1.

Removable Forms (Cast-In-Place)

Cast-in-place (CIP) concrete walls are made with ready-mix concrete placed into removable forms
erected on site. Historically, this has been one of the most common forms of building basement walls.
The same techniques used below grade can be repeated with above-grade walls to form the first floor
and upper levels of homes.

Early forays into this technology were done more than 100 years ago by Thomas Edison. He saw the
benefit of building homes with concrete well before it was widely understood. As technology developed,
improvements in forming systems and insulation materials increased the ease and appeal of using
removable forms for single-family construction. These systems are strong. Their inherent thermal mass,
coupled with appropriate insulation, makes them quite energy efficient. Traditional finishes can be
applied to interior and exterior faces, so the buildings look similar to frame construction, although the
walls are usually thicker.
History

Thomas Edison with model of a concrete house (circa 1910). Photo courtesy of U.S. Department of the
Interior, National Park Service, Edison National Historic Site.

The technology for casting concrete in removable forms—the beginning of the reinforced concrete
construction industry—dates back at least to the 1850s, not long after portland cement was patented.
The predominant use of removable forms for single-family homes was for below-grade (basement)
walls. Thomas Edison was one of the first to recognize the potential for above-grade applications and do
some demonstration projects, several single-family homes made entirely of concrete.

Since that time, advancements in forming and placing technology, concrete mixtures, and insulation
strategies have made construction of concrete homes using removable forms a well-accepted building
technique.
Advantages

Cast-in-place provides benefits to builders and building owners alike.

Owners appreciate:

 strong walls
 safety and disaster resistance
 mold, rot, mildew, and insect resistance
 sound-blocking ability
 for insulated systems, energy efficiency and resultant cost savings

Contractors and builders like:

 familiarity
 expands business to include more than basements
 cost effective building technology
Components, Including Insulation

Cast-in-place (CIP) concrete systems are relatively straightforward. Steps required include the placement
of temporary forms and placing fresh concrete and steel reinforcement. Although it is possible to batch
concrete on site, ready mixed concrete is widely available and is usually delivered by a ready mix
supplier. And in 2011, the average distance to most project sites from a ready mix plant was just about
14 miles.

Although uninsulated walls were common in the past, changing energy code requirements are more or
less eliminating walls without insulation in most climates. This is the case with all types of systems,
including concrete, wood, and steel. Energy is simply too important in terms of its cost and
environmental impact. Concrete’s thermal mass helps moderate temperature swings, but cannot
provide the improved energy performance mandated by codes unless the wall system contains
insulation. In the past, therefore, insulation may have been an optional component of a cast-in-place
system, but it is increasingly included in contemporary construction.

The most common formwork materials for casting concrete in place are steel, aluminum, and wood.
Many wood systems are custom manufactured and may be used only once or a few times. Steel and
aluminum forming systems, on the other hand, are designed for multiple reuses, saving on costs. Metal
panel forms are usually two to three feet wide and come in various heights to match the wall. Most
common are eight and nine foot tall panels.
Installation, Connections, Finishes
Casting concrete in place involves a few distinct steps: placing formwork, placing reinforcement, and
pouring concrete. Builders usually place forms at the corners first and then fill in between the corners.
This helps with proper alignment of forms and, therefore, walls. Reinforcement bars (“rebar” for short)
can be erected before either form face as a cage or after one side of the formwork is installed. Once
both form faces are tied together and braced, concrete is placed in the forms via truck chute, bucket, or
pump. Forms should always be filled at an appropriate rate based on formwork manufacturer
recommendations to prevent problems. Although blowouts are uncommon with metal and wood forms,
misalignment could potentially occur.

For single-family residential construction, wall thicknesses can range from four to 24 inches. Uninsulated
walls are typically six or eight inches thick. Walls with insulation are generally thicker when they contain
an internal layer of insulation: either the inner or outer wall layer has to serve a structural function.
Cast-in-place walls are generally thicker than frame walls (wood or steel).
Reinforcement in both directions maintains the wall strength. Vertically, bars are usually placed at one
to four feet on center, and tied to dowels in the footing or basement slab for structural integrity.
Horizontally, bars are typically placed at about four foot spacings in residential applications. Additional
bars are placed at corners and around openings (doors, windows) to help control cracking and provide
strength.

Openings for doors and windows require bucks to surround the opening, contain the fresh concrete
during placement, and provide suitable material for fastening window or door frames.

Floors and roofs can be concrete or wood and light-gauge steel. Ledgers are anchored by bolts adhered
into holes in the concrete. For heavy steel floors, weld plates are installed inside the formwork so they
become embedded in the fresh concrete. This provides an attachment for steel joists, trusses, or angle
irons.

Basement wall form used as deck form in new rib floor system. Adjustable rib form supports deck form
and can span from 12 to 16 feet.

Finishes on CIP systems are dependent on the presence of insulation and on the formed face. Finishes
can alternately be attached with furring strips. Almost any type of finish can be used with removable
form concrete wall systems. Wallboard remains the most common interior finish. Exteriors are much
more varied and depend on customer preference. Form liners attached to the exterior form face can
impart any type of texture; alternately, other traditional finishes such as masonry or siding can be
attached to the wall following form removal.

Insulation can be placed on inside or outside faces or in the center portion of the wall. To place the
insulation on the face, plastic fittings are inserted into the foam board and become embedded in the
concrete. These are flanged to hold the foam and the flanges provide an attachment for finishes and
fixtures. Face insulation can also be applied after the formwork is stripped. If foam is embedded in the
formwork prior to concrete placement, composite fittings are used to tie together the two concrete
faces (through the foam insulation layer). The inner wall is usually the structural layer, so it’s thicker and
contains the rebar, whereas the outer concrete layer has the finish applied. Foam insulation is most
often expanded polystyrene (EPS). It can be extruded polystyrene (XPS), which is stronger, but also more
costly.
Sustainability and Energy

A major appeal of insulated cast-in-place walls is reduced energy to heat and cool the building.
Insulation, thermal mass, and low air infiltration contribute to the energy saving. Typical R-value for EPS
and XPS foams are, respectively, four and five per inch. Thermal mass acts like a storage battery to hold
heat or cold, moderating temperature swings. Cast-in-place walls have 10 to 30 percent better air
tightness than comparable framed walls—because the concrete envelope contains few joints. In
addition to saving energy and money associated with heating and cooling, concrete walls also provide
more consistent interior temperatures for occupants, increasing their comfort. Cast-in-place systems are
also suited to the use of recycled materials. Concrete can be made using supplementary cementing
materials like fly ash or slag to replace a portion of the cement. Aggregate can be recycled (crushed
concrete) to reduce the need for virgin aggregate. Most steel for reinforcement is recycled. Some
polystyrene is made with recycled material as well. Some of these techniques contribute toward
achieving points in certain green rating systems such as LEED®.
Building Codes

For one and two family dwellings, the International Residential Code (IRC) addresses foundations and
below grade walls in Section R404 and above grade walls in R611 for homes up to two stories plus a
basement. For larger buildings like multi-family and commercial structures, engineers follow the
International Building Code (IBC) for structural design.
Comparative Costs

Cast-in-place concrete requires the erection of temporary forms, so this is labor intensive. But many
types of forms can be reused, so there is not necessarily a big cost for the formwork. Also, concrete is
historically more stable in price than either wood or steel.
Residential CIP Project

Ancient Art Form Inspires Contemporary Sustainable Home

At 3,300 square feet, the Origami-Loft House in Venice, Florida, isn’t exactly small, but it lives even
larger, adding a study loft, reading space, and game room to the typical living areas. The spacious feeling
is due to many reasons: a top ceiling height of 24 feet, geometric folds in walls that create separate
rooms, and lots of light—every room opens to the outdoors while transom windows and interior glass
partitions let the light flow freely.

Set in a traditional neighborhood on a quarter-acre lot, the project respects its surroundings. From the
street, the house presents a sensibly executed façade, whereas the rear of the house has dramatic
curves and cascading volumes. Designer Jonathan Parks Architect (JPA) selected cast-in-place concrete
walls to allow for the complex geometries and openness while providing the strength necessary to resist
coastal weather along the Gulf of Mexico, which includes a long hurricane season.

As the living room shows, tall ceilings and open floor plans give a spacious feeling to the interior.
Photo courtesy of C. Pyatte.

Like so many projects today, this house was designed with sustainability in mind. Starting with the
energy-efficient cast-in-place concrete wall system, and soy-based insulation, the envelope protects
against Florida’s warm temperatures. A combination of active and passive solar techniques greatly
reduces the energy requirements of the building, while still providing the necessities and amenities
common to Florida homes. This includes hot water for the home and pool via passive solar water
heating, and high interior ceiling heights to help control interior temperatures. By collecting solar power,
owners enjoy an extra 21 to 26 kw hr/day and the use of Energy Star appliances reduces the draw on
power.

