GEN OO2 he says that reason uses the will to control

the appetites.

REVIEWER ARISTOTLE defined the soul as the core

essence of a living being, but argued
against it having a separate existence. For
For SOCRATES, the goal of philosophy was instance, if a knife had a soul, the act of
to "Know thyself". Knowing others is cutting would be that soul, because 'cutting'
wisdom. Knowing the self is enlightenment. is the essence of what it is to be a knife.
Mastering others requires force. Mastering Unlike Plato and the religious traditions,
the self requires strength. "Self-knowledge Aristotle did not consider the soul as
alone eradicates misery". Self- some kind of separate, ghostly occupant
knowledge alone is the means “to the of the body (just as we cannot separate the
highest bliss." "Absolute perfection is the activity of cutting from the knife). As the
consummation of Self-knowledge." soul, in Aristotle's view, is an activity of the
Knowledge of oneself can be achieved body, it cannot be immortal (when a knife is
only through the Socratic Method, that is destroyed, the cutting stops). More precisely,
to say, the dialogue between the soul the soul is the "first activity" of a living body.
and itself, or between a student and his This is a state, or a potential for actual, or
teacher. 'second', activity. "The axe has an edge for
cutting" was, for Aristotle, analogous to
Socrates is as often in the role of
"humans have bodies for rational activity,"
questioner, as an attendant emotional.
and the potential for rational activity thus
Socrates’ questions because he knows
constituted the essence of a human soul.
nothing, knows he knows nothing, has
Aristotle used his concept of the soul in many
nothing to learn, but it can help its
of his works; the De Anima (On the Soul)
followers to discover the truths they have in
provides a good place to start to gain more
them. Without this work on yourself, life
understanding of his views.
is worthless according to Socrates.
ST. AUGUSTINE in his Confessions takes this
PLATO is a dualist; there is both
idea and expands it into an entire genre that
immaterial mind (soul) and material
critically inquires what it means to be a
body, and it is the soul that knows the
person. This identity is achieved through a
forms. Plato believed the soul exists
two-fold process: self-presentation, which
before birth and after death. Thus, he
leads to self-realization. Only in the
believed that the soul or mind attains
presence of the Omnipotent and the
knowledge of the forms, as opposed to
Omniscient can the self-attain happiness and
the senses. Needless to say, we should care
completeness.
about our soul rather than our body. The
soul (mind) itself is divided into 3 parts: DESCARTES thought that the self is a
reason; appetite (physical urges); and will thinking thing distinct from the body.
(emotion, passion, spirit.) The will is the His first famous principle was ”Cogito, ergo
source of love, anger, indignation, sum", which means “I think, therefore I am."
ambition, aggression, etc. When these Although the mind and body are physically
aspects are not in harmony, we experience together as a whole, the mind and body
mental conflict. The will can be on the are mentally independent and serve
side of either reason or the appetites. their own function.
We might be pulled by lustful appetite, or the
rational desire to find a good partner. To SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON SELF
explain the interaction of these 3 parts of the Classical sociological perspective, the Self is
self, Plato uses the image is of the charioteer a relatively stable set of perceptions of
(reason) who tries to control horse who we are in relation to ourselves, others,
representing will and appetites. Elsewhere and to social systems. The self is socially
constructed in the sense that it is 1. Language develops self by allowing
shaped through interaction with other individuals to respond to each other through
people. symbols, gestures, words, and sounds.
Language conveys others' attitudes and
CHARLES COOLEY’S THEORY OF THE
opinions toward a subject or the person.
“LOOKING GLASS SELF.”
Emotions, such as anger, happiness, and
Cooley wrote that people’s ideas of confusion, are conveyed through language.
themselves have “three principal elements”:
2. Play develops self by allowing individuals
(1) the imagination of our appearance to take on different roles, pretend, and
to the other person; express expectation of others. Play
develops one's self-consciousness
(2) the imagination of his judgment of through role-playing. During role-play, a
that appearance, and person is able to internalize the perspective
(3) some sort of self-feeling, such as of others and develop an understanding of
pride or mortification how others feel about themselves and others
in a variety of social situations.
The thing that moves us to pride or shame
is...the imagined effect of this reflection 3. Games develop self by allowing
upon another’s mind.... We are ashamed to individuals to understand and adhere to the
seem evasive in the presence of a rules of the activity. Self is developed by
straightforward man, cowardly in the understanding that there are rules in
presence of a brave one, gross in the eyes of which one must abide by in order to win
a refined one, and so on. We always imagine, the game or be successful at an activity.
and, in imagining, share the judgments of Mead develops William James'
the other mind. A man will boast to one distinction between the "I" and the
person of an action—say some sharp "me." The "me" is the accumulated
transaction in trade—which he would be understanding of "the generalized other" i.e.
ashamed to own to another.” To put it more how one thinks one's group perceives
simply, the way you imagine other people oneself etc. The "I" is the individual's
perceiving you affects the way you feel about impulses. The "I" is self as subject; the
yourself, which in turn affects your attitude "me" is self as object. The "I" is the
and even your appearance. And you may knower; the "me" is the known. For Mead,
change the way you present yourself the thinking process is the internalized
depending on who you’re trying to impress or dialogue between the "I" and the "me." The
fit in with. I realized that the looking glass "I" is the response of an individual to the
self applies to my own life right at that attitudes of others, while the "me" is the
moment. This drawing depicts the looking- organized set of attitudes of others which an
glass self. The person at the front of the individual assumes.
image is looking into four mirrors, each of
which reflects someone else's image of him THE LOOKING GLASS SELF; WHO HOLDS
back to him. OUR REFLECTIONS?

