CLSU- Agricultural Engineering Board Exam Review Materials

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

INTRODUCTION
● The water cycle
● The central focus of hydrology
● The interdependence and continuous movement of all phases of water
● The transport of water between ocean, land, and atmosphere
● Has no beginning or end
● Many processes occur simultaneously
● Many sub cycles exist
● Water is indestructible; the total quantity of water in the cycle can neither be diminished nor increased
● Movement of water is erratic, both in time and area

THE PROCESSES

The hydrologic cycle may be viewed as beginning with evaporation, the movement of water from the liquid to the vapor state, from
any wet surface. The resulting water vapor is transported by moving air masses. Under proper conditions, the vapor undergoes the process of
condensation (change of water from vapor to liquid), or sublimation (change of vapor to ice) to form clouds, which may, in turn, fall to earth
as precipitation.

The precipitation may be dispersed in several ways:

● Be evaporated while falling (virga)
● Be intercepted by vegetation cover or by surfaces of buildings and other structures, and then be evaporated back into the
atmosphere rather quickly. (Water not intercepted by vegetation is termed throughfall).
● Be stored in the form of ponds, puddles and surface water which are evaporated into the atmosphere
● Be stored as snow and ice before melting or sublimation occurs after many years
● Flow over the surface (overland flow), discharge into streams and lakes (surface runoff) and then move by evaporation into the
atmosphere or by seepage towards the groundwater or by further flow into the oceans
● Infiltrate through the ground surface to join existing soil water and be removed by evaporation from the soil, or by throughflow
towards stream channels (subsurface flow or interflow), or by downward percolation to the underlying groundwater where it may
be held from weeks to millennia.. The groundwater component may be removed by upward capillary movement to the soil surface
or to the root zone of the vegetation cover, and from there be returned to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration, (or the
combined consumptiveuse, the evaporative process by which water is released to the atmosphere through vegetation and soil), or
by groundwater seepage and flow into surface streams and into the oceans (groundwater flow or baseflow).

NATURE OF THE CYCLE

Hydrologic processes are investigated over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales.
● Microscale, those pertaining to such levels as studies of the movement of soil solution through the interstices of the soil matrix or
of the evaporation characteristics of individual plants growing in controlled environment chambers
● Mesoscale, those covering the size of a drainage basin
● Macroscale, those of global or regional scale

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ESTIMATED AMOUNTS OF WATER

Given below are the estimated quantities of water in various forms on the earth.
Estimated World Water Quantities
ITEM AREA VOLUME PERCENT OF PERCENT OF
(106 km2) (km3) TOTAL WATER FRESH WATER

Oceans 361.3 1,338,000,000 96.5

Groundwater
Fresh 134.8 10,530,000 0.76 30.1
Saline 134.8 12,870,000 0.93
Soil Moisture 82.0 16,500 0.0012 0.05
Polar Ice 16.0 24,023,500 1.7 68.6
Other ice, snow 0.3 340,600 0.025 1.0
Lakes
Fresh 1.2 91,000 0.007 0.26
Saline 0.8 85,400 0.006
Marshes 2.7 11,470 0.0008 0.03
Rivers 148.8 2,120 0.0002 0.006
Biological 510.0 1,120 0.0001 0.003
Atmospheric 510.0 12,900 0.001 0.04
Total Water 510.0 1,385,984,610 100
Fresh Water 148.8 35,029,210 2.5 100

THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET

SYSTEMS CONCEPT

Hydrologic phenomena may be represented by means of the systems concept, a system being a set of connected parts that form a
whole. For the hydrologic cycle then, the system components are precipitation, evaporation, runoff, and other phases of the cycle.

A hydrologic system is defined as a structure or volume in space, surrounded by a boundary, that accepts water and other inputs,
operates on them internally, and produces them as outputs. The structure or volume in space is the totality of the flow paths through which
the water may pass as throughput from the point it enters the system to the point it leaves. The boundary is a continuous surface defined in
three dimensions enclosing the volume or structure. A working medium enters the system as input, interacts with the structure and other
media, and leaves as output. Physical, chemical, and biological processes operate on the working media within the system. The most
common working media involved in the hydrologic analysis are water, air, and heat energy.

The quantification of the hydrologic cycle in such a system becomes a simple mass balance equation, where the difference in inputs
and outputs is equal to the change in storage. The general water budget equation is written as:

I - Q = dS/ dt

Where: I = inputs
Q = outputs

The hydrologist must be careful in defining the region or control volume over which the equation applies.

In general, the mass balance equation can be written over surface and underground water systems. The surface budget equation is

P + Qin - Qout + Qg _ Es - Ts - I = ∆Ss

Where: P = precipitation over the period of interest

Qin = surface water flows into the control volume over the period of interest
Qout = surface water flows out of the control volume over the period of interest
Qg = groundwater rate of flow into surface streams
Es = surface evaporation rate
Ts = plant transpiration rate of surface moisture
I = infiltration rate

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∆Ss = change in water storage on the surface over the period of interest

Similarly, the groundwater budget equation is

I + Gin - Gout - Qg - Eg - Tg = ∆Sg

Where: All variables have definitions equivalent to the surface counterparts but refer to water in and out of the ground.

The total mass balance, obtained by adding both equations, is:

P - (Qin – Qout) - (Es + Eg) - (Ts +Tg) - (Gout – Gin) = ∆(Ss + Sg)

The units of the above equations are volume per unit time. Using the net mass exchanges, the hydrologic budget equation becomes:

P - Q - G - E - T = ∆S
or
P - Q - G - ET = ∆S

Where: ET is a combined evapotranspiration term

The hydrologic budget equation is a useful tool that can be employed in various ways to estimate the magnitude and time
distribution of hydrologic variables

EXERCISES

1. Hydrologists use a variety of units. Some problems are given below to provide familiarity with these units of measurements.
a. Volume per unit time is commonly measured in cubic feet per second (cfs). What is the equivalent, in cfs, of 100 cubic meters per
second?
b. The concept of volume is commonly expressed in terms of a volume per unit area, or a depth, the case in measuring, for example,
rainfall over a known area like a river basin. A region receives 1700 mm of rainfall per year. How many inches of rain fall in the area
per year?
c. Station X gets 40 in. of rainfall per year. How many centimeters per year is this?
d. If 40 in. of rain fall per year over a river basin that is 1000 sq. km in area, what is the volume of water received over a year in cubic
meters?
e. The unit of volume may be expressed in terms of acre-ft or the volume of water required to cover one acre of land with water 1 ft
deep. How many cubic feet are there in an acre-ft? How many cubic meters?
f. If the water supply system of the Science City of Muñoz can handle about 300 million gallons a day (mgd) of demand, how many
cubic meters per second is this?