Energy, however, is not the only sustainability measure considered in design and construction of the
home. Some finishes are made with recycled materials and interior floors are covered with low volatile
organic compound (VOC) - wood. Outside, landscaping is designed with minimal water needs, including
native wildflower pasture grass, to conserve fresh water usage. From literally every angle, this concrete
house delivers good looks, energy performance, and sustainable design.
Low Rise Commercial CIP Project

A Curvy Concrete Car Park Sails into Sarasota

Poised to become a signature structure in the Sarasota, Florida skyline, the Palm Avenue Parking Garage
and Retail Shops includes a variety of unique retail spaces at ground level, and provides parking for 763
cars, 35 motorcycles, and 80 bicycles. As an example of a mixed-use facility—parking garage and retail—
the Palm Avenue project shows how versatile concrete structures are.

Using architectural concrete as both a structural and aesthetic medium, Jonathan Parks Architect
created a curvaceous, free-form building to capture the spirit of the local artistic culture. The cast-in-
place structure eliminates the need for shear walls and columns between spaces, providing an open
floor plan with high ceilings. This unobstructed layout, along with perforated metal "sails" that cover the
facade, creates a bright, airy, and safe atmosphere for a sheared pedestrian and drive space, letting in
light and natural ventilation while shielding cars from view.

Cast-in-place concrete also allowed designers to produce a playful, sculptural stair design that itself
attracts peoples' interest and encourages its use rather than the elevator.

Using civic input and capturing the spirit of the local artistic culture, this 240,00 square foot project was
designed for the City of Sarasota by the architecture firm, JPA, and built by Suffolk Construction. The
result is an iconic, user-friendly, environmentally-responsible design that satisfies the functional,
strategic, and aesthetic needs of the City, while contributing to the overall success of downtown
Sarasota.

The garage follows a user-friendly layout, including wide express ramp and one-way traffic flow to
reduce vehicle conflict and facilitate easy maneuvering in and out of parking spaces. Efficient vehicle
circulation is achieved by designing slightly angled parking spaces and a wide-open express ramp free of
parked cars.

Though certification is pending, the project is designed to achieve a LEED Core & Shell v3 Gold Level, in
part through the use of a combination of storm water, interior materials, lighting, and solar techniques
for recharging electric vehicles. Highlights of the green components are noted below.

 An underground retention vault and cistern to store and treat storm water runoff from the site.
A portion of the water is reused for the irrigation system.
 Interior materials surpass LEED requirements for off-gassings of VOC’s and other toxic
chemicals.
 Energy consumption is reduced with LED lighting and an energy management system that only
provides artificial light when and where it is needed.
 A solar carport is located on the roof and plug-ins for electric vehicles are provided on the first
floor.

Owner: City of Sarasota

Architect: Jonathan Parks Architect
Contractor: Suffolk Construction
Civil, Landscape, and Wayfinding: Kimley-Horn and Associates
Structural Engineer: Walter P Moore
M.E.P, Fire Protection: TLC Engineering for Architecture
Eco Consulting: Carlson Studio Eco Consulting
Parking Consultants: DKS Associates
Structural Concrete: Ceco Concrete Construction
Aluminum Sail Fabricator: Mullet’s Aluminum Product, Inc.
 2. Prestressed concrete
Prestressed concrete is a method for overcoming concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can be used to
produce beams, floors orbridges with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete.
Prestressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable orrods) are used to provide a clamping load which
produces a compressive stress that balances the tensile stress that the concretecompression member would
otherwise experience due to a bending load. Traditional reinforced concrete is based on the use
of steelreinforcement bars, rebars, inside poured concrete. Prestressing can be accomplished in three ways:
pre-tensioned concrete, and bonded or unbonded post-tensioned concrete.

Pre-tensioned concrete

Stressed ribbon pedestrian bridge,Grants Pass, Oregon, USA

Pre-tensioned concrete is cast around steel tendons—cables or bars—while they are under tension. The
concrete bonds to the tendons as it cures, and when the tension is released it is transferred to the
concrete as compression by static friction. Tension subsequently imposed on the concrete is transferred
directly to the tendons.
Pre-tensioning requires strong, stable anchoring points between which the tendons are to be stretched.
Thus, most pre-tensioned concrete elements are prefabricated and transported to the construction site,
which may limit their size. Pre-tensioned elements may be incorporated
into beams, balconies, lintels, floor slabs or piles. An innovative bridge design pre-stressing is
the stressed ribbon bridge.

Bonded post-tensioned concrete

Multistrand post-tensioning anchor.

Bonded post-tensioned concrete is the descriptive term for a method of applying compressionafter
pouring concrete and during the curing process (in situ). The concrete is cast around a
plastic, steel or aluminium curved duct, to follow the area where otherwise tension would occur in the
concrete element.
A set of tendons are fished through the duct and the concrete is poured. Once the concrete has
hardened, the tendons are tensioned byhydraulic jacks that react (push) against the concrete member
itself.
When the tendons have stretched sufficiently, according to the design specifications (see Hooke's law),
they are wedged in position and maintain tension after the jacks are removed, transferring pressure to
the concrete. The duct is then grouted to protect the tendons fromcorrosion.
This method is commonly used to create monolithic slabs for house construction in locations where
expansive soils (sometimes called adobe clay) create problems for the typical perimeter foundation. All
stresses from seasonal expansion and contraction of the underlying soil are taken into the entire
tensioned slab, which supports the building without significant flexure.
Post-tensioning is also used in the construction of various bridges, both after concrete is cured after
support by falsework and by the assembly of prefabricated sections, as in thesegmental bridge.
Among the advantages of this system over unbonded post-tensioning are:

 Large reduction in traditional reinforcement requirements as tendons cannot destress in accidents.

 Tendons can be easily "woven" allowing a more efficient design approach.
 Higher ultimate strength due to bond generated between the strand and concrete.
 No long term issues with maintaining the integrity of the anchor/dead end.
History of problems with bonded post-tensioned bridges
The popularity of this form of prestressing for bridge construction in Europe increased significantly
around the 1950s and 60s. However, a history of problems have been encountered that has cast doubt
over the long-term durability of such structures.
Due to poor workmanship or quality control during construction, sometimes the ducts containing the
prestressing tendons are not fully filled, leaving voids in the grout where the steel is not protected from
corrosion. The situation is exacerbated if water and chloride (from de-icing salts) from the highway are
able to penetrate into these voids.
Notable events are listed below:

 The Ynys-y-Gwas bridge in West Glamorgan, Wales—a segmental post-tensioned structure,

particularly vulnerable to defects in the post-tensioning system—collapsed without warning in
1985.[1]
 The Melle bridge, constructed in Belgium during the 1950s, collapsed in 1992 due to failure of post-
tensioned tie down members following tendon corrosion.
 Following discovery of tendon corrosion in several bridges in England, the Highways Agency issued a
moratorium on the construction of new internal grouted post-tensioned bridges and embarked on a
5-year programme of inspections on its existing post-tensioned bridge stock.
 In 2000, a large number of people were injured when a section of a footbridge at the Charlotte
Motor Speedway, USA, gave way and dropped to the ground. In this case, corrosion was
 exacerbated by calcium chloride that had been used as a concrete admixture, rather than sodium
chloride from de-icing salts.
 In 2011, the Hammersmith Flyover in London, England, was subject to an emergency closure after
defects in the post-tensioning system were discovered.[1]

Unbonded post-tensioned concrete

Unbonded post-tensioned concrete differs from bonded post-tensioning by providing each individual
cable permanent freedom of movement relative to the concrete. To achieve this, each individual tendon
is coated with a grease (generally lithium based) and covered by a plastic sheathing formed in
an extrusion process.[2] The transfer of tension to the concrete is achieved by the steel cable acting
against steel anchors embedded in the perimeter of the slab. The main disadvantage over bonded post-
tensioning is the fact that a cable can destress itself and burst out of the slab if damaged (such as
during repair on the slab). The advantages of this system over bonded post-tensioning are:

 The ability to individually adjust cables based on poor field conditions (For example: shifting a group
of 4 cables around an opening by placing 2 on each side).
 The procedure of post-stress grouting is eliminated.
 The ability to de-stress the tendons before attempting repair work.
Picture number one (below) shows rolls of post-tensioning (PT) cables with the holding end anchors
displayed. The holding end anchors are fastened to rebar placed above and below the cable and buried
in the concrete locking that end. Pictures numbered two, three and four shows a series of black pulling
end anchors from the rear along the floor edge form. Rebar is placed above and below the cable both in
front and behind the face of the pulling end anchor. The above and below placement of the rebar can be
seen in picture number three and the placement of the rebar in front and behind can be seen in picture
number four. The blue cable seen in picture number four is electrical conduit. Picture number five shows
the plastic sheathing stripped from the ends of the post-tensioning cables before placement through the
pulling end anchors. Picture number six shows the post-tensioning cables in place for concrete pouring.
The plastic sheathing has been removed from the end of the cable and the cable has been pushed
through the black pulling end anchor attached to the inside of the concrete floor side form. The greased
cable can be seen protruding from the concrete floor side form. Pictures seven and eight show the post-
tension cables protruding from the poured concrete floor. After the concrete floor has been poured and
has set for about a week, the cable ends will be pulled with a hydraulic jack.