Mead's theory of the social self is based An interesting discussion is about the theory
on the perspective that the self emerges of the Looking Glass Self by Charles
from social interactions, such as observing Horton Cooley. Cooley thought that an
and interacting with others, responding to individual and society do not exist
others' opinions about oneself, and separately, but rather the individual is the
internalizing external opinions and internal product society and society is the product of
feelings about oneself. the individual. There are three parts to the
concept; how a person thinks the other(s)
THREE ACTIVITIES DEVELOP THE SELF: perceives him, how the person thinks the
other(s) judges that perception, and the
reaction of the person to the assumed choose those from whom we are reflected,
perceptions and judgments. and be mindful of how we react to others, as
reflections of who they are.
I can imagine what a group of diverse people
sitting around discussing this may argue, ANTHROPOLOGY is the scientific study of
both for and against the theory. What a lively the origins of humans, how we have changed
debate it could be, mixing young and old, over the years, and how we relate to each
liberal and conservative, and experienced other, both within our own culture and with
and inexperienced into the same group. Ah, people from other cultures.
how many of those individuals, I wonder,
Anthropology is the study of what makes
would have dressed to convey an image to
us human. Anthropologists take a broad
the others, would speak in certain manners
approach to understanding the many
in order to impress or distress, or would
different aspects of the human
consider what the importance of their
experience, which we call holism. They
statements would have upon the other group
consider the past, through archaeology, to
members?
see how human groups lived hundreds or
At first, the theory seems to explain that thousands of years ago and what was
each person is no more than a reflection of important to them.
society. More realistically, the theory means
Anthropologists study the concept of culture
we are products of our cultures, our physical
and its relationship to human life in different
surroundings, and the human beings with
times and places. They study other societies
whom we associate. Generally, I think it can
to gain a clearer perspective on our own.
be agreed, most people want to fit into
They study the past to help interpret the
society in some manner. And to fit in means
present. Students who major in anthropology
to obey some of the rules of the group to
are curious about other cultures and other
which we belong, or want to belong.
times.
Considering everyone wants to fit in
Such study allows us to better
somewhere, people we surround ourselves
understand why people behave the way
with have a great influence on who we
they do and how different groups have
become. The type of people that we
such amazing variety in their lifeways. It
associate with differs through the various
allows us to learn about diversity and
stages of our lives; the drinking buddies we
respect the adaptability of man to the
may have had in our early twenties may not
enormous variety of environments
be the same people we want as godparents
where people live.
for our children. The people from Church are
probably not the people we would invite to a In studying and interpreting the vast range of
bachelor party. similarities and differences in human
societies and cultures, anthropologists
And so, as we grow older, what type of
also seek to understand how people
people should we associate with? What
themselves make sense of the world in
reflections of ourselves do we want to
which they live. A concentration in
nurture? It depends on how each of us view
Anthropology provides students with a broad
the process of aging, what and when is "old
introduction to the discipline.
age" to each of us, do we plan to "go gently
into the night" or will we remain active in and Anthropologists have most frequently
throughout the middle and latter stages of employed the term 'identity' (self) to refer to
life, just as we did in our physical youth? this idea of selfhood in a loosely Eriksonian
There are no wrong answers, merely different way (Erikson 1972) properties based on the
ways for different people. Simply being uniqueness and individuality which makes a
aware of the influences others have on us is person distinct from others. Identity (self)
important. In that way, we can more actively refers to qualities of sameness in
relation to a person's connection to Self” and “Me Self.” The I Self reflects
others and to a particular group of what people see or perceive themselves
people. doing in the physical world (e.g.,
recognizing that one is walking, eating,
When we are disconnected from ourselves —
writing), whereas the Me Self is a more
from who we really are and from our feelings
subjective and psychological
— and when we are not filling ourselves with
phenomenon, referring to individuals’
love through our spiritual connection, we
reflections about themselves (e.g.
create a black hole within. The black hole
characterizing oneself as athletic, smart,
we’ve created through our self-abandonment
cooperative). Other terms such as self-
becomes like a vacuum, trying to pull love
view, self-image, self-schema, and self-
from others.
concept are also used to describe the self-
Cultural anthropology brings us into contact referent thoughts characteristic of the Me
with different ways of life and challenges our Self. James further distinguished three
awareness of just how arbitrary our own components of the Me Self. These include:
understanding of the world is as we learn (1) the material self (e.g., tangible objects
how other people have developed satisfying or possessions we collect for ourselves); (2)
but different ways of living. the social self (e.g., how we interact and
portray ourselves within different groups,
THE SELF EMBEDDED IN CULTURE situations, or persons); and (3) the spiritual
Theorists of culture and personality school self (e.g., internal dispositions).
argued that socialization creates personality William James in his studies of Human
patterns. It shapes a person’s emotions, thoughts concluded that thoughts have 5
thoughts, behaviors, cultural values and Characteristics
norms to fit into and function as
productive members in the surrounding 1. All human thoughts are owned by
human society. The study of culture and some personal self
personality wanted to examine how different
2. All thoughts are constantly changing
socialization practices resulted in different
or never static
personality types.
3. There is continuity of thoughts as its
IMPACT OF THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE
focus shift from one object to another.
ON THE CONCEPT OF MAN
4. Thought deals with object that are
Basic Premises
different from independent of
1. (marriage, economy, religion, etc.) consciousness itself.