2. Runoff of 1.25 x 104 m3 occurs from a 100-ha plot of uniformly sloping land in a certain half-hour period during which the rainfall
averages 10 cm/hr. Compute the magnitude of change in storage in cubic meters and tell the probable forms of storage into which it
goes during the half hour.

3. A lagoon has a surface area of 350.5 x106 sq. m. The average annual rainfall and evaporation are obtained as 1850.4 mm and 1142.7
mm, respectively. If the increase in storage is 247.8 x 106 m3/yr, determine the net annual inflow into the lagoon. What are the
hydrologic components included in the net flow?

4. Determine the volume of water lost through evapotranspiration during a year from the surface of a 1500-ha lake located in a region
where the annual rainfall is 135 cm. The increase in depth of the lake over the year is 10 cm. Neglect the effect of groundwater flow.

5. A city is supplied by water from a 1250-ha catchment area. The average water consumption of the community is 50,000 m3/day. The
annual precipitation in the region is 412 cm. A river with an average annual flow of 0.35 m3/s originates in and flows out of the
catchment area. If the net annual groundwater outflow from the area is equivalent to a 16 cm depth of water, what is the
evapotranspiration loss in m3/yr, which, if exceeded, would cause a shortage of the water supply to the community? Assume the storage
of water in the area at the beginning and at the end of the year are equal.

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6. The following information was either measured or estimated for Lake Y.

YEAR LAKE LEVEL TOTAL TOTAL ANNUAL

AT THE END ANNUAL LAKE ANNUAL LAKE LAKE
OF THE YEAR PRECIPITATION STREAMFLOW EVAPORATION
(Feet above (Inches) INPUTS (Inches)
sea level) (Acre-feet)
1990 4198.6
1991 4197.7 9.46 1448900.0 43.3
1992 4199.4 16.78 2443000.0 41.4
1993 4203.4 17.43 5113390.0 40.9
1994 4207.7 28.00 6359170.0 39.7

Use the following elevation-area-volume table for the lake, compute the implied unaccounted lake inputs or losses, in mm, during the years
1991 to 1994. The lake is terminal, i.e., has no outflows. State any assumptions you make.

ELEVATION AREA (acres) VOLUME (Acre-ft)

4197.0 839809.0 12556430.0
4198.0 890047.0 13421890.0
4199.0 969949.0 14350140.0
4200.0 1079259.0 15370180.0
4201.0 1140000.0 16481450.0
4202.0 1175000.0 17640700.0
4203.0 1201000.0 18828700.0
4204.0 1223000.0 20040700.0
4205.0 1250468.0 21275600.0
4206.0 1330000.0 22541900.0
4207.0 1375000.0 23808300.0
4208.0 1410000.0 25074700.0
4209.0 1450000.0 26341000.0
4210.0 1490000.0 27607300.0
4212.0 1572000.0 30669000.0
4216.0 2228000.0 38671000.0
4218.0 2519000.0 43417000.0

7. The monthly precipitation over a 78 sq. mi. area is 5 in. A river goes through the area and brings (input) 19188.8 acre-ft per month.
River outflow is 29321.6 acre-ft per month. Estimate the monthly evapotranspiration in the area. Present the assumptions made.

8. A river basin discharges water at a rate linearly proportional to the amount it has in storage, that is,
Q = K1 S
The only input into the basin is rainfall. Any rainfall will infiltrate. (Assume no evaporation during the storm). The rate of infiltration is
linearly proportional to the rainfall
F = K2 I
Where K2 < 1. If a rainfall of constant intensity I and duration td occurs at a time when the storage is So, write an equation for the
change in storage in the basin.

PRECIPITATION

DEFINITION

Precipitation is a general term applied to any form of moisture emanating from the clouds and falling toward the earth’s surface.

FORMS

Classification of precipitation forms is made in terms of size of the hydrometeor, and state of the water, usually liquid or solid.

NAME DESCRIPTION SIZE

Drizzle Water droplets, low intensity 0.1 – 0.5 mm

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(1 mm/hr)
Rain Water/drops > 0.5 mm
Light: < 2.5 mm/hr
Moderate: 2.5 – 7.6 mm/hr
Heavy: > 7.6 mm/hr
Glaze Ice coating, formed by Specific gravity = 0.8
Freezing of rain or drizzle
Rime Opaque, granular ice deposit Specific gravity = 0.2 – 0.3
Snow Ice crystals, hexagonal Ave. specific gravity = 0.1
Hail Balls, irregular ice 5 to over 125 mm; specific
fragments; convective gravity = 0.8
in nature
Ice pellets Transparent, translucent ice < 5 mm

TYPES

1. Cyclonic Precipitation – results from air convergence and uplift of air. May be frontal or non-frontal; frontal, if the result of
large scale weather systems (usually > 500 km across) and precipitation occurring along the narrow boundaries (called fronts)
between air masses
2. Convective Precipitation – results when heating of the ground surface causes warming of the air, and locally strong vertical air
motions occur.
3. Orographic Precipitation – results from the mechanical lifting of moist air over barriers such as mountain ranges or islands in
oceans

