1

The Impact of Social Media on Political Polarization

1*
Polycarp Otieno
University of Sopron
Accepted: 15th Aug, 2023 Received in Revised Form: 27th Aug, 2023 Published: 15th Aug, 2023

Abstract
Purpose: The main objective of this study was to explore the impact of social media on political
polarization.
Methodology: The study adopted a desktop research methodology. Desk research refers to secondary
data or that which can be collected without fieldwork. Desk research is basically involved in collecting
data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field
research, as the main cost is involved in executive’s time, telephone charges and directories. Thus, the
study relied on already published studies, reports and statistics. This secondary data was easily
accessed through the online journals and library.
Findings: The findings revealed that there exists a contextual and methodological gap relating to the
impact of social media on political polarization. Preliminary empirical review revealed that social
media significantly contributes to political polarization through mechanisms like filter bubbles and
echo chambers. It emphasizes the need for media literacy programs and critical thinking to navigate
these platforms effectively. The implications are substantial, impacting society and democracy. Future
research should delve into individual characteristics and cross-cultural variations, while policymakers
and social media companies should consider transparency and algorithmic adjustments. By addressing
these challenges and promoting informed discourse, we can work towards a healthier democratic
environment in the digital age.
Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The Filter Bubble Theory, Spiral of Silence
Theory and the Selective Exposure Theory may be used to anchor future studies on political
polarization. The study offered four key recommendations. Firstly, there is a need to enhance digital
media literacy programs to equip individuals with critical thinking skills to discern credible
information on social media. Secondly, social media platforms should prioritize algorithmic
transparency and accountability to avoid inadvertently exacerbating polarization. Thirdly, promoting
civil and constructive online discourse, discouraging toxic behavior, and enforcing moderation policies
can foster a more inclusive online environment. Lastly, supporting independent fact-checking and
news verification initiatives can help combat the spread of misinformation and promote reliance on
credible sources, thereby reducing the impact of misinformation on political polarization.
Keywords: Social Media, Impact, Political Polarization, Online Communication, Media Influence

57
Journal of Communication
ISSN: 2791-3201 (Online)
Vol. 4, Issue No. 1, pp 56 - 68, 2023 www.carijournals.org
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Political polarization refers to the increasing divergence of political attitudes and beliefs between
individuals or groups with different ideological perspectives within a society. It is characterized by the
growing divide between individuals who identify with opposing political parties or movements, often
resulting in heightened partisanship and reduced willingness to compromise. In the context of the
United States, political polarization has become a prominent and concerning trend over the past few
decades. The United States is experiencing a period of intense partisan polarization in the mass public.
People who identify with one party have become more likely to dislike and distrust those in the other
party. This polarization is reflected in various aspects of American politics, including policy
preferences, voting behavior, and even social interactions (Levendusky & Malhotra, 2016)
One example of political polarization in the United States is the widening gap in policy preferences
between Democrats and Republicans. For instance, a study published by Pew Research Center (2020)
showed that the partisan divide on key policy issues, such as healthcare, immigration, and climate
change, has grown significantly over the years. In 1994, 64% of Republicans and 62% of Democrats
supported stricter environmental laws, but by 2020, this gap had widened to 78% of Democrats in
favor compared to only 36% of Republicans. Similarly, on immigration issues, the divide between the
two parties has become more pronounced, with Democrats and Republicans holding increasingly
divergent views on issues like border security and immigration reform.
Moreover, political polarization is evident in voting behavior and party loyalty. Americans are more
likely to vote along party lines, and there is a declining willingness to support candidates from the
opposing party. Abramowitz & Webster (2016) found that the correlation between presidential and
congressional voting has increased substantially since the 1970s, indicating a stronger link between
voting for a presidential candidate and voting for the same party's congressional candidates. This trend
reflects the deeper divide between Democratic and Republican voters, who are less likely to split their
tickets and more likely to vote for candidates from their respective parties Political polarization in the
United States is a complex phenomenon characterized by growing ideological divisions between
Democrats and Republicans. This polarization is reflected in policy preferences, voting behavior, and
party loyalty.