2. what makes people/cultures different, not 5. Consciousness can focus on particular

the same; objects and not others.

3. Culture is the "accumulated totality" of

symbolic patterns that appear in different
THE SELF AS A COGNITIVE
societies.
CONSTRUCTION BY WILLIAM JAMES:
4. what man is capable of and how he DUALITY OF SELF
actually behaves, which in turn helps define
Me-Self vs. I –Self
human nature.
ME-SELF
Philosopher and psychologist William
James (1842–1910) was one of the first to Self as object of knowledge
postulate a theory of the self in The
Consists of all qualities that make self-
Principles of Psychology. James described
unique:
two aspects of the self that he termed the “I
1. Physical and material present; construct, evaluate, and
modify alternative courses of action to
2. Psychological
gain valued outcomes; and override
3. Social environmental influences”. “To be an
agent is to influence intentionally one’s
functioning and life circumstances”.
I-SELF FOUR CORE PROPERTIES OF HUMAN
Self as knower and actor AGENCY:

1. Separate from surrounding world Intentionality deals with the forming of

intentions that “include action plans and
2. Same over time strategies for realizing them”.
3. Has a Private inner life Forethought involves “the temporal
extension of agency” by setting goals and
4. Controls own thoughts and actions
anticipating future events: It includes
more than future-directed plans. People
set goals for themselves and foresee likely
REAL SELF outcomes of prospective actions to guide and
Who we actually are. motivate their efforts anticipatorily. When
projected over a long-term course on matters
It is how we think, how we feel, look of value, a forethoughtful perspective
and act. provides direction, coherence, and meaning
to one’s life. Example: when a person is
The real self is our self-mage. deciding, that person has his options. With
each option he has to anticipate outcomes in
Our self-image includes:
order for that person decides depending on
1. Physical Description what might come out after.