1. Rolls of post-tension cables 2. Pulling anchors for post-tension cables3. Pulling anchors for post-
tension cables
4. Pulling anchors for post-tension cables 5. Post-tension cables stripped for placement in pulling
anchors

6. Positioned post-tension cables 7. Post-tension cable ends extending from freshly poured concrete

8. Post-tension cable ends extending from concrete slab 9. Hydraulic jack for tension cables10. Cable
conduits in formwork
Applications

Prestressed concrete is the main material for floors in high-rise buildings and the entire containment
vessels of nuclear reactors.
Unbonded post-tensioning tendons are commonly used in parking garages as barrier cable.[4] Also, due
to its ability to be stressed and then de-stressed, it can be used to temporarily repair a damaged building
by holding up a damaged wall or floor until permanent repairs can be made.
The advantages of prestressed concrete include crack control and lower construction costs; thinner slabs
—especially important in high rise buildings in which floor thickness savings can translate into additional
floors for the same (or lower) cost and fewer joints, since the distance that can be spanned by post-
tensioned slabs exceeds that of reinforced constructions with the same thickness. Increasing span
lengths increases the usable unencumbered floorspace in buildings; diminishing the number of joints
leads to lower maintenance costs over the design life of a building, since joints are the major focus of
weakness in concrete buildings.
The first prestressed concrete bridge in North America was the Walnut Lane Memorial
Bridge in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was completed and opened to traffic in 1951. [5]Prestressing can
also be accomplished on circular concrete pipes used for water transmission. High tensile strength steel
wire is helically-wrapped around the outside of the pipe under controlled tension and spacing which
induces a circumferential compressive stress in the core concrete. This enables the pipe to handle high
internal pressures and the effects of external earth and traffic loads.

Design agencies and regulations

In the United States, pre-stressed concrete design and construction is aided by organizations such
as Post-Tensioning Institute (PTI) and Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute(PCI). In Canada the
Canadian Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (CPCI) assumes this role for both post-tensioned and
pre-tensioned concrete structures.
Europe also has its own associations and institutes. It is important to note that these organizations are
not the authorities of building codes or standards, but rather exist to promote the understanding and
development of pre-stressed design, codes and best practices. In the UK, the Post-Tensioning
Association fulfills this role.[6]
Rules for the detailing of reinforcement and prestressing tendons are provided in Section 8 of the
European standard EN 1992-2:2005 – Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – Concrete bridges:
design and detailing rules.
In Australia the code of practice used to design reinforced and prestressed concrete is AS 3600-2009.

3.Composite Construction Methods

Composite construction provides a method of using two materials together so as to utilize each material
to its best advantage. Some of the construction problems associated with the normal steel-concrete
composite beams are examined, including the placing sequence of deck concrete and the monitoring of
deflections to insure proper slab thickness. New approaches to steel-concrete composite construction
include a beam and column system and a box girder utilizing the void space as an air conditioning duct.
Other types of composite construction are mentioned, including the timber-concrete slab bridge, a
timber-steel composite truss utilizing high-strength bridge strand as the lower chord, a wood-steel open
web joist which provides nailable chords, and light gage metal decking with a concrete slab.
Experimental composite members, using an adhesive as the shear connector are illustrated. A brief
history of composite construction is included.

Composite construction is a generic term to describe any building construction involving multiple dissimilar
materials. Composite construction is often used in building aircraft,watercraft, and building construction.
There are several reasons to use composite materials including increased strength, aesthetics, and
environmental sustainability. It is not to be confused with the Composite order which is a specific order of
classical architecture that combines elements of the Ionic and Corinthian orders.
4. Tensile structure

The world's first tensile steelShell by Vladimir Shukhov (during construction), Nizhny Novgorod, 1895
The Sidney Myer Music Bowl inKings Domain, Melbourne
A tensile structure is a construction of elements carrying only tension and no compression or bending.
The term tensile should not be confused with tensegrity, which is a structural form with both tension
and compression elements. Tensile structures are the most common type of thin-shell structures.
Most tensile structures are supported by some form of compression or bending elements, such as masts
(as in The O2, formerly theMillennium Dome), compression rings or beams.
A tensile membrane structure is most often used as a roof, as they can economically and attractively
span large distances.

History

The Olympic Stadium in Munich makes extensive use of tensile roofing structures.

This form of construction has only become more rigorously analyzed and widespread in large structures
in the latter part of the twentieth century. Tensile structures have long been used in tents, where
the guy ropes and tent poles provide pre-tension to the fabric and allow it to withstand loads.
Russian engineer Vladimir Shukhov was one of the first to develop practical calculations of stresses and
deformations of tensile structures, shells and membranes. Shukhov designed eight tensile structures
and thin-shell structures exhibition pavilions for the Nizhny Novgorod Fair of 1896, covering the area of
27,000 square meters. A more recent large-scale use of a membrane-covered tensile structure is
the Sidney Myer Music Bowl, constructed in 1958.
Antonio Gaudi used the concept in reverse to create a compression-only structure for the Colonia Guell
Church. He created a hanging tensile model of the church to calculate the compression forces and to
experimentally determine the column and vault geometries.
The concept was later championed by German architect and engineer Frei Otto, whose first use of the
idea was in the construction of the West German pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal. Otto next used the
idea for the roof of the Olympic Stadium for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich.
Since the 1960s, tensile structures have been promoted by designers and engineers such as Ove
Arup, Buro Happold, Walter Bird of Birdair, Inc., Frei Otto, Mahmoud Bodo Rasch, Eero Saarinen, Horst
Berger, Matthew Nowicki, Jorg Schlaich, the duo of Nicholas Goldsmith & Todd Dalland at FTL Design &
Engineering Studio and David Geiger.
Steady technological progress has increased the popularity of fabric-roofed structures. The low weight
of the materials makes construction easier and cheaper than standard designs, especially when vast
open spaces have to be covered.

Types of structure with significant tension members

Linear structures

 Suspension bridges
 Draped cables
 Cable-stayed beams or trusses
 Cable trusses
 Straight tensioned cables
Three-dimensional structures

 Bicycle wheel (can be used as a roof in a horizontal orientation)

 3D cable trusses
 Tensegrity structures
 Tensairity structures
Surface-stressed structures

 Prestressed membranes
 Pneumatically stressed membranes
 Gridshell
 Fabric structure

Cable and membrane structures

The World First steel membrane roof and lattice steel Shell in the Shukhov Rotunda,Russia, 1895
Membrane materials
Common materials for doubly curved fabric structures are PTFE-coated fiberglass and PVC-
coated polyester. These are woven materials with different strengths in different directions.
The warp fibers (those fibers which are originally straight—equivalent to the starting fibers on a loom)
can carry greater load than the weft or fill fibers, which are woven between the warp fibers.
Other structures make use of ETFE film, either as single layer or in cushion form (which can be inflated,
to provide good insulation properties or for aesthetic effect—as on the Allianz Arena in Munich). ETFE
cushions can also be etched with patterns in order to let different levels of light through when inflated
to different levels. They are most often supported by a structural frame as they cannot derive their
strength from double curvature.
Cables

Simple suspended bridge working entirely in tension

Cables can be of mild steel, high strength steel (drawn carbon steel), stainless steel, polyester or aramid
fibres. Structural cables are made of a series of small strands twisted or bound together to form a much
larger cable. Steel cables are either spiral strand, where circular rods are twisted together and "glued"
using a polymer, or locked coil strand, where individual interlocking steel strands form the cable (often
with a spiral strand core).
Spiral strand is slightly weaker than locked coil strand. Steel spiral strand cables have a Young's
modulus, E of 150±10 kN/mm² (or 150±10 GPa) and come in sizes from 3 to 90 mm diameter. Spiral
strand suffers from construction stretch, where the strands compact when the cable is loaded. This is
normally removed by pre-stretching the cable and cycling the load up and down to 45% of the ultimate
tensile load.
Locked coil strand typically has a Young's Modulus of 160±10 kN/mm² and comes in sizes from 20 mm to
160 mm diameter.
The final shape, or form, of a fabric structure depends upon:

 shape, or pattern, of the fabric

 the geometry of the supporting structure (such as masts, cables, ringbeams etc.)
 the pretension applied to the fabric or its supporting structure
Hyperbolic paraboloid

It is important that the final form will not allow ponding of water, as this can deform the membrane and
lead to local failure or progressive failure of the entire structure.
Snow loading can be a serious problem for membrane structure, as the snow often will not flow off the
structure as water will. For example, this has in the past caused the (temporary) collapse of the Hubert
H. Humphrey Metrodome, an air-inflated structure inMinneapolis, Minnesota. Some structures prone
to ponding use heating to melt snow which settles on them.