MEASUREMENT

● Raingauge – an open container/receptacle to catch falling raindrops, such as the 8-in. standard raingauge. Recording gages measure
the precipitation intensity
● Radar – emits electromagnetic energy in narrow bands. Upon hitting precipitation it is partially absorbed, scattered, and reflected.
Some of the reflected energy returns to the transmitter, the total travel time being twice the time the signal took to reach the
target. The average returned power of electromagnetic signals is related to precipitation.
● Satellite – the sensor works on the principle that the atmosphere selectively transmits radiation at various wavelengths. The
satellite produces images from the received radiation

MINIMUM GAUGE DENSITY OF PRECIPITATION NETWORKS

For general hydrometeorological purposes:

● For small mountainous islands with irregular precipitation, 25 sq. km per gauge
● For mountainous areas of temperate, Mediterranean, and tropical climates, 100 to 250 sq. km per gauge
● For flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical climates, 600 to 900 sq. km per gauge
● For arid and polar climates, 1500 to 10000 sq. km per gauge

ESTIMATION OF MISSING DATA

1. Estimate based from observations at three stations as close to and as evenly spaced around the station with the missing record

● If the normal annual precipitation at each of the index stations is within 10 percent of that for the station with the missing record, a
simple arithmetic average of the precipitation at the index stations provides the estimated amount.

PX = ( PA + PB + PC ) / 3
Where: Pi = precipitation at index station i

● If the normal annual precipitation at any of the index stations differs from that at the station in question by more than 10 percent,
the normal ratio method is used; i.e. the precipitation Px at station X is

1 NX NX NX
. PX = ---- ( ---- PA + ----- PB + ----- PC )
3 NA NB NC

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Where: Pi = precipitation at index station i

Ni = normal annual precipitation at station i
2. Estimate as the weighted average average of that at four stations, one in each of the quadrants delineated by north-south and east-west
lines through the point. Each station is the nearest in its quadrants to the point for which the precipitation is being estimated. The
weight applicable to each station is equal to the reciprocal of the square of the distance between the point and the station
.
Multiplying the precipitation for the storm (or other period) at each station by its weighting factor, adding the four weighted
amounts, and dividing by the sum of the weights yields the estimated precipitation for the point. If one or more quadrants contain no
precipitation stations, as in coastal areas, the estimation involves only the remaining quadrants.

3. Estimate based on regression techniques. Careful consideration of the obvious correlation of the independent variables is required.

CONSISTENCY CHECKS

Relative change in the precipitation catch may be due to change in:

● Gauge location
● Exposure
● Instrumentation
● Observational procedure

Double mass analysis is a techniques used to test the consistency of the record at a station. The double mass plot compares, in a
diagram, the accumulated annual or seasonal precipitation (plotted inY-axis) with the concurrent accumulated values of mean precipitation
for a group of surrounding stations, called the standard or reference stations (X-axis). Under unchanging conditions the two quantities should
show a well-behaved (hopefully linear) relation; i.e., the record is considered consistent if the slope of the line through the plotted points is
constant
Any effect that changes the historical behavior of the station under question, without affecting the standard, will result in a change of
slope in the diagram. If such a slope is clear, the reasons for it must be investigated and the record corrected. Each of the inconsistent
precipitation records is adjusted or corrected by multiplying it by an adjustment ratio of the slopes of the two segments of the double mass
curve.

MEAN AREAL PRECIPITATION

1. Arithmetic Mean - the average rain falling on an area is the total rainfall at all the gauges within the area divided by the number of
gauges, or

Pave = ( P1 + P2 + . . . + Pn ) / n

Where: Pave = average precipitation on the catchment

Pi = precipitation catch for station I within the catchment
n = total number of stations within the catchment

2. Thiessen Method – divides the catchment into a series of subareas surrounding each rain gauge in such a way that the distance between
any point within the subarea and its raingauge is less than the distance to an adjacent gauge. The division of the catchment is made by
drawing a line between each raingauge location, constructing the perpendicular bisector on each line, and then forming Thiessen
polygons, each containing a single raingauge.

The average rainfall on the catchment then equals the sum of each point rainfall times the ratio of its subarea to total catchment area, i.
e:

A1 A2 A3
. Pave = ---- P1 + ----- P2 + ----- P3
A A A

Where: Pave = average precipitation on the catchment

Ai = area within each Thiessen polygon with corresponding rainfall Pi
A = total area of catchment

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3. Isohyetal Method – lines are drawn joining points of equal rainfall, called isohyets. Point rainfall values are used to define the position
of isohyets in a catchment.
The average rainfall on the catchment is the sum of the average rainfall between successive isohyets times the ratio of the area
between these isohyets and the total catchment area, or

A1 A2 A3
. Pave = ---- P1 + ----- P2 + ----- P3
A A A

Where: Ai = area between successive isohyets

Pi = average rainfall between two successive isohyets

STREAMFLOW AND STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENTS

DEFINITION

● Comprises the gravity movement of water in channels

● Variously referred to as runoff, stream- or river-discharge, catchment yield

COMPONENTS OF RUNOFF

● According to flowpaths of precipitation towards the stream channels

1. Direct precipitation onto the water surface – contribution is normally small because the perennial system occupies only a
small proportion of the area of most catchments
2. Overland flow or Surface runoff – comprises the water that flows over the ground surface to stream channels
3. Shallow subsurface flow (throughflow or interflow or subsurface stormflow, storm seepage, secondary baseflow) – water
that infiltrates the soil surface and then moves laterally through the upper soil horizons towards the stream channels, either as
unsaturated flow, or more usually, as shallow perched saturated flow above the main groundwater level
4. Deep subsurface flow (groundwater flow) – water that infiltrates the catchment surface will percolate through the soil layer to
the underlying groundwater and will eventually reach the main stream channels as groundwater flow through the zone of
saturation

● According to time of arrival at stream channels

1. Quickflow, or Direct runoff or Storm runoff– that part of rainfall that takes a rapid route to the stream channels; presumed to
consist of overland flow and a substantial portion of the interflow
2. Delayed or Baseflow – the continuity of flow through often prolonged dry weather periods; that part of rainfall that takes a
much slower route; largely groundwater

MEASUREMENTS

Streamflow measurements may be divided into three general categories:

1. Velocity-area measurement at a natural river section
2. Measurement at a control structure
3. Special techniques
● Dilution gauging
● Ultrasonic gauging
● Electromagnetic gauging

Velocity-Area Method

This measures the average velocity of flow at a cross section together with the area of flow discharge corresponding to that
velocity. The discharge is computed by:

Q = AV

Where: Q = stream discharge, ft3/sec (cusecs) or m3/sec (cumecs)

A = cross-sectional area of flow, ft2 or m2
V = average velocity of the flow profile, ft/sec or m/sec

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Average velocity is obtained by dividing a cross-section of a stream into a series of verticals and taking velocity meter readings at a
sufficient number of flow depths to define the average velocity in each vertical.
The flow velocity varies with depth in a stream, rising from 0 at the bed to a maximum near the surface. It is a practice to measure
velocity at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth when the depth of the vertical is more than 2 ft and to average the two velocities to obtain the average
velocity for the vertical section. For shallow rivers and near the banks on deeper rivers where the depths are less than 2 ft, velocity
measurements are made at 0.6 depth. These measurements permit the estimation of a single discharge value within the range of discharge
of the river

The velocity of flow in a stream can be measured with:

1. Current meter - a propeller device placed in the flow, the speed with which the propeller rotates being proportional to the low
velocity, i. e.

V = a + bN

Where: V = water velocity at the point of observation

A = the starting velocity or velocity required to overcome mechanical friction
N = number of revolutions per second of the propeller

2. Float – a float is carried along with the water at approximately its average velocity.

In order to obtain a measure of the continuous variation of discharge, use is made of the stage-discharge relationship or rating
curve for the cross section. The river stage is the height of the water surface above a fixed datum. By measuring the stage corresponding to
the discharge estimated by the velocity area method, a relationship between the river stage and the discharge for the range of flows in the
stream can be obtained. Then, by continuously measuring the river stage, the rating curve can be used to obtain a continuous record of
corresponding discharge.

The river stage can be measured with:

1. Staff gage – a scale set so that a portion of it is immersed in the water at all times
2. Recording gage – motion of a float moves a pen across a long strip chart
3. Manometers
4. Remote recorders
This velocity-area method is the most generally applied method for large streams. Gauging can be done from a bridge, cableway,
boat, or by wading the river.

Use of Control Structures

Measurement of streamflow uses such control structures as weirs, flumes. This also utilizes the principle of relating stage to water
discharge. The control is constructed across the river channel in a way that the river flows through a geometrically defined cross-section.
With a knowledge of the discharge characteristics of the particular control structure the streamflow can be calculated based on the depth of
flow.

This method is most often used at dam sites or where the flows are relatively small as in the case of tributary reaches of the river or
in irrigation channels.

Special Techniques

In dilution gauging, a known quantity of tracer material, such a s dye or radioactive substance, is introduced into the river system
and the concentration of this tracer measured at a downstream section where complete mixing of the tracer within the flow is expected and
the absorption and decomposition of the tracer is used.

In ultrasonic gauging, measurements are made of the time taken for sound pulses to travel between two transducers located on
either side of a river. The difference between the time of travel of the pulses crossing the river in the upstream direction and those traveling
in the downstream direction is directly related to the average velocity of the water, at the depth of the transducers.

In electronic gauging, measurement is made of the electromagnetic field (emf) induced by water flowing through an induced
magnetic field. This emf is directly proportional to the average velocity of flow.

SELECTION OF GAUGING SITE

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The location of the stream gauge network must be considered when measuring streamflow. The gauge site must be chosen to be:
● Representative of flow conditions in the catchment
● Suitable for accurate measurement of the flow, i.e.
- on straight river reaches
- stable channel cross-section
- above back water effects
STREAMFLOW HYDROGRAPHS

THE HYDROGRAPH

The plot of stage or discharge versus time is called as the discharge (or stage) hydrograph.

A typical hydrograph from an isolated period of rainfall consists of:

1. Rising limb or concentration curve
2. Crest segment, and
3. Falling limb or recession or depletion curve

The shape of the rising limb is determined mainly by the storm characteristics causing the rise. The point of inflection on the
falling side of the hydrograph is taken to mark the time at which surface inflow to the channel system ceases. Thereafter, the recession curve
represents withdrawal of water from storage within the basin. The recession curve of the hydrograph for any given stream is largely
independent of storm characteristics. The total shape of the hydrograph is a function of total available overland flow supply, subsurface flow,
groundwater flow, slope of the overland and stream channels, roughness characteristics of flow elements, geometry of channels, storm
characteristics.

The time base of a hydrograph is considered as the time from which the concentration curve begins until the direct runoff
essentially reaches zero. An equation for the time base is written as:

T = tr + tc

Where: T = time base of the hydrograph

tr = duration of runoff producing rain
tc = time of concentration, or the flow time from the most remote point in the drainage area to the outlet of interest

HYDROGRAPH SEPARATION

Hydrograph separation or analysis refers to the division of a hydrograph into direct and groundwater runoff as a basis for
subsequent analysis. The method of separation is usually arbitrary, since the definitions of these two components of runoff are also arbitrary.

Line of separation for a simple hydrograph is carried out by:

1. Extending a horizontal line from the beginning of the rising limb until it crosses the recession curve

2. Terminating the direct runoff at a fixed time, N, after the peak of the hydrograph, where

N = A0.2

Where: A = basin area in sq. miles

N = number of days after the peak flow of the hydrograph

The recession preceding the hydrograph rise may be extended to a point below the hydrograph peak. This point is then
connected by a straight line to the point N days after the peak flow.

3. Drawing a straight line from the point of rise to the hydrograph N days after the peak

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4. Projecting the groundwater recession curve after the storm back under the hydrograph to a point under the inflection point of
the falling limb. An arbitrary rising limb is then drawn from the point of rise of the hydrograph to connect with this projected
baseflow recession.

The direct runoff hydrograph is whatever is left after subtracting the defined baseflow from the total flow.

