1
18. ∈ {1, , , , . . . }
100 2 3 4
1 1 1
19. 0.01 ∈ {1, , , , . . . }
2 3 4
20. (3, 5]
21. 3 ∈ (3, 5]
22. 5 ∈ (3, 5]
23. 4.997 ∈ (3, 5]

Describe the following sets of numbers using correct set notation. Use either
list or interval notation; whichever is appropriate.
24. • • •
−2 −1 0 1 2

25. .....
..... ....
...... •
−2 −1 0 1 2

26. • ......
..... ....
......

−2 −1 0 1 2

27. ..
...........................................
... •
−2 −1 0 1 2
28. ......
..... ....
......
...
..........................................
...

−2 −1 0 1 2
29. List all subsets of the set in exercise (24).

30. Is the set of positive integers a subset of the set in exercise (28)? Justify
your answer.

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SECTION SUMMARY
MATHEMATICIANS ARE FOND OF COLLECTIONS

NEW IN THIS SECTION HOW TO READ MEANING

set A collection satisfying: given any object,
either the object is is the collection, or
isn’t in the collection. A set is an expres-
sion.

members; elements the objects in a set

finite set FI–nite a set with n members, where n is a whole

number

infinite set IN–fi–nit a set that is not finite

list method a method for naming sets whose elements

can be listed

{, } open brace; close brace; used in list notation; the elements are listed,
plural is ‘braces’ separated by commas, inside the braces

∈ ‘ is in ’ verb used to talk about membership in a

‘ is an element of ’ set
‘ is a member of ’

x∈S ‘ x is in S ’ sentence: true when x is a member of the

‘ x is an element of S ’ set S ; false otherwise
‘ x is a member of S ’

Let NAME = EXPRESSION used whenever you want to assign the name
NAME to the expression EXPRESSION

/ (forward) slash used to negate a verb

x∈
/S ‘ x is not in S ’ sentence: true when x is not a member of
S ; false otherwise

Ø or { } the empty set the unique set that has no members

(a, b) ...
...... .....
.......
...
...... .....
.......
the real numbers be- intervals of real numbers
a b tween a and b (with
(a, b] ...
...... .....

a
....... • various endpoints in-
cluded/not included)
b
[a, b) •a ...
...... .....
.......
b
[a, b] •a •
b

36 copyright Dr. Carol JVF Burns http://www.onemathematicalcat.org

This book "grew" to a complete algebra course: http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/algebra_book/online_problems/table_of_contents.htm

NEW IN THIS SECTION HOW TO READ MEANING

(a, ∞) ......
..... ....
......
...
.........................................
...
the real numbers greater intervals of real numbers
a than a ; greater than
[a, ∞) •a ...
.........................................
... or equal to a

(−∞, b) ...
.................................................................
..
...
...... .....
.......
the real numbers less intervals of real numbers
b than b ; less than or
(−∞, b] ...
.................................................................
.. • equal to b
b

(, ) open parenthesis; when used in interval notation, denotes

close parenthesis; that an endpoint is NOT to be included;
plural is ‘parentheses’ a parenthesis is always used next to ∞
or −∞

[, ] open bracket; when used in interval notation, denotes

close bracket; that an endpoint IS to be included
plural is ‘brackets’

∞ , −∞ infinity; negative infinity The symbol ∞ suggests the idea that given
any real number, no matter how far to the
right of zero, there is always one farther
to the right.
The symbol −∞ suggests the idea that
given any real number, no matter how far
to the left of zero, there is always one far-
ther to the left.

subset Set B is a subset of a set S if one of the

following conditions holds: B = S, B = Ø,
or each member of B is also a member of
S.

37 copyright Dr. Carol JVF Burns http://www.onemathematicalcat.org