Saddle Shape

There are many different doubly curved forms, many of which have special mathematical properties.
The most basic doubly curved from is the saddle shape, which can be a hyperbolic paraboloid (not all
saddle shapes are hyperbolic paraboloids). This is a double ruled surface and is often used in both in
lightweight shell structures (see hyperboloid structures). True ruled surfaces are rarely found in tensile
structures. Other forms are anticlastic saddles, various radial, conical tent forms and any combination of
them.
Pretension
Pretension is tension artificially induced in the structural elements in addition to any self-weight or
imposed loads they may carry. It is used to ensure that the normally very flexible structural elements
remain stiff under all possible loads.
A day to day example of pretension is a shelving unit supported by wires running from floor to ceiling.
The wires hold the shelves in place because they are tensioned - if the wires were slack the system
would not work.
Pretension can be applied to a membrane by stretching it from its edges or by pretensioning cables
which support it and hence changing its shape. The level of pretension applied determines the shape of
a membrane structure.
Alternative form-finding approach
The alternative approximated approach to the form-finding problem solution is based on the total
energy balance of a grid-nodal system. Due to its physical meaning this approach is called the Stretched
Grid Method (SGM).
Cable and Tension Structures
High strength steel cables have been used extensively over the past twenty five years for space roof
structures. There are two different possibilities when using steel cables in roof structures.The first
possibility, consists of using the cables only for suspension of the main roof structure, which can be
either conventional, e.g. beams, cantilevers, etc., or a space frame. In this case, the main roof structure,
instead of being supported, is actually suspended from steel cables above the roof, which transmit the
tensile forces to appropriate anchorages (Figure 1). They are cable-stayed roofs.

Fig: 1. Cable-stayed roofs

There are many examples of this type of construction used as industrial buildings where the roof
structure, either as a single or as a double cantilever, is suspended from cables, which in turn are
anchored on robust pylons above the roof level.
In this type of construction, the cables behave as simple suspension elements, while the roof structure
itself behaves like a normal load resisting unit, subject to moments, shears, and other kinds of action
effect. It is expected that the suspending elements remain in tension, even under wind uplift, due to the
dead weight of the roof.
The second possibility is represented by those roof structures where the steel cables are effective
members of the roof structure itself, and not just conveyors of forces from the structure to the
anchorages. In this type of construction (tension structures), the cables themselves resist the various
external loads. Their particular behavior has deeply influenced the structural forms used and has
imposed new methods of execution.
Tension structures may be categorized as:
(a) Single-layer cable systems (Figure 2a)

Fig: 2. Single and double cable systems

(b) Double-layer prestressed cable truss systems (Figure 2b)
(c) Prestressed tensile membrane systems (Figure 3)

Fig: 3. Prestressed tensile membrane system

Tension structures are used to cover stadia, arenas, swimming pools, recreation halls and other
buildings where a large area for public assembly and exceptional aesthetic effect are required
simultaneously.
There are some particular problems associated with these cable-stayed and tension roof structures.
A first problem derives from the fact that the cable is flexible. It assumes a shape compatible with the
applied loads whilst architectural and building requirements demand that the structure has a definite
form. Any deviations from that form due to the action of the applied loads, must be kept to a minimum.
To meet this requirement, a pretension must be introduced into the structure, which must be
compatible with the desired shape, and when combined with the applied loads, must maintain the
deformation between specified limits. Design may therefore involve use of mathematical ‘form-finding’
procedures, implemented by appropriate software.
Another feature of these structures is their geometrically non-linear behaviour. Deformations play an
essential role in the analysis and the principle of superposition of effects is not valid.
Finally, an important problem associated with these structures is their sensitivity to aerodynamic
instability, e.g. flutter. This sensitivity imposes special requirements on the design and the constructional
details of these systems, particularly those which use membranes made of lightweight fabric as cladding.
The requirements of stiffness under transverse loading and anchorage are major form determinants for
cable structures, and these are examined in the following sections.
Single cable structures are characterized by their flexibility, Figure 3. They require stiffening to prevent a
change of shape with each variation in load and to make them capable of resisting uplift due to wind,
Figure 5. Gusty winds can produce oscillations, unless damping is provided to the structure.

Fig: 4. Single cable: Load/shape relations

Fig: 5. Cable stability: Plane systems

The principal methods of providing stability are the following:

i. Additional permanent load supported on, or suspended from, the roof, sufficient to neutralize the
effects of asymmetrical variable actions or uplift Figure 5a).
This arrangement has the drawback that it eliminates the lightweight nature of the structure, adding
significant cost to the entire structure.
ii. Rigid members acting as beams, where permanent load may not be adequate to counteract uplift
forces completely, but where there is sufficient flexural rigidity to deal with the net uplift forces, whilst
availing of cables to help resist effects of gravity loading (Figure 5b).

Fig: 5. Cable stability: Plane systems

iii. Rigid surfaces behaving as inverted shells or vaults, where uplift forces are countered by the in-plane
compressive rigidity of the structure (Figure 5c).
iv. Secondary cables prestressing the main cables so that these remain in tension under all conditions of
load. Such prestressing can take a variety of forms:
· a stayed (guyed) arrangement, wherein the main cable is stayed to other elements or to the ground, as
in the case of guyed trusses (Figure 5d).
· A planar arrangement of suspension and stabilising cables, with opposite curvatures cables, Figure 4e.
This structure reacts elastically to all changes of shape provoked by the externally applied loads. This
principle can be extended to permit creation of space trusses, or structures of revolution.
· An orthogonal or diagonal arrangement of suspension and stabilising cables, with opposite curvatures,
forming an anticlastic (saddle-shaped) surface, Figure 5f and 6.

Fig: 6. Cable stability: anticlastic cable

Figures 4 and 5 shows the application of these general principles to cable and cable-stayed systems,
whilst Figure 6 details the structural actions of pre stressed cable truss systems. Accurately defined, a
cable truss system has a triangulated structural form which increases stiffness, particularly under non-
symmetric loading. However, the term is also frequently applied to the cables with opposite curvature
shown in Figure 5e.

Fig: 7. Cable stability: cable trusses

The orthogonal or diagonal arrangement of anticlastic cables shown in Figure 6 can also be extended to
the conical form shown in Figure 7. The increasing use of horizontal ring cables, from Figure 8 to 8c
enhances stiffness against asymmetric loading. Because of the difficulty of anchoring a large number of
cables at a point, the top is usually flattened as shown in Figure 8d.
Fig: 8. conical membrane
.
Fig: 9. Complex tent system with multiple interior supports and internal anchorages
Anchorage

Cable stayed structures generate a requirement for the anchoring of tension forces. Some of the
commoner solutions are:
i. Vertical and horizontal reactions provided by axially loaded elements – stayed columns used with
ground anchors (Figure 10a).

Fig: 10. Cable anchorage systems

ii. Vertical and horizontal reactions provided by flexural elements i.e. cantilever columns (Figure 10b) or
legged columns (Figure 10c).
iii. Vertical columns acting with horizontally loaded edge beams which transfer horizontal reactions to
rigid diaphragms (Figure 10d).
iv. Inclined walls, or vertical cylindrically curved walls (Figure 11a).

Fig: 11. Cable anchorage system-2

v. Form-related boundary shapes, creating, in some cases, a closed self-equilibrating system of tension
and compressive forces and requiring no tension ground anchors (Figure 11b).
The magnitude of forces in stayed columns and in diagonal stay restraining cables is reduced by inclining
the columns. In some symmetrical structures lateral thrust is balanced by means of struts
5. Membrane structures are spatial structures made out of tensioned membranes. The structural use of
membranes can be divided intopneumatic structures, tensile membrane structures, and cable domes. In
these three kinds of structure, membranes work together with cables, columns and other construction
members to find a form. Membranes are also used as non-structural cladding, as at the Beijing National
Stadium where the spaces between the massive steel structural members are infilled with PTFE coated
glass fiber fabric and ETFE foil. The other major building on the site, built for the 2008 Summer
Olympics, is the Beijing National Aquatics Center, also known as the Water Cube. It is entirely clad in
100,000 square metres of inflated ETFE foil cushions arranged as an apparently random cellular
structure.
Materials
The common membranes used in membrane structures include:
 PVC coated polyester fabric
 Translucent Polyethylene fabric
 PVC coated glass fiber fabric
 PTFE coated glass fiber fabric; foils like
 ETFE foil
 PVC foil.