In recent years, political polarization has become a prominent issue in many democratic countries,
including the United Kingdom. This polarization can be observed across various aspects of political
life, such as voter preferences, party identification, and policy stances. One significant aspect of
political polarization in the UK can be seen in voter preferences and party identification. Clarke,
Sanders, Stewart & Whiteley (2017) found that the UK has experienced a notable increase in partisan
alignment, with voters becoming more entrenched in their support for political parties. For example,
in the 2017 general election, over 80% of voters who identified with a particular party voted for that
party, reflecting a higher level of partisan voting compared to previous elections. This suggests that
political polarization has contributed to a more rigid and polarized party system in the UK.
Another indicator of political polarization in the UK can be seen in the realm of public opinion and
policy preferences. Hobolt (2018) highlighted how Brexit, a deeply polarizing issue, has intensified
divisions among the British public. A notable finding is that individuals who voted to leave the
European Union (EU) and those who voted to remain exhibit increasingly divergent attitudes on a
range of policy issues, including immigration, trade, and the role of government. This polarization has
not only affected public opinion but has also made it challenging for policymakers to find common
ground on key issues. Political polarization in the UK has manifested in various aspects of political
life, including voter preferences and party identification, as well as public opinion and policy
preferences.

58
Journal of Communication
ISSN: 2791-3201 (Online)
Vol. 4, Issue No. 1, pp 56 - 68, 2023 www.carijournals.org
In recent years, various countries, including Japan, have witnessed trends of political polarization,
although the degree and nature of polarization may differ from one context to another. In Japan,
political polarization has been observed in various aspects of the country's political landscape.
According to data from the World Values Survey, conducted in 2020, there has been a noticeable
divergence in political attitudes and opinions among Japanese citizens. The survey found that 35% of
Japanese respondents identified themselves as politically left-leaning, while 33% identified as right-
leaning, indicating a relatively balanced distribution of political ideologies (World Values Survey,
2020).
However, political polarization in Japan can also be observed in specific policy areas. For example,
the debate over the country's defense policy, particularly regarding the interpretation of Article 9 of
the Japanese Constitution, which renounces war and military forces, has led to significant divisions.
Some argue for a more assertive defense posture, while others advocate for maintaining strict pacifism.
Nakamura & Suzuki (2018) highlighted the polarization within Japanese society regarding this issue.
They found that public opinion on constitutional reinterpretation for security policy was polarized,
with 54% of respondents supporting a more assertive interpretation while 43% opposed it.
Moreover, the issue of immigration and refugee acceptance in Japan has also seen polarization. Sasaki
and Wakabayashi (2019) demonstrated that the public's attitude toward immigration is divided.
According to their research, 49% of Japanese respondents believe that immigration should be limited
or halted altogether, while 45% are in favor of increasing immigration or maintaining the current
levels. In the realm of economic policy, polarization can be seen in debates about income inequality
and social welfare.
Asatsuma (2018) highlighted the political polarization in Japan regarding social spending and income
redistribution. It found that while 53% of Japanese citizens’ support increased social spending, 38%
oppose it, illustrating a clear divide in attitudes toward wealth redistribution and social welfare.
Political polarization in Japan is evident in various aspects of the country's political and social
landscape, including defense policy, immigration, and economic policy. While the overall distribution
of left-leaning and right-leaning political ideologies may appear relatively balanced, specific policy
debates reveal significant divisions within Japanese society. These divisions can have implications for
policy-making and governance. To address the consequences of political polarization, it is essential
for policymakers and civil society to engage in constructive dialogue and seek common ground.
Political polarization often results in a deepening divide between individuals or groups with opposing
political views, making it difficult to find common ground or engage in productive political discourse.
This phenomenon is not limited to Western countries but is also observed in Sub-Saharan Africa.
According to data from the Afrobarometer, which is a widely recognized source for public opinion
data in the region (Afrobarometer, 2020), Sub-Saharan Africa has witnessed significant instances of
political polarization in recent years.
One example of political polarization in Sub-Saharan Africa can be found in the case of Kenya. The
2017 presidential election in Kenya saw a sharp divide between supporters of the incumbent president,
Uhuru Kenyatta, and his main opponent, Raila Odinga. The political polarization was evident in both
the pre-election and post-election periods, with violent clashes between rival supporters and allegations
of electoral fraud (Afrobarometer, 2018). The Afrobarometer survey data indicated that a substantial
proportion of Kenyan citizens perceived the country as being politically divided along ethnic and party
lines, contributing to the polarization (Afrobarometer, 2018).