RAINFALL-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIPS

Hydrologists have always been concerned with obtaining discharge from rainfall. The interest is not only on total volumes but on a
description of the transformation of the rainfall history (hyetograph) to the streamflow history (hydrograph). These functions or
rainfall-discharge relationships are required for the design of hydraulic structures, for describing historical basin behavior, for predicting
response with changes in basin topography or land use, or for flood forecasting.

Methods include:
1. The use of peak discharge formula or the rational formula
2. The concept of unit hydrograph

THE PEAK DISCHARGE FORMULA: THE RATIONAL FORMULA

The rainfall-discharge relationship is expressed by the rational formula,

Qp = C I A

Where: Qp = the peak hydrograph discharge

A = the area
I = the rainfall intensity
C = a dimensionless coefficient, usually between 0.5 and 0.8

To be valid, the rainfall intensity must be of duration equal to or larger than the time of concentration of the basin. The coefficient
C accounts for infiltration and permanent storage, taken as constant throughout the storm. Usually a given probability of occurrence is
assigned to the chosen storm. The resulting QP then will have the same probability of occurring in any one year.

THE UNIT HYDROGRAPH

The unit hydrograph is the hydrograph of one inch (or 1 cm) of direct runoff (or effective rainfall) from a storm of specified duration.
The duration assigned to a unit hydrograph should be the duration of rainfall producing significant runoff, determined by inspection of hourly
rainfall data.

The effective rainfall or excess rainfall is that rainfall which is neither retained on the land surface nor infiltrated into the soil. After
flowing across the watershed surface, excess rainfall becomes direct runoff at the watershed outlet. The graph of excess rainfall vs. time, or
excess rainfall hyetograph, is a key component of the study of rainfall-runoff relationships.

The following assumptions are inherent in the development of a unit hydrograph:

1. The excess rainfall has a constant intensity within the effective duration
2. The excess rainfall is uniformly distributed throughout the whole drainage area
3. The base time of the direct runoff (duration of direct runoff) resulting from an excess rainfall of a given duration is constant
4. The ordinates of all direct runoff hydrographs of a common base time are directly proportional to the total amount of direct
runoff represented by each hydrograph
5. For a given watershed, the hydrograph resulting from a given excess rainfall reflects the unchanging characteristics of the
watershed.

The unit hydrograph is best derived from the hydrograph of a storm of reasonably uniform intensity, duration of desired length, and
a runoff volume near or greater than 1.0 in. (or 1 cm).

Steps in deriving a unit hydrograph follow:

1. Separate the base flow from direct runoff
2. Obtain ordinates of the direct runoff hydrograph
3. Determine the equivalent depth of the volume of direct runoff

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4. Divide the ordinates of the direct runoff hydrograph by the observed direct runoff depth to obtain the ordinates of the unit
hydrograph.

UNIT HYDROGRAPHS FOR VARIOUS DURATIONS

Each unit hydrograph corresponds to a given effective rainfall duration . methods are available to derive unit hydrographs for
different durations.

Lagging Method

If a unit hydrograph for duration t hr is added to itself lagged by t hr, the resulting hydrograph represents the hydrograph for 2 in.
(or 2 cm) of runoff in 2t hr. If the ordinates of this graph are divided by 2, the result is a unit hydrograph for duration 2t hr. The final graph
represents the flow from 1 in. (or 1 cm) of runoff generated at uniform intensity of 1/2t in./hr (or cm/hr) in 2t hr. This method is appropriate
for converting a short duration unit hydrograph into a unit hydrograph for any multiple of the original duration.

S-Curve or Summation Curve Method

The method is convenient for conversion to either a shorter or longer duration. The S curve is the hydrograph that would result
from an infinite series of runoff increments of 1 in. (or 1 cm) in t hr. Each S-curve applies to a specific duration within which each inch (or cm)
of runoff is generated.

The S curve is constructed by adding together a series of unit hydrographs, each lagged t hr with respect to the preceding one. If
the time base of the unit hydrograph is T hr, then a continuous rainfall producing 1 in. (or 1 cm) of runoff every t hr would develop a constant
outflow at the end of T hr. Thus only T/t unit hydrographs need to be combined to produce an S curve which would reach equilibrium at flow
Qe, i.e.

24 x 26.9 A 645.6 A
Qe = ------------------- = -------------
t t
Where: A = drainage are, sq. miles
t = duration in hours
24 = number of hours/day
26.9 = number of second foot days in 1 in. of runoff from 1 sq. mi.

SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPHS

Unit hydrographs developed for ungaged basins are called as synthetic unit hydrographs. This requires a relation between the
physical geometry of the basin and resulting hydrographs.

In deriving the synthetic unit hydrograph, works are aimed at determining:

1. Time of peak
2. Peak flow and
3. Time base
These 3 quantities plus the fact that the volume must eaual to 1.oo in. (or 1 cm) permit sketching of the hydrograph.

The procedure offered by Sherman follow:

1. Find the basin lag tL (in hours). Basin lag is the time from the centroid of rainfall to the hydrograph peak.
tL = Ct ( L Lc)0.3

Where: L = the length of the main stream from outlet to divide in miles
Lc = the distance from the outlet to a point on the stream nearest the centroid of the basin
Ct = a coefficient varying from 1.8 to 2.2, sith some indication of lower values for basins with steeper slopes

2. Determine the standard duration of rain tr, (in hours)

tr = tL / 5.5

3. Obtain the unit hydrograph peak qP (in cfs) for rains of tr duration
Cp A

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qP = 640 ---------------------
tL

where: A = drainage area in sq. mi

Cp = coefficient ranging from 0.56 to 0.69

4. Solve for the time base T (in days) of the hydrograph

T = 3 + ( tL / 8 )

5. Evaluate the time to peak, tP in hours

tP = 0.5 tr + tL

For any other duration tR , the time lag is adjusted as

tLR = tL + 0.25 ( tR - tr )

And this adjusted basin lag tLR is used in steps 3, 4 and 5.