6.Shell (structure)
A shell is a type of structural element which is characterized by its geometry, being a three-dimensional
solid whose thickness is very small when compared with other dimensions, and in structural terms, by
the stress resultants calculated in the middle plane displaying components which are both coplanar and
normal to the surface. Essentially, a shell can be derived from a plate by two means: by initially forming
the middle surface as a singly or doubly curved surface, and by applying loads which are coplanar to a
plate's plane which generate significant stresses.

Shell structure of the TWA Flight Center Building by Eero Saarinen, John F. Kennedy International
Airport, New York
 Lattice Shell of theShukhov Hyperboloid Tower. Currently under threat of demolition.

Great Court, with a lattice thin-shell roof by Buro Happold with Norman Foster,British Museum, London

Thin-shell structures are light weight constructions using shell elements. These elements are typically
curved and are assembled to large structures. Typical applications are fuselages of aeroplanes, boat
hulls and roof structures in some buildings.
A thin shell is defined as a shell with a thickness which is small compared to its other dimensions and in
which deformations are not large compared to thickness. A primary difference between a shell structure
and a plate structure is that, in the unstressed state, the shell structure has curvature as opposed to the
plates structure which is flat. Membrane action in a shell is primarily caused by in-plane forces (plane
stress), though there may be secondary forces resulting from flexural deformations. Where a flat plate
acts similar to a beam with bending and shear stresses, shells are analogous to a cable which resists
loads through tensile stresses. Though the ideal thin shell must be capable of developing both tension
and compression.[1]

Types
The most popular types of thin-shell structures are:

 Concrete shell structures, often cast as a monolithic dome or stressed ribbon bridge or saddle roof
 Lattice shell structures, also called gridshell structures, often in the form of a geodesic dome or
a hyperboloid structure
 Membrane structures, which include fabric structures and other tensile structures, cable domes,
and pneumatic structures.
Shell structure, In building construction, a thin, curved plate structure shaped to transmit
applied forces by compressive, tensile, and shear stresses that act in the plane of the surface.
They are usually constructed of concrete reinforced with steel mesh (seeshotcrete). Shell
construction began in the 1920s; the shell emerged as a major long-span concrete structure
after World War II. Thin parabolic shell vaults stiffened with ribs have been built with spans up
to about 300 ft (90 m). More complex forms of concrete shells have been made, including
hyperbolic paraboloids, or saddle shapes, and intersecting parabolic vaults less than 0.5 in.
(1.25 cm) thick. Pioneering thin-shell designers includeFelix Candela and Pier Luigi Nervi.

7. Pre-engineered building
In structural engineering, a pre-engineered building (PEB) is designed by a PEB supplier or PEB
manufacturer, to be fabricated using best suited inventory of raw materials available from all sources
and manufacturing methods that can efficiently satisfy a wide range of structural and aesthetic design
requirements. Within some geographic industry sectors these buildings are also called Pre-Engineered
Metal Buildings (PEMB) or, as is becoming increasingly common due to the reduced amount of pre-
engineering involved in custom computer-aided designs, simply Engineered Metal Buildings (EMB).
Historically, the primary framing structure of a pre-engineered building is an assembly of I-shaped
members, often referred as I-beams. In pre-engineered buildings, the I beams used are usually formed
by welding together steel plates to form the I section. The I beams are then field-assembled (e.g. bolted
connections) to form the entire frame of the pre-engineered building. Some manufacturers taper the
framing members (varying in web depth) according to the local loading effects. Larger plate dimensions
are used in areas of higher load effects.
Other forms of primary framing can include trusses, mill sections rather than three-plate welded,
castellated beams, etc. The choice of economic form can vary depending on factors such as local
capabilities (e.g. manufacturing, transportation, construction) and variations in material vs. labour costs.
Typically, primary frames are 2D type frames (i.e. may be analyzed using two-dimensional techniques).
Advances in computer-aided design technology, materials and manufacturing capabilities have assisted
a growth in alternate forms of pre-engineered building such as the tension fabric building and more
sophisticated analysis (e.g. three-dimensional) as is required by some building codes. [1]
Cold formed Z- and C-shaped members may be used as secondary structural elements to fasten and
support the external cladding.
Roll-formed profiled steel sheet, wood, tensioned fabric, precast concrete, masonry block, glass
curtainwall or other materials may be used for the external cladding of the building.
In order to accurately design a pre-engineered building, engineers consider the clear span between
bearing points, bay spacing, roof slope, live loads, dead loads, collateral loads, wind uplift, deflection
criteria, internal crane system and maximum practical size and weight of fabricated members.
Historically, pre-engineered building manufacturers have developed pre-calculated tables for different
structural elements in order to allow designers to select the most efficient I beams size for their
projects. However, the table selection procedures are becoming rare with the evolution in computer-
aided custom designs.
While pre-engineered buildings can be adapted to suit a wide variety of structural applications, the
greatest economy will be realized when utilising standard details. An efficiently designed pre-engineered
building can be lighter than the conventional steel buildings by up to 30%. Lighter weight equates to less
steel and a potential price savings in structural framework.

Project professionals and manufacturer-designed building

The project architect, sometimes called the Architect of Record, is typically responsible for aspects such
as aesthetic, dimensional, occupant comfort and fire safety. When a pre-engineered building is selected
for a project, the architect accepts conditions inherent in the manufacturer's product offerings for
aspects such as materials, colours, structural form, dimensional modularity, etc. Despite the existence of
the manufacturer's standard assembly details, the architect remains responsible to ensure that the
manufacturer's product and assembly is consistent with the building code requirements (e.g. continuity
of air/vapour retarders, insulation, rain screen; size and location of exits; fire rated assemblies) and
occupant/owner expectations.
Many jurisdictions recognize the distinction between the project engineer, sometimes called the
Engineer of Record, and the manufacturer's employee or subcontract engineer, sometimes called a
specialty engineer. The principal differences between these two entities on a project are the limits of
commercial obligation, professional responsibility and liability.
The structural Engineer of Record is responsible to specify the design parameters for the project (e.g.
materials, loads, design standards, service limits) and to ensure that the element and assembly designs
by others are consistent in the global context of the finished building.
The specialty engineer is responsible to design only those elements which the manufacturer is
commercially obligated to supply (e.g. by contract) and to communicate the assembly procedures,
design assumptions and responses, to the extent that the design relies on or affects work by others, to
the Engineer of Record – usually described in the manufacturer's erection drawings and assembly
manuals. The manufacturer produces an engineered product but does not typically provide engineering
services to the project.
In the context described, the Architect and Engineer of Record are the designers of the building and
bear ultimate responsibility for the performance of the completed work. A buyer should be aware of the
project professional distinctions when developing the project plan.
 Introduction to Pre Engineered Buildings

Technological improvement over the year has contributed immensely to the enhancement of quality of
life through various new products and services. One such revolution was the pre engineered buildings.
Through its origin can be traced back to 1960’s its potential has been felt only during the recent years.
This was mainly due to the development in technology, which helped in computerizing the design and
design.
Though initially only off the shelf products were available in these configurations aided by the
technological development tailor made solutions are also made using this technology in very short
durations. A recent survey by the Metal Building Associations (MBMA) shows that about 60% of the non
residential low rises building in USA are pre engineered buildings.

Although PEB systems are extensively used in industrial and many other non residential constructions
world wide, it is relatively a new concept in India. These concepts were introduced to the Indian markets
lately in the late 1990’s with the opening up of the economy and a number of multi nationals setting up
their projects.The market potential of PEB’s is 1.2 million tones per annum. The current pre engineered
steel building manufacturing capacity is 0.35 million tones per annum. The industry is growing at the
compound rate of 25 to 30 %.

With respect to design of the structure and aesthetic appearance India is way behind. Indian
manufacturers are trying to catch up; comparatively PEB’s is a new concept in India. Beside, in
fabrication and other areas of PEB India is very good. As compared to other countries Indian codes for
building design are stringent but safer. IS standards are upgraded continuously. In India, American codes
are also followed.