In recent years, trends of political polarization in Sub-Saharan Africa have been on the rise. Data from
the Afrobarometer reveals that in several countries, citizens increasingly view their societies as
politically polarized. For instance, in South Africa, a country known for its complex political
59
Journal of Communication
ISSN: 2791-3201 (Online)
Vol. 4, Issue No. 1, pp 56 - 68, 2023 www.carijournals.org
landscape, polarization has been exacerbated by factionalism within the ruling African National
Congress (ANC) (Afrobarometer, 2020). This has led to deep divisions among ANC supporters, which
are reflected in the broader South African society. Political polarization in Sub-Saharan Africa has
significant implications for the region's stability and governance. As polarization intensifies, it can
contribute to social unrest, political violence, and hinder the functioning of democratic institutions.
For instance, the political tensions in countries like Nigeria have resulted in protests and conflicts,
making it challenging to achieve peaceful and inclusive governance (Rotberg, 2018). Such tensions
can also undermine trust in electoral processes, which is crucial for the legitimacy of governments in
the region.
Political polarization in Sub-Saharan Africa is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon with
implications for the region's political stability and governance. Examples from countries like Kenya,
South Africa, and Nigeria illustrate the growing divide among citizens with different political
affiliations. The Afrobarometer provides valuable survey data to track these trends in the region
(Afrobarometer, 2020). As polarization continues to be a concern in Sub-Saharan Africa, addressing
its root causes and finding ways to promote constructive political discourse and reconciliation is crucial
for the region's political future.
Social media usage has become an integral part of modern communication, enabling individuals to
connect, share information, and engage in various online activities (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). With
the proliferation of social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, people across the
globe have embraced these digital spaces for personal, social, and political purposes. Social media
platforms have emerged as influential spaces for political engagement, providing a forum for citizens
to express their political opinions, mobilize support, and participate in discussions about political
issues (Bode & Dalrymple, 2020). Users share news articles, comment on political events, and follow
political figures, all of which can contribute to shaping their political beliefs and attitudes.
A concerning aspect of social media usage is the phenomenon of filter bubbles and echo chambers
(Pariser, 2011). These digital environments occur when individuals are exposed primarily to
information and viewpoints that align with their existing beliefs. As users engage with like-minded
individuals and sources, their perspectives can become more polarized, reinforcing their political
opinions and exacerbating divisions (Sunstein, 2017). The spread of disinformation and
misinformation on social media platforms has been linked to political polarization (Pennycook &
Rand, 2020). False or misleading information, often spread with malicious intent, can gain traction
quickly in these digital spaces. When individuals encounter such content that supports their pre-
existing beliefs, it can reinforce their polarized viewpoints.
Social media platforms employ algorithms that curate users' content feeds based on their previous
interactions (Bovet & Makse, 2019). These algorithms can inadvertently contribute to political
polarization by amplifying content that aligns with users' existing beliefs. Users are exposed to content
that reinforces their perspectives, further entrenching their political positions. The impact of social
media usage on political polarization extends beyond the digital realm. Research has shown that
individuals engaged in online echo chambers may carry their polarized views into offline interactions
and political behaviors (Guess, Nyhan, & Reifler, 2020). This can lead to increased ideological
divisions within communities and even influence voting patterns. Social media usage plays a
significant role in shaping political polarization. While these platforms offer opportunities for political
engagement and expression, they also introduce risks, such as filter bubbles, disinformation, and
algorithmic reinforcement, which can contribute to heightened political divisions. Recognizing these
challenges is essential for policymakers, researchers, and users to mitigate the negative impact of social
media on political discourse.

60
Journal of Communication
ISSN: 2791-3201 (Online)
Vol. 4, Issue No. 1, pp 56 - 68, 2023 www.carijournals.org
1.1 Statement of the Problem
Political polarization has emerged as a pressing concern in contemporary society, with the role of
social media in exacerbating this phenomenon drawing increasing attention. According to a Pew
Research Center report (2020), 64% of adults in the United States believe that fake news has caused
"a great deal" of confusion about basic facts of current events. While numerous studies have explored
the relationship between social media and political polarization, there is still a critical research gap
concerning the specific mechanisms through which social media platforms contribute to polarization.