SUBSURFACE WATER

OCCURRENCE OF SUBSURFACE WATER

Subsurface water occurs in two major zones, namely:

1. Zone of Aeration, or vadose zone - soil pores may contain either air or water
2. Zone of Saturation or phreatic zone – interstices are filled with water

The upper boundary of the zone of saturation varies according to whether the groundwater is confined or unconfined. In the case of
unconfined groundwater the upper boundary or the irregular surface dividing the two major zones is called the water table. It is the locus of
points where hydrostatic pressure equals atmospheric pressure.

Perched groundwater represents a special case of unconfined groundwater where the underlying impermeable or semi-permeable bed
is not continuous over a very large area and is situated at some height above the main groundwater body. This local saturated zone
commonly occurs where an impermeable bed either exists at a shallow depth or intersects the side of a valley.

Sometimes groundwater is overlain by an impervious stratum to form confined, or artesian, water. Confined groundwater is usually
under pressure because of the weight of the overburden and the hydrostatic head. If a well penetrates the confining layer, water will rise to
the piezometric level, the artesian equivalent of water table. If a piezometric level is above ground level, the well discharges as a flowing
well.

Soil water is normally defined as the subsurface water in the zone of aeration, i.e. the unsaturated soil and subsoil layers above the
water table. Groundwater is defined as the subsurface water in soils and rocks that are fully saturated.

MOISTURE IN THE VADOSE ZONE

There are three moisture regions in the vadose zone, namely:

1. Soil zone – the region penetrated by roots of vegetation, ranging to 30 ft (10 m) below the soil surface. The amount of soil water
fluctuates as vegetation removes moisture between rains
2. Capillary fringe – lies immediately above the water table. Moisture is raised by capillarity; almost all the pores are full of water.
This may have a vertical extent of a few inches to several feet depending on the pore sizes of the material
3. Intermediate zone – the region between the capillary fringe and the soil zone; the movement of water is mainly downwards;
moisture levels remain constant at the field capacity of the soil and rock of the region.

If the water table is close to the ground surface, the capillary fringe and the soil moisture region may overlap; where the water table is
deep, an intermediate zone exists.

MOISTURE IN THE PHREATIC ZONE

An aquifer is a geologic formation (layer of rocks or unconsolidated deposits) that contains water and transmits it from one point to
another in sufficient quantities that permit economic development.

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An aquiclude, in contrast, is a geologic formation that contains water but cannot transmit it rapidly enough to furnish a significant
supply to a well or a spring

An aquitard is a less permeable formation than the aquifer and hence transmits water more slowly than the adjacent aquifer.

An aquifuge has no interconnected openings and cannot hold or transmit water

Porosity is the ratio of the pore volume to the total volume of the formation. The original porosity of a material is that which
existed at the time the material was formed. Secondary porosity results from fractures and solution channels. High porosity does not
necessarily indicate a productive aquifer since much of the water may be retained in small pore spaces under capillary tension as the material
is dewatered.

The specific yield of an aquifer is the ratio of the water which will drain freely from the material to the total volume of the
formation and is always less than the porosity. Specific yield of a fine-grained aquifer will be small, whereas coarse-grained material will yield
a greater amount of its contained water.

SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER

Groundwater is the earth’s largest accessible store of fresh water, accounting for 94 % of all fresh water. Sources of groundwater
are:
1. Meteoric water – water derived from precipitation; almost all groundwater is meteoric.
2. Connate water – present in the rock at its formation and frequently highly saline, originating as sea water trapped in some
rocks at the time of their deposition.
3. Juvenile water – formed chemically within the earth and brought to the surface in intrusive rocks, occurs in small quantities

Streams contributing to groundwater are called influent streams. Such streams are ephemeral, i.e., they go dry during protracted
rainless periods when percolation depletes all flow. Streams are rarely influent throughout their entire length.

DISCHARGE OF GROUNDWATER

Streams intersecting the water table and receiving groundwater flow are called effluent streams. Perennial streams are generally
effluent through at least a portion of their length.

Where an aquifer intersects the earth’s surface, a spring or seep will form. There may be a concentrated flow constituting the
source of a small stream or merely seepage which evaporates from the ground surface.

Where the water table is close to the surface, groundwater may be discharged by direct evaporation or by transpiration from the
capillary fringe. Plants deriving their water from groundwater, called phreatophytes, often have root systems extending to depths of 40 ft.

MOVEMENT OF GROUNDWATER

Darcy’s law applies to the flow of water in permeable media, i.e.

V = ks

Where: V = the velocity of flow

s = slope of the hydraulic gradient
k = coefficient having the units of V (ft/day or m/day)

The discharge Q is the product of area and velocity, hence

Q = k p A s = Kp A s

Where: Kp = coefficient of permeability or the hydraulic conductivity; has units of V

May be expressed in Meinzer units, or the flow in gallons per day through an area of one sq. foot under a gradient of one ft per
ft at 60 oF.

In terms of transmissibility T, to represent the flow in gallons per day through a section 1 ft wide and the thickness of the aquifer under a unit
head (slope of 1 ft per ft),

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T = Kp Y

Where: Y = the saturated thickness of the aquifer

Or, the discharge becomes

Q = T B s

Where: B = width of the aquifer

EQUILIBRIUM HYDRAULICS OF WELLS

Consider a well in a homogeneous aquifer of infinite extent with an initially horizontal water table. For flow to occur to a well,
there must be a gradient toward the well. The resulting water table form is called a cone of depression. If the decrease in water level at the
well, called drawdown, is small with respect to the total thickness of the aquifer, and if the well completely penetrates the aquifer, the
streamlines of flow to the well may be assumed to be horizontal.