Pre engineered steel buildings can be fitted with different structural accessories including mezzanine
floors, canopies, fascias, interior partitions etc. and the building is made water proof by use of special
mastic beads, filler strips and trims. This is very versatile buildings systems and can be finished internally
to serve any functions and accessorized externally to achieve attractive and unique designing styles. It is
very advantageous over the conventional buildings and is really helpful in the low rise building design.
Pre engineered buildings are generally low rise buildings however the maximum eave height can go upto
25 to 30 metres. Low rise buildings are ideal for offices, houses, showrooms, shop fronts etc. The
application of pre engineered buildings concept to low rise buildings is very economical and speedy.
Buildings can be constructed in less than half the normal time especially when complemented with the
other engineered sub systems.

The most common and economical type of low rise buildings is a building with ground floor and two
intermediate floor plus roof. The roof of low rise buildings may be flat or sloped. Intermediate floors of
low rise buildings are made of mezzanine systems. Single storied houses for living take minimum time
for construction and can be built in any type of geographical location like extreme cold hilly areas, high
rain prone areas, plain land obviously and extreme hot climatic zones as well.

Applications of Pre Engineered Buildings (PEB)

1. WAREHOUSES
2. FACTORIES
3. WORKSHOPS
4. OFFICES
5. GAS STATIONS
6. VEHICLE PARKING SHEDS
7. SHOWROOMS
8. AIRCRAFT HANGARS
9. METRO STATIONS
10. SCHOOLS
11. RECREATIONAL
12. INDOOR STADIUM ROOFS
13. OUTDOOR STADIUM CANOPIES
14. BRIDGES
15. RAILWAY PLATFORM SHELTERS

Advantages of Pre Engineered Buildings

REDUCED CONSTRUCTION TIME: Buildings are typically delivered in just a few weeks after approval of
drawings. Foundation and anchor bolts are cast parallel with finished, ready for the site bolting. Our
study shows that in India the use of PEB will reduce total construction time of the project by at least
50%. This also allows faster occupancy and earlier realization of revenue.
LOWER COST: Due to the systems approach, there is a significant saving in design, manufacturing and on
site erection cost. The secondary members and cladding nest together reducing transportation cost.
FLEXIBILTY OF EXPANSION: Buildings can be easily expanded in length by adding additional bays. Also
expansion in width and height is possible by pre designing for future expansion.
LARGE CLEAR SPANS: Buildings can be supplied to around 80M clear spans.
QUALITY CONTROL: As buildings are manufactured completely in the factory under controlled
conditions the quality is assured.
LOW MAINTENANCE : Buildings are supplied with high quality paint systems for cladding and steel to
suit ambient conditions at the site, which results in long durability and low maintenance coats.
ENERGY EFFICIENT ROOFING AND WALL SYSTEMS: Buildings can be supplied with polyurethane
insulated panels or fiberglass blankets insulation to achieve required “U” values.
ARCHITECTURAL VERSTALITY: Building can be supplied with various types of fascias, canopies, and
curved eaves and are designed to receive pre cast concrete wall panels, curtain walls, block walls and
other wall systems.
SINGLE SOURCE RESPONSIBILTY: As the complete building package is supplied by a single vendor,
compatibility of all the building components and accessories is assured. This is one of the major benefits
of the pre engineered building systems.

Pre Engineered Buildings Vs Conventional Steel Buildings

PROPERTY PEB BUILDINGS CONVENTIONAL STEEL
BUILDINGS

STRUCTURE WEIGHT Pre engineered buildings are on Primary steel members are
the average 30% lighter selected hot rolled “T” sections.
because of the efficient use of Which are, in many segments of
steel. Primary framing the members heavier than what
members are tapered built up is actually required by design?
section. With the large depths Members have constant cross
in areas of higher stress. section regardless of the varying
magnitude of the local stresses
along the member length.

Secondary members are light Secondary members are

weight roll formed “Z” or “C” selected from standard hot
shaped members. rolled sections which are much
heavier.
DESIGN Quick and efficient: since PEB’s Each conventional steel
are mainly formed by standard structure is designed form
sections and connections scratch with fewer design aids
design, time is significantly available to the engineer.
reduced. Basic design based on
international design codes are
used over and over.

Specialized computer analysis Substantial engineering and

design programs optimize detailing work is required from
material required. Drafting is the very basic is required by the
also computerized using consultant with fewer design
standard detail that minimize aids.
the use of project custom
details.

Design shop detail sketches and Extensive amount of consultant

erection drawings are supplied time is devoted to the
free of cost by the alterations that have to be
manufacturer. Approval done.
drawing is usually prepared
within in 2 weeks.

PEB designers design and detail As each project is a new project

PEB buildings almost every day engineers need more time to
of the year resulting in develop the designs and details
improving the quality of designs of the unique structure.
every time they work

DELIEVERY Average 6 to 8 weeks Average 20 to 26 weeks

FOUNDATIONS Simple design, easy to construct Extensive, heavy foundation

and light weight. required.

ERECTION SIMPLICITY Since the connection of The connections are normally

compounds is standard the complicated and differ from
learning curve of erection for project to project resulting tin
each subsequent project is increasing the time for erection
faster. of the buildings.

Periodic free of charge erection There has to be separate

is provided at the site by the allocation of labour for the
manufacturer. purpose of erection.
ERECTION COST AND TIME Both costs and time of erection Typically, conventional steel
are accurately known based buildings are 20% more
upon extensive experience with expensive than PEB in most of
similar buildings. the cases, the erection costs
and time are not estimated
accurately.

The erection process is faster Erection process is slow and

and much easier with very less extensive field labour is
requirement for equipment. required. Heavy equipment is
also needed.
SEISMIC RESISTANCE The low weight flexible frames Rigid heavy frames do not
offer higher resistance to perform well in seismic zones.
seismic forces.

OVER ALL PRICE Price per square meter may be Higher price per square meter.
as low as by 30 % than the
conventional building.

ARCHITECTURE Outstanding architectural Special architectural design and

design can be achieved at low features must be developed for
cost using standard each project which often
architectural details and require research and thus
interfaces. resulting in higher cost.

SOURCING AND COORDINATION Building is supplied complete Many sources of supply are
with all accessories including there so it becomes difficult to
erection for a single “ONE STOP co ordinate and handle the
SOURCE”. things.

COST OF CHARGE ORDER PEB manufactures usually stock Substitution of hot rolled
a large amount of that can be sections infrequently rolled by
flexibly used in many types of mills is expensive and time
PEB projects. consuming.

Change orders are easily Change orders that are made

accommodated at all stages of after the dispatch of hot rolled
the order fulfillment process. sections result in increasing the
Little or no material is wasted time and cost involved in the
even if a change order is made project.
after fabrication starts.

BUILDING ACCESSORIES Designed to fit the system with Every project requires different
standardized and inter and special design fro
 changeable parts. Including pre accessories and special sourcing
designed flashing and trims. for each item. Flashing and
Building accessories are mass trims must be uniquely
produced for economy and are designed and fabricated.
available with the building.

FUTURE EXPANSIONS All project records are safely It would be difficult to obtain
and orderly kept in electronic project records after a long
format which make sit easy for period of time. It is required to
the owner to obtain a copy of contact more than one number
his building record at any time. of parties.

Future expansion is very easy Future expansion is most

and simple. tedious and more costly.

SAFETY AND RESPONSIBILTY Single source of responsibility is Multiple responsibilities can

there because all the job is result in question of who is
being done by one supplier. responsible when the
components do not fit in
properly, insufficient material is
supplied or parts fail to perform
particularly at the
supplier/contractor interface.

PERFORMANCE All components have been Components are custom

specified and designed specially designed for a specific
to act together as a system for application on a specific job.
maximum efficiency, precise fir Design and detailing errors are
and peak performance in the possible when assembling the
field. diverse components into unique
buildings.

Experience with similar Each building design is unique,

buildings, in actual field so predication, of how
conditions world wide, has components will perform
resulted in design together is uncertain. Materials
improvements over time, which which have performed well in
allow dependable prediction of some climates may not do well
performance. in other conditions.
 Design of Pre Engineered Buildings (PEB)
The main framing of PEB systems is analyzed by the stiffness matrix method. The design is based on
allowable stress design (ASD) as per the American institute of Steel Construction specification or the IS
800. the design program provides an economic and efficient design of the main frames and allows the
user to utilize the program in different modes to produce the frame design geometry and loading and
the desired load combinations as specified by the building code opted by the user. The program
operates through the maximum number of cycles specified to arrive at an acceptable design. The
program uses the stiffness matrix method to arrive at an acceptable design. The program uses the
stiffness matrix method to arrive at the solution of displacements and forces. The strain energy method
is adopted to calculate the fixed end moments, stiffness and carry over factors. Numerical integration is
used.

Design Cycle
The design cycle consists of the following steps:

1. Set up section sizes and brace locations based on the geometry and loading specified for the frame
design.
2. Calculate moment, shear, and axial force at each analysis point for each load combination.
3. Compute allowable shear, allowable axial and allowable bending stress in compression and tension at
each analysis point.
4. Compute the corresponding stress ratios for shear, axial and bending based on the actual and
allowable stresses and calculate the combined stress ratios.