Furthermore, existing research primarily focuses on Western contexts, leaving a dearth of knowledge
about the impact of social media on political polarization in diverse cultural and political settings, such
as those in Sub-Saharan Africa. This study aims to address these gaps by investigating the nuanced
ways in which social media use influences political polarization and by extending the analysis to Sub-
Saharan countries, providing a comprehensive understanding of the global implications of this issue.
The findings of this study hold significant implications for a wide range of stakeholders, including
policymakers, social media companies, and the general public. Policymakers will benefit from a deeper
understanding of the factors contributing to political polarization, allowing them to formulate
evidence-based regulations and interventions to mitigate its negative effects. Social media companies
can utilize the insights to refine their content algorithms and moderation practices, promoting more
balanced and constructive political discourse on their platforms. Additionally, the general public will
gain awareness of the potential influence of social media on their political beliefs and behaviors,
enabling them to make informed choices about their online engagement. By shedding light on the
complex relationship between social media and political polarization, this study aims to provide
valuable insights that will contribute to healthier and more informed democratic processes worldwide.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theoretical Review
2.1.1 The Filter Bubble Theory
The Filter Bubble Theory, originally proposed by Eli Pariser, underscores the intricate relationship
between personalized algorithms and the information environments created for users on social media
platforms (Pariser, 2011). According to this theory, these algorithms curate users' content feeds by
prioritizing content that aligns with their existing beliefs and preferences. In essence, social media
platforms construct individualized filter bubbles around each user, effectively isolating them within
information ecosystems that cater to their specific interests and viewpoints. This personalization can
significantly impact the information individuals are exposed to and, consequently, influence their
political beliefs and attitudes. The relevance of the Filter Bubble Theory to the study is profound. It
highlights a critical mechanism through which social media platforms inadvertently contribute to
political polarization. By tailoring content to individual preferences, these platforms can limit users'
exposure to diverse political perspectives, reinforcing their existing ideologies. As a result, individuals
within filter bubbles may become increasingly polarized over time, as they are continuously exposed
to content that confirms and amplifies their pre-existing beliefs. Understanding this theory is essential
for comprehending how social media usage can foster political polarization by shaping the information
environments users inhabit.
2.1.2 Spiral of Silence Theory
The Spiral of Silence Theory, originally formulated by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, delves into the
dynamics of public opinion and individual behavior within a social context (Noelle-Neumann, 1974).
At its core, this theory suggests that individuals tend to conform to prevailing public opinion when
they perceive that their own beliefs or viewpoints are in the minority. In situations where individuals

61
Journal of Communication
ISSN: 2791-3201 (Online)
Vol. 4, Issue No. 1, pp 56 - 68, 2023 www.carijournals.org
fear social isolation or potential backlash, they often opt to remain silent or adjust their expressed
opinions to align with the dominant viewpoint. On social media platforms, this phenomenon becomes
particularly pertinent, as users may be apprehensive about expressing minority political opinions due
to the fear of criticism or ostracism. The Spiral of Silence Theory offers valuable insights into the way
individuals interact with political discourse on these platforms to this study. It elucidates why some
users may choose not to express their genuine political beliefs when they perceive themselves to be in
the ideological minority within their online communities. As individuals withhold their true opinions
or conform to the majority viewpoint, it can create a skewed perception of public opinion, contributing
to a false sense of consensus or polarization. This theory thus underscores the importance of
considering social dynamics and perceived consensus when examining the impact of social media on
political polarization.
2.1.3 Selective Exposure Theory
The Selective Exposure Theory, developed by Joseph T. Klapper, centers on the idea that individuals
exhibit a natural inclination to seek out information and media content that aligns with their pre-
existing attitudes and beliefs (Klapper, 1960). In essence, people tend to choose media sources and
engage with content that reinforces their existing political views while avoiding or dismissing
information that contradicts these beliefs. This phenomenon of selective exposure results in individuals
surrounding themselves with content that affirms their political ideologies and perspectives, effectively
filtering out dissenting viewpoints. In the context of political polarization and social media, the
Selective Exposure Theory offers valuable insights into user behavior and content consumption
patterns. It suggests that individuals are naturally drawn to social media content that reaffirms their
political beliefs, contributing to the formation of echo chambers and the exacerbation of polarization.