For this case, the flow toward the well through a cylindrical surface at radius X must equal the discharge of the well, as:

Q = 2 ∏ X Y Kp dY/dX

Where: 2 ∏ X Y = the area of the cylinder

dY/dX = the slope of the water table

Integration with respect to X from r1 to r2 and Y from h1 to h2 gives

∏ Kp ( h12 - h22)
Q = -------------------------
ln (r1/r2)

where: h = the height of the water table above the base of the aquifer at
r = distance from the pumped well
ln = the logarithm to the base e

SOLVED EXERCISES IN HYDROMETEOROLOGY

Hydrologic Cycle and Hydrologic Budget Equation

1. Hydrologists throughout the world use a variety of units. Here are exercises to help achieve familiarity with the most common unit
conventions:

a. Volume per unit time is commonly measure in cubic feet per second (cfs). What is the equivalent, in cfs, of 100 cubic meters per
second?
V = 100 m3 / sec x (3.28 ft/m)3 = 3528.76 cfs

b. The concept of volume is commonly expressed in terms of a volume per unit area, or a depth, the case in measuring, for example,
rainfall over a known area like a river basin. A region receives 1700 mm of rainfall per year. How many inches of rain fall are there
in the area per year?
P = 1700 mm/yr x 1 in./2.54 cm x 1 cm/10 mm = 66.93 in./yr

c. If 40 in. of rain fall per year over a river basin that is 1000 sq. km in area, what is the volume of water received over a year in cubic
meters?
V = 40 in. x 2.54 cm/in. x 1 m/ 100 cm x 1000 km2 x (1000 m/km)2
= 10.16 x 108 cubic meters

d. The unit of volume may be expressed in terms of acre-ft or the volume of water required to cover one acre of land with water 1 ft
deep. How many cubic feet are there in an acre-ft?
V = 1 acre-ft x 43,560 ft 2 / acre = 43560 ft3

e. The mile ( 1 mi = 5280 ft) is another common unit of length. How many acres are there to a square mile?

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A = 1 mi2 x (5280 ft/mi)2 x 1 acre/43560 ft2 = 640 acres

2. Runoff of 1.25 x 104 m3 occurs from a 100-ha plot of uniformly sloping land in a certain half-hour period during which the rainfall averages
10 cm/hr. Compute the magnitude of change in storage in cubic meters.

Q = 1.25 x 104 m3
P = 10 cm/hr x 0.5 hr x 1 m/100 cm = 0.05 m
= 0.05m x 100 ha x 10000 m2/ha = 50000 m3

P - Q - G - E - T = ∆S; Assume G, E, T = 0
∆S = P - Q
= 5.00 x 104 - 1.25 x 104 = 3.75 m3

3 Determine the volume of water lost through evapotranspiration during a year from the surface of a 1500-ha lake located in a region
where the annual rainfall is 135 cm. The increase in depth of the lake over the year is 10 cm. Neglect the effect of groundwater flow.

P = 135 cm
∆S = 10 cm
G = 0

P - Q - G - E - T = ∆S; Assume Q = 0
Then,
ET = P - ∆S
= 135 - 10 = 125 cm

4. A typical monthly precipitation over a 78 sq. mi area is 5 in. A river goes through the area and brings (input) 19188.8 acre-ft per month.
River outflow is 29321.6 acre-ft per month. The area is much larger than any existing aquifer and there is no significant seasonality in
the hydrology. Estimate the monthly evapotranspiration in the area.

P = 5.0 in. x 1 ft/12 in. x 78 mi2 x (5280 ft/mi)2 x 1 acre/43560 ft2

= 20800.0 acre-ft
Qin = 19188.8 acre-ft
Qout = 29321.6 acre-ft

P - Q - G - E - T = ∆S; Assume G, ∆S = 0
Then,
ET = P + Qin – Qout
= 20800.0 + 19188.8 - 29321.6 = 10667.2 acre-ft

Precipitation Data Analysis

1. Precipitation X was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm occurred. The storm totals at three adjacent stations A, B, and C
were 4.20, 3.50, and 4.80 in., respectively. The normal annual precipitation amounts for stations X, A, B, and C are, respectively, 38.50,
44.10, 36.80, and 47.20 in. Estimate the storm precipitation for station X using weighted averages.

1 NX NX NX
. PX = ---- ( ---- PA + ----- PB + ----- PC )
3 NA NB NC

1 38.50 38.50 38.50

. PX = ---- ( -------- 4.20 + ------ 3.50 + ------ 4.80 )
3 44.10 36.80 47.20

= 1/3 (3.67 + 3.66 + 3.92) = 3.75 in.

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3. Drainage area within each of the isohyetal lines for a storm are tabulated for a 5500-acre basin. Use the isohyetal method to determine
the average precipitation depth within the basin for the storm.
Isohyetal Interval, in. Area, acres Pi, in. PiAi, acre-in.
0 - 2 3000 1 3000
2 - 4 1500 3 4500
4 - 6 1000 5 5000
6 - 8 0 7 0
Total 5500 12500

Pave = ∑ PiAi / ∑Ai

= 12500 / 5500 = 2.27 in.

Streamflow Measurements

1. Compute the streamflow for the measurement data below. Take the meter rating V = a + bN with a = 0.1 and b = 2.2 for V in
ft/s.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
_
Distance from Depth Meter Revolu- Time V V W A Q
Bank, ft ft Depth, ft tions sec N ft/s ft/s ft ft2 ft3/s
2 1 0.6 10 50 .20 .54 .54 2 2.00 1.08
4 3.5 2.8 22 55 .40 .98 1.28 2 7.00 8.96
0.7 35 52 .67 1.57
6 5.2 4.2 28 53 .53 1.27 1.44 2.5 13.00 18.72
1.0 40 58 .69 1.62
9 6.3 5.0 32 58 .55 1.31 1.53 2.5 15.75 24.10
1.3 45 60 .75 1.75
11 4.4 3.5 28 45 .62 1.46 1.57 2 8.80 13.82
0.9 33 46 .72 1.68
13 2.2 1.3 22 50 .44 1.07 1.07 2 4.40 4.71
15 0.8 0.5 12 49 .24 .63 .63 2 1.60 1.01
17 0 Total Q = 72.41
Col (6) = (4) / (5)
(7) = 0.1 + 2.2 N
(8) = Vaverage along vertical
(9) = derived from (1)
(10) = (2) x (9)
(11) = (8) x 10)
Streamflow Hydrographs