5. Design the optimum splice location and check to see whether the predicted sizes confirm to
manufacturing constraints.
6. Using the web optimization mode, arrive at the optimum web depths for the next cycle and update
the member data file.
7. At the end of all design cycles, an analysis is run to achieve flange brace optimization.

Frame Geometry
The program has the capability to handle different types of frame geometry as follows

Frames of different types viz. rigid frames, frames with multiple internal columns, single slope frames,
lean to frames etc.Frames with varying spans, varying heights and varying slopes etc.
Frames with different types of supports viz. pinned supports, fixed supports, sinking supports, supports
with some degrees of freedom released.
Unsymmetrical frames with off centric, unequal modules, varying slopes etc.

User specified purlin and girt spacing and flange brace location.

Frame Loading
Frame design can handle different types of loadings as described below:All the building dead loads due
to sheeting, purlins, etc. and the self weight of the frame.Imposed live load on the frame with tributary
reductions as well.Collateral load such as false ceiling, light fixtures, AC ducting loads, sprinkler systems
and many other suspended loads of similar nature.

Wind loads input such as basic wind speed or basic wind pressure that will be converted to deign wind
pressure as per the building code specified by the user and shall be applied to the different members of
the building according to the coefficients mentioned in the codes prescribed by the user. The standard
building codes like MBMA, UBC, ANSI, IS:875 part 3 etc are used fro this purpose.Crane and non crane
loading can be specified by the user and the program has the capability to handle these special loads
and combine them with the other loads as required.Seismic loads corresponding to the different zone
categories of various international codes can also be defined and combined with other load cases as
required.Temperature loads can also be specified in the form of different differential temperature value
on centigrade and specifying the appropriate coefficient for the thermal expansion.Load combinations
with appropriate load factors can be specified by the user as desired.
Geodesic dome
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Spaceship Earth at Epcot, Walt Disney World, a geodesic sphere

A geodesic dome is a spherical or partial-spherical shell structure or lattice shell based on a network
of great circles (geodesics) on the surface of a sphere. The geodesics intersect to
form triangular elements that have local triangular rigidity and also distribute the stressacross the
structure. When completed to form a complete sphere, it is a geodesic sphere. A dome is enclosed,
unlike open geodesic structures such as playground climbers.
Typically a geodesic dome design begins with icosahedron inscribed in a hypothetical sphere, tiling each
triangular face with smaller triangles, then projecting the vertices of each tile to the sphere. The
endpoints of the links of the completed sphere are the projected endpoints on the sphere's surface. If
this is done exactly, sub-triangle edge lengths take on many different values, requiring links of many
sizes. To minimize this, simplifications are made. The result is a compromise of triangles with their
vertices lying approximately on the sphere. The edges of the triangles form approximate geodesic paths
over the surface of the dome.
Geodesic designs can be used to form any curved, enclosed space. Standard designs tend to be used
because unusual configurations may require complex, expensive custom design of each strut, vertex and
panel.

History

The Montréal Biosphère, formerly the American Pavilion of Expo 67, by R. Buckminster Fuller, on Île
Sainte-Hélène, Montreal, Quebec
The Climatron greenhouse atMissouri Botanical Gardens, built in 1960 and designed by Thomas C.
Howard of Synergetics, Inc., inspired the domes in the science fiction movieSilent Running

The first dome that could be called "geodesic" in every respect was designed after World War
I by Walther Bauersfeld,[1] chief engineer of the Carl Zeiss optical company, for a planetarium to house
his planetarium projector. The dome was patented, constructed by the firm of Dykerhoff and Wydmann
on the roof of the Zeiss plant in Jena, Germany, and opened to the public in July 1926. [2] Some 20 years
later,R. Buckminster Fuller named the dome "geodesic" from field experiments with artist Kenneth
Snelson at Black Mountain College in 1948 and 1949. Snelson and Fuller worked developing what they
termed "tensegrity," an engineering principle of continuous tension and discontinuous compression that
allowed domes to deploy a lightweight lattice of interlocking icosahedrons that could be skinned with a
protective cover. Although Fuller was not the original inventor, he developed the intrinsic mathematics
of the dome, thereby allowing popularization of the idea — for which he received U.S. patent
2,682,235 [2] 29 June 1954.[3]
The geodesic dome appealed to Fuller because it was extremely strong for its weight, its
"omnitriangulated" surface provided an inherently stable structure, and because a sphere encloses the
greatest volume for the least surface area.
The dome was successfully adopted for specialized uses, such as the 21 Distant Early Warning
Line domes built in Canada in 1956,[4] the 1958 Union Tank Car Company dome near Baton Rouge,
Louisiana designed by Thomas C. Howard of Synergetics, Inc. and specialty buildings like the Kaiser
Aluminum domes (constructed in numerous locations across the US, e.g., Virginia Beach, VA),
auditoriums, weather observatories, and storage facilities. The dome was soon breaking records for
covered surface, enclosed volume, and construction speed.
Utilising the geodesic dome's stability, the US Marines experimented with helicopter-deliverable units.
The dome was introduced to a wider audience as a pavilion for the 1964 World's Fair in New York
City designed by Thomas C. Howard of Synergetics, Inc. This dome is now used as an aviary by
the Queens Zoo in Flushing Meadows Corona Park after it was redesigned by TC Howard of Synergetics,
Inc.
Another dome is from Expo 67 at the Montreal World's Fair, where it was part of the American Pavilion.
The structure's covering later burned, but the structure itself still stands and, under the
name Biosphère, currently houses an interpretive museum about the Saint Lawrence River.
A dome appeared in the 1967 James Bond film You Only Live Twice, inspiring the production designer
of Austin Powers The Spy Who Shagged Me to use a dome for Dr Evil's moon base.[5]
During the 1970s, the Cinesphere dome was built at the Ontario Place amusement park
in Toronto, Canada. In 1975, a dome was constructed at the South Pole, where its resistance to snow
and wind loads is important.
On October 1, 1982, one of the most famous geodesic domes, Spaceship Earth at the EPCOT
Center in Walt Disney World (Bay Lake, Florida), opened. The building and the ride inside of it are named
with one of Buckminster Fuller's famous terms, Spaceship Earth, a world view expressing concern over
the use of limited resources available on Earth and encouraging everyone on it to act as a harmonious
crew working toward the greater good. The building is Epcot's icon, and is also included in the park's
logo.
In the year 2000 the world's first fully sustainable geodesic dome hotel, EcoCamp Patagonia, was built
in Chilean Patagonia opening the following year in 2001. The hotel's dome design is key to resisting the
region's strong winds and is based on the dwellings of the indigenous Kaweskar people.

Methods of construction

Construction details of a permanently installed tent-type Charter-Sphere dome designed by Synergetics.

Inc., non- geodesic

Long Island Green Dome

Wooden domes have a hole drilled in the width of a strut. A stainless steel band locks the strut's hole to
a steel pipe. With this method, the struts may be cut to the exact length needed. Triangles of exterior
plywood are then nailed to the struts. The dome is wrapped from the bottom to the top with several
stapled layers of tar paper, in order to shed water, and finished with shingles. This type of dome is often
called a hub-and-strut dome because of the use of steel hubs to tie the struts together.
Panelized domes are constructed of separately framed timbers covered in plywood. The three members
comprising the triangular frame are often cut at compound angles in order to provide for a flat fitting of
the various triangles. Holes are drilled through the members at precise locations and steel bolts then
connect the triangles to form the dome. These members are often 2x4's or 2x6's, which allow for
more insulation to fit within the triangle. The panelized technique allows the builder to attach the
plywood skin to the triangles while safely working on the ground or in a comfortable shop out of the
weather. This method does not require expensive steel hubs.
Temporary greenhouse domes have been constructed by stapling plastic sheeting onto a dome
constructed from one-inch square beams. The result is warm, movable by hand in sizes less than 20 feet,
and cheap. It should be staked to the ground to prevent it being moved by wind.
Steel-framework can be easily constructed of electrical conduit. One flattens the end of a strut and drills
bolt holes at the needed length. A single bolt secures a vertex of struts. The nuts are usually set with
removable locking compound, or if the dome is portable, have a castle nut with a cotter pin. This is the
standard way to construct domes for jungle gyms.
Domes can also be constructed with a lightweight aluminium framework which can either be bolted or
welded together or can be connected with a more flexible nodel point/hub connection. These dome are
usually clad with glass which is held in place with a PVC coping. The coping can be sealed with silicone to
make it water tight. Some designs will also allow for double glazing or insulated panels to be fixed in the
framework. This allows a fully habitable building to be formed.
Concrete and foam plastic domes generally start with a steel framework dome, wrapped with chicken
wire and wire screen for reinforcement. The chicken wire and screen is tied to the framework with wire
ties. A coat of material is then sprayed or molded onto the frame. Tests should be performed with small
squares to achieve the correct consistency of concrete or plastic. Generally, several coats are necessary
on the inside and outside. The last step is to saturate concrete or polyester domes with a thin layer
of epoxycompound to shed water.
Some concrete domes have been constructed from prefabricated, prestressed, steel-reinforced concrete
panels that can be bolted into place. The bolts are within raised receptacles covered with little concrete
caps to shed water. The triangles overlap to shed water. The triangles in this method can be molded in
forms patterned in sand with wooden patterns, but the concrete triangles are usually so heavy that they
must be placed with a crane. This construction is well-suited to domes because there is no place for
water to pool on the concrete and leak through. The metal fasteners, joints, and internal steel frames
remain dry, preventing frost and corrosion damage. The concrete resists sun and weathering. Some
form of internal flashing or caulking must be placed over the joints to prevent drafts. The 1963 Cinerama
Dome was built from precast concretehexagons and pentagons.