2. Social Roles Self-reactiveness broadens the role of the

agent to be more than just “planners and
3. Personal Traits fore thinkers” and includes processes of
4. Existential Statements (abstract self-management and self-motivation,
as well as emotional states that can
ones) undermine self- regulation: The translation of
plans into successful courses of action
requires the self-management of thought
IDEAL SELF processes; motivation to stick with chosen
courses in the face of difficulties, setbacks,
This is how we want to be. It is the ideal
and uncertainties; and emotional states that
image that we developed over time based on
can undermine self-regulatory efforts.
what we have learned and experience. It
Example: Drinking in a bar gives a person
includes components of what our parents
pleasure and it will give that person the
have taught us, what we admire in others,
motivation to drink yet he will regulate his
what our society promotes, and what we
actions in order for him to get away from
think is in our best interest.
self-censured stuff.
Bandura defined human agency as “the
Self-reflection refers to the self-examining
human capability to exert influence
nature of human agents. “Through self-
over one’s functioning and the course
awareness, they reflect on their personal
of events by one’s actions”. “Through
efficacy, the soundness of their thoughts and
cognitive self-guidance, humans can
actions, the meaning of their pursuits, and...
visualize futures that act on the
[if needed] change existing life course
patterns”. Example: Back to the deciding is considered as an effect of individuation
situation, when a person chooses one of his rather than a cause. Thus, the individual
options and everything went wrong, that atom is replaced by a never-ending
person will reflect and will make changes for ontological process of individuation.
the better. Individuation is an always incomplete
process, always leaving a "pre-individual"
WESTERN THOUGHT OF THE SELF
left-over, itself making possible future
INDIVIDUALIST SELF individuations. The philosophy of Bernard
Stiegler draws upon and modifies the
- The individual identifies primarily with work of Gilbert Simond on individuation
Self, with the needs of the individual and also upon similar ideas in Friedrich
being satisfied before those of the Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud. For
group. Stiegler "the I, as a psychic individual, can
- Looking after and taking care of only be thought in relationship to we, which
oneself, being self-sufficient, is a collective individual. The constituted in
guarantees the well-being of the adopting a collective tradition, which it
group. inherits and in which a plurality of
- Independence and self-reliance are acknowledge each other's existence."
greatly stressed and valued.
- People tend to distance themselves An individual is a person or any specific
psychologically and emotionally from object in a collection. In the 15th century
each other. and earlier, and also today within the fields
- Persons believe they have specific, of statistics and metaphysics, individual
distinctive attributes that set them means "indivisible", typically describing
apart from the general population. any numerically singular thing, but
- Independence and self-reliance are sometimes meaning "a person." ("The
greatly stressed and valued. problem of proper names"). From the 17th
- One may choose to join groups, but century on, individual indicates
group membership is not essential to separateness, as in individualism.
one’s identity or success. Individuality is the state or quality of being
- Individualist characteristics are often an individuated being; a person separated
associated with men and people in from everything with unique character by
urban settings. possessing his or her own needs, goals, and
desires in comparison to other persons.
The principle of individuation, or
principium individuationis, describes the In the late twentieth century, researchers
manner in which a thing is identified as began to argue that the self is a cognitive
distinguished from other things. For Carl and social construction. Cognitive
Jung, individuation is a process of perspectives suggest that one’s self-
transformation, whereby the personal representation affects how one thinks about
and collective unconscious is brought and gives meaning to experiences. Like
into consciousness (by means of dreams, James, psychologist Ulric Neisser
active imagination or free association to take distinguished between one’s self-
examples) to be assimilated into the whole representation connected to directly
personality. It is a completely natural process perceived experiences and that resulting
necessary for the integration of the psyche from reflection on one’s experiences. The
to take place. Jung considered individuation “ecological self,” connections of oneself to
to be the central process of human experiences in the physical environment, and
development. In individuation physique et the “interpersonal self,” connections of
collective, Gilbert Simond on developed a oneself to others through verbal or nonverbal
theory of individual and collective communication, comprise direct perception
