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The document provides an overview of thermal energy transfers, including the molecular theory of solids, liquids, and gases, and the relationship between temperature and energy. It discusses mechanisms of thermal energy transfer such as conduction, convection, and radiation, as well as concepts like specific heat capacity and latent heat. Additionally, it touches on black body radiation and Wien's law, linking these concepts to practical applications and further questions.

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Pranshu Dave
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6 views

physics_notes_b_1

The document provides an overview of thermal energy transfers, including the molecular theory of solids, liquids, and gases, and the relationship between temperature and energy. It discusses mechanisms of thermal energy transfer such as conduction, convection, and radiation, as well as concepts like specific heat capacity and latent heat. Additionally, it touches on black body radiation and Wien's law, linking these concepts to practical applications and further questions.

Uploaded by

Pranshu Dave
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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IB Physics B.

1 Thermal Energy
Transfers Notes

1 Introduction to Thermal Energy Transfers


Thermal energy transfer involves the movement of heat energy from one sys-
tem to another. Understanding how thermal energy moves between systems
and how it affects the particles of a substance is essential in various physical
processes. This concept plays a crucial role in the study of thermodynamics,
energy generation, and temperature changes in materials.

2 Molecular Theory and States of Matter


2.1 Molecular Theory in Solids, Liquids, and Gases
The molecular model describes the behavior of matter in three states: solids,
liquids, and gases.

• Solids: Molecules are closely packed together and vibrate in place.

• Liquids: Molecules are close together but can move past one another,
allowing the substance to flow.

• Gases: Molecules are far apart and move freely, occupying the entire
volume available.

2.2 Density
Density (ρ) is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance:
m
ρ=
V
where:

1
• ρ is the density,

• m is the mass,

• V is the volume.

3 Temperature and Energy


3.1 Temperature Scales
Temperature can be measured using two scales: Kelvin and Celsius. The
Kelvin scale is an absolute scale, and the Celsius scale is relative to the
freezing point of water.
The change in temperature is the same on both scales, and the conversion
between the two is:
T (K) = T (C) + 273.15
where T is the temperature in Kelvin or Celsius.

3.2 Kinetic Energy of Particles


The temperature of a substance is related to the average kinetic energy of
its particles:
3
Ek = kB T
2
where:

• Ek is the average kinetic energy of the particles,

• kB is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10−23 J/K),

• T is the temperature in Kelvin.

3.3 Internal Energy


The internal energy of a system is the total energy of all particles, includ-
ing both kinetic energy due to random motion and potential energy due to
intermolecular forces.

2
4 Thermal Energy Transfer
4.1 Direction of Heat Transfer
Thermal energy flows from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower
temperature, and this flow continues until thermal equilibrium is reached.

4.2 Phase Changes


A phase change occurs when a substance transitions between states (e.g.,
from solid to liquid or liquid to gas) at constant temperature. These changes
are due to the transfer of energy:

• Melting (solid to liquid),

• Freezing (liquid to solid),

• Boiling (liquid to gas),

• Condensing (gas to liquid),

• Evaporation (liquid to gas).

5 Quantitative Analysis of Thermal Energy


Transfer
5.1 Specific Heat Capacity
The heat required to change the temperature of a substance is given by:

Q = mc∆T

where:

• Q is the heat transferred,

• m is the mass,

• c is the specific heat capacity,

• ∆T is the change in temperature.

3
5.2 Latent Heat
During a phase change, the heat required to change the phase of a substance
without changing its temperature is given by:

Q = mL

where:

• L is the specific latent heat of fusion (for melting/freezing) or vapor-


ization (for boiling/condensation),

• m is the mass of the substance.

6 Mechanisms of Thermal Energy Transfer


Thermal energy can be transferred through three main mechanisms:

6.1 Conduction
Conduction occurs when thermal energy is transferred through direct contact
between particles. The rate of thermal energy transfer by conduction is given
by:
∆Q kA∆T
=
∆t ∆x
where:

• ∆Q
∆t
is the rate of heat transfer,

• k is the thermal conductivity of the material,

• A is the cross-sectional area through which heat is transferred,

• ∆T is the temperature difference,

• ∆x is the thickness of the material.

6.2 Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat in fluids (liquids and gases) due to differ-
ences in density. Warm fluid rises, and cooler fluid sinks, creating a circula-
tion pattern that transfers heat.

4
6.3 Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves. The Stefan-
Boltzmann law describes the radiation emitted by a body:

L = σAT 4

where:

• L is the luminosity (the total power radiated),

• σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K4 ),

• A is the surface area of the body,

• T is the absolute temperature of the body.

The concept of apparent brightness b is related to the luminosity and the


distance d of a body:
L
b=
4πd2

7 Black Body Radiation and Wien’s Law


A black body absorbs all incoming radiation and emits radiation with a char-
acteristic spectrum. Wien’s displacement law relates the peak wavelength
λmax of radiation to the temperature T of the black body:

λmax T = 2.9 × 10−3 m·K

where:

• λmax is the peak wavelength,

• T is the temperature in Kelvin.

8 Linking Concepts and Further Questions


• How does the molecular model help explain the behavior of different
substances in various thermal processes?

• What applications of the Stefan-Boltzmann law are relevant in astro-


physics and solar energy?

5
• How does the phase change of water play a role in power generation
and other applications?

• How can temperature, heat transfer, and energy conservation laws help
us understand everyday phenomena like cooking, heating, and cooling?

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