As users actively curate their online experiences to align with their preferences, the theory underscores
how this self-selection of content can lead to the reinforcement of existing political viewpoints and the
limited exposure to alternative perspectives. Therefore, understanding the implications of selective
exposure is vital for comprehending how social media usage influences political polarization by
facilitating the isolation of like-minded individuals and ideas.
2.2 Empirical Review
Flaxman, Goel & Rao (2016) explored how users' exposure to news content on social media platforms
is shaped by algorithmic filtering and how this, in turn, affects political polarization. Using network
analysis of Twitter data during a contentious political event, the researchers examined the relationship
between network homogeneity and political polarization. The findings revealed that users with high
network homogeneity, who were predominantly exposed to like-minded content, exhibited greater
political polarization, while those with diverse network connections had more moderate political
views. The study recommended that social media platforms should encourage users to diversify their
network connections and follow a broader range of voices to mitigate the effects of echo chambers and
filter bubbles, thereby fostering a more balanced and informed online political discourse.
Guess, Nagler & Tucker (2019) investigated the prevalence and factors influencing the dissemination
of fake news on the social media platform. Employing an experimental approach, they manipulated
the exposure of simulated news articles in a controlled environment. The findings revealed that the
dissemination of fake news was less prevalent than previously perceived, with only a small fraction of
users sharing such content. Moreover, the study identified individual factors, such as age and digital
media literacy, as predictors of susceptibility to fake news dissemination. The authors recommended
targeted interventions and digital literacy campaigns to mitigate the spread of fake news on social
media, emphasizing the importance of fostering critical thinking skills and awareness among users.

62
Journal of Communication
ISSN: 2791-3201 (Online)
Vol. 4, Issue No. 1, pp 56 - 68, 2023 www.carijournals.org
Conover, Ferrara, Menczer & Flammini (2018) examined the referral structure of political memes on
Facebook to gain insights into the dynamics of digital echo chambers and their impact on political
discourse. Employing a case study approach, the researchers conducted an in-depth analysis of
Facebook data during a period marked by heightened political polarization. Their findings revealed a
significant tendency for users to predominantly engage with and share politically aligned content
within echo chambers, perpetuating confirmation bias and reinforcing existing beliefs. As a
recommendation, the study emphasized the importance of fostering diverse online networks and
promoting fact-based, balanced political information dissemination on social media platforms to
mitigate the potential negative effects of echo chambers on political polarization and public discourse.
Tandoc, Lim & Ling (2020) conducted a comparative analysis of the online media landscape in Europe
to investigate its impact on political polarization. Employing a content analysis methodology, they
examined data from Facebook and Twitter during European parliamentary elections. The findings
revealed that social media platforms played a significant role in amplifying the polarization of political
discourse, particularly in countries with highly fragmented political landscapes. Echo chambers
formed around political candidates, reinforcing existing political beliefs among users. In light of these
findings, the authors recommended the development of algorithms that prioritize fact-based reporting
and the promotion of diverse political perspectives on social media platforms to mitigate the
exacerbation of political polarization.
Mare & Adi (2019) investigated the impact of social media on political polarization in the context of
Sub-Saharan African countries. Employing a cross-national analysis and examining social media usage
patterns during election campaigns, the researchers found compelling evidence that social media
played a substantial role in fostering political polarization across the region, particularly during
election periods. The study's recommendations underscored the importance of promoting digital media
literacy and fact-checking initiatives in emerging democracies within Africa to counteract the
polarization exacerbated by social media platforms. This research contributes valuable insights into
the intersection of social media, politics, and polarization within non-Western contexts, shedding light
on the evolving dynamics of political discourse in the digital age.
Stroud (2017) investigated the influence of social media on political polarization. Employing a
longitudinal survey data analysis method spanning several American election cycles, the study
revealed that increased social media usage was associated with heightened polarization among users,
particularly when they were exposed to content that reinforced their existing political beliefs. The
findings suggested that social media platforms inadvertently contributed to the polarization of political
discourse, with users tending to engage more with like-minded content. As a recommendation, the
study underscored the importance of promoting media literacy and critical thinking skills among social
media users to help them navigate diverse political perspectives and mitigate the impact of polarization
in online political discourse.