individuation in which the individual subject of experience. Neisser proposed that these
two types of self-representation develop
early in infancy. Regarding reflections on 1. The self is nothing but a bundle of
one’s experiences, Neisser identified three perceptions, thoughts, and interactions,
types of self-representation that emerge in which our environment molds into an
later infancy and childhood with cognitive identity.
and social maturation. The temporally
2. Our identities are defined by our culture
“extended self” is based on memories of
and the society in which we are raised.
one’s past experiences and expectations for
the future. The “private self” emerges with 3. A social construct is the intended or
the understanding that one’s experiences are unintended product of social practices and
not directly perceived by others, but rather cultural paradigms.
must be communicated to be shared. The
“conceptual self,” one’s overarching theory 4. Therefore, the Self must be nothing but a
or schema about oneself based on one’s social construct.
reflection on experiences within social and
cultural context, parallels terms such as self-
concept and self-schema. In a 1977 article,
psychologist Hazel Markus showed that one’s
self-representation or self-schema guides
information processing and influences one’s
behavior.
A self-conceptualization is an
understanding you have of yourself EASTERN/ORIENTAL THOUGHT OF THE
that’s based on your personal SELF
experiences, body image, the thoughts COLLECTIVIST SELF
you have about yourself, and how you tend
to label yourself in different situations. It can - One‟s identity is, in large part, a
also be defined as an all-encompassing function of one‟s membership and role
awareness you had of yourself in the past; in a group, e.g., the family or work
the awareness you have of yourself in the team.
present, and the expectations you have of - The survival and success of the group
yourself at a future time. Your self-concept ensures the well-being of the
is built upon perception — how you individual, so that by considering the
perceive yourself based on the knowledge needs and feelings of others, one
you have gained over a lifetime of protects oneself.
experience. This perception you have of - Harmony and the interdependence of
yourself is based on the information you group members are stressed and
have gathered about your values, life roles, valued.
goals, skills, abilities and much more. Your - Group members are relatively close
self-concept is more or less a collection of psychologically and emotionally, but
beliefs you have about your own nature, distant toward non group members.
qualities, and behavior. It’s all about how you - Collectivist characteristics are often
think and evaluate yourself at any given associated with women and people in
moment in time. It is a perception of your rural settings Collectivism is a value
image, abilities, and in some ways a that is characterized by emphasis on
perception of your own individual cohesiveness among individuals and
uniqueness. prioritization of the group over the self.
Individuals or groups that subscribe to
THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE a collectivist worldview tend to find
SELF IN WESTERN THOUGHT common values and goals as
ARGUMENTS: particularly salient and demonstrate
greater orientation toward in-group
 than toward out-group. The term "in- 3. Personality (self), in the Confucian
group" is thought to be more diffusely perception, is an achieved state of moral
defined for collectivist individuals to excellence rather than a given human
include societal units ranging from the condition.
nuclear family to a religious or
4. The concept of self also is deeply
racial/ethnic group. Collectivism is the
embedded within the family and society, and
idea that the individual‟s life belongs
it is only in that context that the self comes
not to him but to the group or society
to be what it is.
of which he is merely a part, that he
has no rights, and that he must
sacrifice his values and goals for the
group’s “greater good.” According to
collectivism, the group or society is
the basic unit of moral concern, and
the individual is of value only insofar
as he serves the group. As one
advocate of this idea puts it: “Man has
no rights except those which society
permits him to enjoy. From the day of
his birth until the day of his death
society allows him to enjoy certain so-
called rights and deprives him of
others; not . . . because society desires
especially to favor or oppress the
individual, but because its own
preservation, welfare, and happiness
are the prime considerations.”

ARGUMENTS OF CONFUCIUS:
1. Personality (self) as such is not seen as
inherently existing, but as something that is
being formed through upbringing and
environment.
2. Every person is born with four beginnings,
which do not encapsulate a concept of self
as yet, but which together, if put in the
western framework of thinking, may be
called „pre-self‟, or „potential-self‟
a. heart of compassion – leads to Jen
b. heart of righteousness – leads to Yi
c. heart of propriety – leads to Li
d. heart of wisdom – leads to Chih
A Self as such would develop out of these,
and develop through practice of the
corresponding virtues