Dome homes

Fuller hoped that the geodesic dome would help address the postwar housing crisis. This was consistent
with his prior hopes for both versions of the Dymaxion House.
Residential geodesic domes have been less successful than those used for working and/or
entertainment, largely because of their complexity and consequent greater construction costs.
Professional experienced dome contractors, while hard to find, do exist, and can eliminate much of the
cost overruns associated with false starts and incorrect estimates. Fuller himself lived in a geodesic
dome in Carbondale, Illinois, at the corner of Forest and Cherry. [7] Fuller thought of residential domes as
air-deliverable products manufactured by an aerospace-like industry. Fuller's own dome home still
exists, the R. Buckminster Fuller and Anne Hewlett Dome Home, and a group called RBF Dome NFP is
attempting to restore the dome and have it registered as a National Historic Landmark.
In 1986 a patent for a dome construction technique involving EPS triangles laminated to reinforced
concrete on the outside, and wallboard on the inside was awarded to American Ingenuity of Rockledge
Florida. The construction technique allows the domes to be prefabricated in kit form and erected by a
homeowner. This method makes the seams into the strongest part of the structure, where the seams
and especially the hubs in most wooden-framed domes are the weakest point in the structure. It also
has the advantage of being watertight.
Habitable aluminium frame geodesic dome homes are emerging in Norway and Austria. 2012 saw an
Aluminium and glass dome being used as a dome cover to an eco home in Norway [8] and in 2013 a glass
and wood clad dome home was built in Austria.[9]
In Chile and Finland there are examples of geodesic domes being readily adopted for hotel
accommodation either as tented style geodesic domes or glass covered domes. Examples: EcoCamp
Patagonia, Chile;[10] Elqui Domos, Chile;[11] and Hotel Kakslauttanen, Finland.[12]
Disadvantages

Buckminster Fuller's own home, undergoing restoration after deterioration

Although dome homes enjoyed a wave of popularity in the late 1960s and early 1970s, as a housing
system the dome has many disadvantages and problems. A former proponent of dome homes, Lloyd
Kahn, who wrote two books about them (Domebook 1 andDomebook 2) and founded Shelter
Publications, became disillusioned with them, calling them "smart but not wise". [13] He noted the
following disadvantages, which he has listed on his company's website:
The shape of a dome house makes it difficult to conform to code requirements for placement of sewer
vents and chimneys. Off-the-shelf building materials (e.g., plywood, strand board) normally come in
rectangular shapes, therefore some material may have to be scrapped after cutting rectangles down to
triangles, increasing the cost of construction. Fire escapes are problematic; codes require them for
larger structures, and they are expensive. Windows conforming to code can cost anywhere from 5 to 15
times as much as windows in conventional houses. Professional electrical wiring costs more because of
increased labor time. Even owner-wired situations are costly, because more of certain materials are
required for dome construction.
Air stratification and moisture distribution within a dome are unusual. The conditions tend to quickly
degrade wooden framing or interior paneling. A company called New Age Construction in Alabama
claims that an addition of a cupola eliminates the moisture condensation that is common in domes.
Privacy is difficult to guarantee because a dome is difficult to partition satisfactorily. Sounds, smells, and
even reflected light tend to be conveyed through the entire structure, which, if planned correctly, can be
a bonus.
As with any curved shape, the dome produces wall areas that can be difficult to use and leaves some
peripheral floor area with restricted use due to lack of headroom. Circular plan shapes lack the simple
modularity provided by rectangles. Furnishers and fitters design for flat surfaces in mind. Placing a
standard sofa against an exterior wall (for example) results in a crescent behind the sofa being wasted.
Dome builders using cut-board sheathing material (common in the 1960s and 1970s) find it hard to seal
domes against rain, because of their many seams. Also, these seams may be stressed because ordinary
solar heat flexes the entire structure each day as the sun moves across the sky. Subsequent addition of
straps and interior flexible drywall finishes has virtually eliminated this movement being noticed in the
interior finishes.
The most effective waterproofing method with a wooden dome is to shingle the dome. Peaked caps at
the top of the dome, or to modify the dome shapes are used where slope is insufficient for ice barrier.
One-piece reinforced concrete or plastic domes are also in use, and some domes have been constructed
from plastic or waxed cardboard triangles that are overlapped in such a way as to shed water.
Buckminster Fuller's former student J. Baldwin insists that there is no reason for a properly designed,
well-constructed dome to leak, and that some designs cannot leak.[14]

Chord factors

A geodesic sphere and its dual

The mathematical object "chord" of the "geodesic sphere" corresponds to the structural "strut" of the
physical "geodesic dome". A chord is a (straight) line segment joining two points on a curve. For simple
geodesic domes, curves follow the surface of a sphere circumscribing a regular polyhedron with
triangular faces (tetrahedron, icosahedron, or octahedron). The desired frequency of the subsequent
geodesic sphere or dome is the number of parts or segments into which a side (edge) of the underlying
polyhedral triangle is subdivided. The frequency has historically been denoted by the Greek letter " "
(nu). By connecting like points along the subdivided sides, a natural triangular grid is formed on each
face of the polyhedron. Each segment of the grid is then projected as a "chord" onto the surface of the
circumscribing sphere. The technical definition of a chord factor is the ratio of chord length to the radius
of the circumscribing sphere. It is therefore convenient to think of the circumscribing sphere as scaled to
radius = 1 in which "chord factors" are the same as "chord lengths" (fractional values less than one).
For geodesic spheres, a well-known formula for calculating any "chord factor" is:
where " " is the corresponding angle of arc for the given chord, that is, the "central angle" spanned by
the chord with respect to the center of the circumscribing sphere. Determining the central angle usually
requires some non-trivial spherical geometry.
In Geodesic Math and How to Use It Hugh Kenner writes, "Tables of chord factors, containing as they do
the essential design information for spherical systems, were for many years guarded like military
secrets. As late as 1966, some 3ν icosa figures from Popular Science Monthly were all anyone outside
the circle of Fuller licensees had to go on." (page 57, 1976 edition). Other tables became available with
publication of Lloyd Kahn's Domebook 1 (1970) and Domebook 2 (1971). With advent of personal
computers, the mathematics became more solvable. Rick Bono's Dome software outputs a script that
can be used with the POV-ray raytrace to produce 3D pictures of domes. Domes based on the
frameworks of different underlying polyhedra along with various methods for subdividing them will
produce quite different results. Mathematical formulas developed by Peter W. Messer for calculating
chord factors and dihedral angles for the general geodesic sphere appear in the Appendix of the 1999
Dover edition of Spherical Models by Magnus J. Wenninger.

Related patterns

Similar geodesic structures may be based upon the pattern of edges and vertices of certain Platonic
solids, or upon various expansions of these called Johnson solids. Such structures may be composed of
struts of uniform length while having faces other than triangles such as pentagons or squares, or these
faces may be subdivided by struts of other than the basic length. Plans and licenses for such structures
derived from licenses of the Fuller patents were produced during the 1970s by Zomeworks (now a
manufacturer of solar trackers). Both geodesic and non-geodesic structures can be derived similarly
from the Archimedean solids and Catalan solids.
The building of strong stable structures out of patterns of reinforcing triangles is most commonly seen
in tent design. It has been applied in the abstract in other industrial design, but even in management
science and deliberative structures as a conceptual metaphor, especially in the work of Stafford Beer,
whose transmigration method is based so specifically on dome design that only fixed numbers of people
can take part in the process at each deliberation stage.
The dual polyhedron of icosahedral geodesic spheres give Goldberg polyhedra.