Bakshy, Messing & Adamic (2015) investigated the extent to which users on the social media platform
were exposed to a diverse range of political content. Using a quantitative analysis of Facebook data,
the researchers found that, contrary to the expectation of a diverse online information environment,
users tended to be exposed primarily to content that aligned with their pre-existing political beliefs,
resulting in a lack of ideological diversity in their news feeds. Their findings emphasized the role of
Facebook's algorithmic curation in reinforcing users' existing viewpoints. In light of these findings,
the study recommended that social media platforms should explore ways to enhance the diversity of
content exposure, potentially by modifying the algorithms to include a broader range of political
perspectives and opinions to mitigate the potential impact of online echo chambers on political
polarization.

63
Journal of Communication
ISSN: 2791-3201 (Online)
Vol. 4, Issue No. 1, pp 56 - 68, 2023 www.carijournals.org
3.0 METHODOLOGY
The study adopted a desktop research methodology. Desk research refers to secondary data or that
which can be collected without fieldwork. Desk research is basically involved in collecting data from
existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field research, as
the main cost is involved in executive’s time, telephone charges and directories. Thus, the study relied
on already published studies, reports and statistics. This secondary data was easily accessed through
the online journals and library.
4.0 FINDINGS
This study presented both a contextual and methodological gap. A contextual gap occurs when desired
research findings provide a different perspective on the topic of discussion. For instance, Guess, Nagler
& Tucker (2019) investigated the prevalence and factors influencing the dissemination of fake news
on the social media platform. Employing an experimental approach, they manipulated the exposure of
simulated news articles in a controlled environment. The findings revealed that the dissemination of
fake news was less prevalent than previously perceived, with only a small fraction of users sharing
such content. Moreover, the study identified individual factors, such as age and digital media literacy,
as predictors of susceptibility to fake news dissemination. The authors recommended targeted
interventions and digital literacy campaigns to mitigate the spread of fake news on social media,
emphasizing the importance of fostering critical thinking skills and awareness among users. On the
other hand, our current study focused on the impact of social media on political polarization.
Secondly, a methodological gap also presents itself, for example, in their study on the prevalence and
factors influencing the dissemination of fake news on the social media platform; Guess, Nagler &
Tucker (2019) employed an experimental approach, they manipulated the exposure of simulated news
articles in a controlled environment. Whereas, this current study adopted a desktop research method
in exploring the impact of social media on political polarization.
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
In conclusion, this study has provided valuable insights into the complex relationship between social
media and political polarization. The findings consistently demonstrate that social media platforms
play a significant role in shaping individuals' political beliefs and attitudes. The mechanisms of filter
bubbles, echo chambers, and selective exposure have been observed, highlighting how users are often
exposed to content that reinforces their existing viewpoints. This reinforcement can lead to increased
polarization, as users engage in discussions and interactions primarily with like-minded individuals.
The study also underscores the potential consequences of social media algorithms and the need for
users to critically evaluate the information they encounter on these platforms.
The implications of these findings are far-reaching and have profound effects on society and
democracy. Political polarization, exacerbated by social media, can contribute to increased social
division and hinder constructive political discourse. It may also undermine trust in democratic
institutions and impede the ability of governments to govern effectively. Furthermore, the study
highlights the importance of media literacy and digital literacy programs to empower users to navigate
the complex information landscape on social media. Encouraging individuals to critically assess the
information they encounter and engage with diverse perspectives is essential for promoting a healthier
democratic discourse.
While this study has shed light on critical aspects of social media's impact on political polarization,
there remain several avenues for future research. For instance, a deeper exploration of the role of

64
Journal of Communication
ISSN: 2791-3201 (Online)
Vol. 4, Issue No. 1, pp 56 - 68, 2023 www.carijournals.org
individual user characteristics, such as political ideology and media literacy, in moderating the effects
of social media on polarization is warranted. Additionally, comparative studies across different cultural
and political contexts could provide a more comprehensive understanding of how social media's impact
varies globally. Longitudinal studies tracking changes in political polarization over time in response
to evolving social media algorithms and platform policies would also be beneficial in gauging the
persistence and dynamics of these effects.
In light of the challenges posed by social media-induced political polarization, policymakers, social
media companies, and civil society must take proactive measures. Policymakers should consider
regulations that promote transparency in social media algorithms, ensuring that users have a clearer
understanding of how their content feeds are curated. Social media companies can explore algorithmic
adjustments to diversify content exposure, reducing the likelihood of users retreating into echo
chambers. Moreover, media literacy initiatives and critical thinking education should be integrated
into curricula and community programs to empower individuals to discern reliable information sources
and engage in constructive political discussions. Ultimately, by addressing these challenges and
fostering a more informed and engaged citizenry, we can strive for a healthier democratic discourse in
the age of social media.
5.2 Recommendations
Enhance Digital Media Literacy Programs: It is crucial to develop and implement comprehensive
digital media literacy programs aimed at equipping individuals with the skills to critically evaluate
information and discern credible sources from misinformation and disinformation on social media
platforms. These programs should be tailored to different age groups and educational levels, focusing
on promoting media literacy and critical thinking skills. Additionally, they should address the specific
challenges posed by the rapid dissemination of political content on social media, including fact-
checking and verification techniques. By enhancing digital media literacy, individuals will be better
equipped to navigate the digital landscape and make informed decisions about the content they engage
with, thereby reducing the risk of being influenced by polarizing and misleading information.
Promote Algorithmic Transparency and Accountability: Social media platforms should prioritize
transparency regarding their content recommendation algorithms. Users should have access to
information about how these algorithms work and how they impact the content they see in their feeds.
Platforms should also establish clear guidelines and standards for content curation, with an emphasis
on promoting diverse and balanced political perspectives. Additionally, regular audits and assessments
of these algorithms should be conducted to ensure they are not inadvertently contributing to political
polarization. Furthermore, platforms should be held accountable for addressing instances of
algorithmic bias or manipulation that may exacerbate polarization. By promoting algorithmic
transparency and accountability, social media platforms can work towards creating a more balanced
and less polarized online environment.
Encourage Civil and Constructive Online Discourse: Social media platforms should actively promote
civil and constructive online discourse. This can be achieved through the implementation of
community guidelines that discourage hate speech, harassment, and inflammatory rhetoric. Platforms
should also incentivize respectful and informed discussions by recognizing and rewarding users who
engage in productive dialogue. In addition, moderation policies should be consistently enforced to
address toxic behavior and the spread of false or misleading information. Encouraging users to engage
with differing viewpoints in a respectful manner can foster a more inclusive online environment and
mitigate the amplification of extreme political positions.
Support Independent Fact-Checking and News Verification Initiatives: To combat the spread of
misinformation and disinformation on social media, there should be increased support for independent
65
Journal of Communication
ISSN: 2791-3201 (Online)
Vol. 4, Issue No. 1, pp 56 - 68, 2023 www.carijournals.org
fact-checking organizations and news verification initiatives. These organizations play a crucial role
in identifying and debunking false or misleading information, providing users with accurate and
reliable sources. Social media platforms should collaborate with reputable fact-checkers and
prominently display fact-checked information to users when false claims are detected. Furthermore,
users should be encouraged to verify information before sharing it and to rely on credible news sources.
By supporting fact-checking initiatives and promoting responsible information-sharing practices,
platforms can contribute to reducing the impact of misinformation on political polarization in the
digital age.

66
Journal of Communication
ISSN: 2791-3201 (Online)
Vol. 4, Issue No. 1, pp 56 - 68, 2023 www.carijournals.org
REFERENCES
Abramowitz, A. I., & Webster, S. (2016). The rise of negative partisanship and the nationalization of
U.S. elections in the 21st century. Electoral Studies, 41, 12-22.
doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2015.11.009
Afrobarometer. (2018). Democracy and political polarization in Kenya: Evidence from the
Afrobarometer. Retrieved from
https://afrobarometer.org/sites/default/files/publications/Working%20paper/Afrobarometer-
WP151-Kenya-Political-Polarization.pdf
Afrobarometer. (2020). Afrobarometer survey data. Retrieved from https://www.afrobarometer.org/
Asatsuma, S. (2018). Polarization in Japanese public opinion: Economic inequality, social policy and
politics. Asian Journal of Political Science, 26(2), 148-166. DOI:
10.1080/02185377.2018.1450579
Bakshy, E., Messing, S., & Adamic, L. A. (2015). Exposure to ideologically diverse news and opinion
on Facebook. Science, 348(6239), 1130-1132.
Bode, L., & Dalrymple, K. E. (2020). Politics in 140 characters or less: Campaign communication,
network heterogeneity, and Twitter use by US politicians. Political Communication, 37(2),
226-249.
Bovet, A., & Makse, H. A. (2019). Influence of fake news in Twitter during the 2016 US presidential
election. Nature Communications, 10(1), 1-9.
Clarke, H. D., Sanders, D., Stewart, M. C., & Whiteley, P. (2017). UK general election 2017:
Reflections on the campaign and its aftermath. Political Quarterly, 88(2), 286-293. DOI:
10.1111/1467-923X.12418
Conover, M. D., Ferrara, E., Menczer, F., & Flammini, A. (2018). The digital echo chamber:
Understanding the referral structure of political memes on Facebook. Political Communication,
35(3), 396-418.
Flaxman, S., Goel, S., & Rao, J. M. (2016). Filter bubbles, echo chambers, and online news
consumption. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80(S1), 298-320.
Guess, A. M., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. (2019). Less than you think: Prevalence and predictors of fake
news dissemination on Facebook. Science Advances, 5(1), eaau4586.
Guess, A., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2020). Exposure to untrustworthy websites in the 2016 US
election. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(5), 472-480.
Hobolt, S. B. (2018). Brexit and the 2017 UK general election: A second-order election model of the
Brexit vote. The Journal of Common Market Studies, 56(5), 1095-1103. DOI:
10.1111/jcms.12751
Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of
Social Media. Business Horizons, 53(1), 59-68.
Klapper, J. T. (1960). The Effects of Mass Communication. Free Press.
Levendusky, M. S., & Malhotra, N. (2016). Does media coverage of partisan polarization affect
political attitudes? Political Communication, 33(2), 283-301.
doi:10.1080/10584609.2015.1121949
Mare, A., & Adi, A. (2019). Social media, election campaigning, and political polarization: Evidence
from Africa. Information, Communication & Society, 22(6), 832-848.
67
Journal of Communication
ISSN: 2791-3201 (Online)
Vol. 4, Issue No. 1, pp 56 - 68, 2023 www.carijournals.org
Nakamura, K., & Suzuki, S. (2018). Security and constitutional revision in Japan: Assessing public
opinion on the basis of the Japonica Secure Japan Survey. Japan Forum, 30(1), 1-22. DOI:
10.1080/09555803.2017.1404087
Noelle-Neumann, E. (1974). The Spiral of Silence: A Theory of Public Opinion. Journal of
Communication, 24(2), 43-51.
Pariser, E. (2011). The Filter Bubble: What the Internet Is Hiding from You. Penguin.
Pariser, E. (2011). The Filter Bubble: What the Internet Is Hiding from You. Penguin.
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2020). The Implied Truth Effect: Attaching Warnings to a Subset of
Fake News Stories Increases Perceived Accuracy of Stories Without Warnings. Management
Science, 66(11), 4944-4957.
Pew Research Center. (2020). Americans' Views of Misinformation and Disinformation.
https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/11/24/americans-views-of-misinformation-and-
disinformation/
Pew Research Center. (2020). Political polarization in the American public. Retrieved from
https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/06/02/political-polarization-in-the-american-
public/
Rotberg, R. I. (2018). Political polarization in Sub-Saharan Africa: A grave danger. Africa Center for
Strategic Studies. Retrieved from https://africacenter.org/spotlight/political-polarization-in-
sub-saharan-africa-a-grave-danger/
Sasaki, T., & Wakabayashi, M. (2019). Attitudes toward immigration in Japan: Evidence from a
national survey experiment. Asian Politics & Policy, 11(3), 444-464. DOI: 10.1111/aspp.12402
Stroud, N. J. (2017). Polarization and partisan selective exposure. Journal of Communication, 67(4),
563-586.
Sunstein, C. R. (2017). #Republic: Divided democracy in the age of social media. Princeton University
Press.
Tandoc, E. C., Lim, Z. W., & Ling, R. (2020). The online media landscape and political polarization:
A comparative analysis of Europe. Digital Journalism, 8(2), 243-261.
World Values Survey. (2020). Japan - World Values Survey Wave 7 (2020). Retrieved from
https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSContents.jsp

68