1. Measured total hourly discharge rates (cfs) from a 3.10 sq. mi drainage basin are listed below. The hydrograph was produced by a
rainstorm having a uniform intensity of 2.60 in./hr starting at 9 am and abruptly ending at 11 am. The baseflow from 8 am to 3 pm was a
constant 100 cfs.
TIME 8 am 9 10 11 12 1pm 2 3
DISCHARGE, cfs 100 100 300 600 400 200 100 100
a. At what time did the direct runoff begin?
b. Determine the net rain (in.) corresponding to the volume of direct runoff
c. Derive a 2-hr unit hydrograph
d. What is the time of concentration of the basin?

a. Direct runoff began at 9 am.

b. TIME 8 am 9 10 11 12 1pm 2 3 TOTAL

DISCHARGE, cfs 100 100 200 600 400 200 100 100

BASEFLOW, cfs 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
DIRECT RUNOFF 0 0 100 500 300 100 0 0 1000
UNIT H. ORD. - 0 50 250 150 50 0 -

1000 ft3/sec in. sec

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Depth of Direct runoff = --------------------------------- x 12--- x 3600--- x 1 hr

3.10 mi2 x (5280 ft/mi)2 ft hr

= 0.5 in.
Direct Runoff Ord. = Measured Discharge - Baseflow
Unit H. ordinate = Direct runoff ordinate / 0.5

c.. In hydrograph analysis, the time of concentration is the time from the end of excessive rainfall (11 am) to the point on the falling limb
of the hydrograph where the recession curve begins (or where the direct runoff ceases, at 2 pm). Hence, the time of concentration
is from 11 am to 2 pm , or 3 hr.

2. Given the following 2-hr unit hydrograph for a drainage basin, determine hourly ordinates of the 4-hr unit hydrograph

TIME, hr 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q, cfs 0 50 300 400 200 50 0

By Lagging Method:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
TIME Q LAGGED Q ADDITIONS U/H ORD.
0 0 0 0
1 50 50 25
2 300 0 300 150
3 400 50 450 225
4 200 300 500 250
5 50 400 450 225
6 0 200 200 100
7 0 50 50 25
8 0 0 0 0

COL (3) = COL (2) lagged by 2 hr

(4) = (2) + (3)
(5) = (4) / 2

By S-Curve Method
(1) (2) (3) (4) = (2) + (3) (5) (6) (7)
TIME 2-HR S-CURVE S CURVE LAGGED (4) – (5) 4-HR
U/H ADDITIONS S CURVE U/H
0 0 0 0 0
1 50 50 50 25
2 300 0 300 300 150
3 400 50 450 450 225
4 200 300 500 0 500 250
5 50 450 500 50 450 225
6 0 500 500 300 200 100
7 0 500 500 450 50 25
8 500 0 0
9 500

Col (7) = (6) x t / t’

Where t = original duration of storm
t’ = new duration of storm

4. A basin of 139 sq. miles L = 16 mi, Lc = 6 mi Using Snyder’s method with Ct = 2.0 and Cp = 0.62, and tR = 3 hr, find the unit
hydrograph.

Basin lag: tL = Ct ( L Lc)0.3

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= 2.0 (16 x 6) .3 = 7.865 hr

Standard duration of rain:

tr = tL / 5.5

= 7.865 / 5.5 = 1.43 hr

Peak discharge
Cp A
qP = 640 ---------------------
tL

= 640 (0.62 x 139) / 7.865 = 7012.74 cfs

Time base T (in days) of the hydrograph

T = 3 + ( 7.865 / 8 )

= 3.98 days

tP = 0.5 tr + tL
= (0.5 x 1.43) + (7.865) = 8.58 hr

For any other duration tR ,

tLR = tL + 0.25 ( tR - tr )

Cp A
qP = 640 ---------------------
tLR

= 640 (0.62 x 139) / 8.26 = 6677.38 cfs

T = 3 + ( 8.26 / 8 )
= 4.032 days

tP = 0.5 tR + tLR
= (0.5 x 3) + (8.26) = 9.76 hr

AENGR 200 - HYDROMETEOROLOGY

LABORATORY EXERCISE NO. 4

A RAINFALL PROBABILITY STUDY FOR CLSU

OBJECTIVES

After performing the exercise the students should be able to:

1. Determine the daily and monthly initial and conditional rainfall probabilities at CLSU using the Markov-Chain probability model
2. Interpret properly the rainfall probability values.

PROCEDURE/ACTIVITIES

1. Obtain a 30-year daily record for CLSU for the period (month) assigned to you.

2. Dichotomize the daily rainfall record by using the specified threshold rain values (0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0 mm). A dry day is one with
rainfall less than the specified threshold rain while a wet day is a day with rainfall equal to or greater than the base rainfall
value.

3. Consider the following definitions:

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F(D) - frequency of dry days in a given period

F(W) - frequency of wet days in a given period
F(D/W) – frequency of dry days given that the previous day was wet
F(D/D) – frequency of dry days given that the previous day was dry
F(W/D) – frequency of wet days given that the previous day was dry
F(W/W) – frequency of wet days given that the previous day was wet

The probability, P, can be substituted for the frequency F, to mean:

P(D) - probability of dry days in a given period
P(W) - probability of wet days in a given period
P(D/W) – probability of dry days given that the previous day was wet
P(D/D) – probability of dry days given that the previous day was dry
P(W/D) – probability of wet days given that the previous day was dry
P(W/W) – probability of wet days given that the previous day was wet

4. Use the following Markov-chain probability model of the first order to evaluate the initial and conditional probabilities of wet
and dry days:

For Initial Probabilities -

F(D)
P(D) = -----------------------
F(D) + F(W)

F(W)
P(W) = -----------------------
F(D) + F(W)

For Conditional or Transitional Probabilities -

F(D/D)
P(D/D) = -----------------------
F(D/D) + F(W/D)

F(W/D)
P(W/D) = -----------------------
F(D/D) + F(W/D)

F(W/W)
P(W/W) = -----------------------
F(W/W) + F(W/D)

F(D/W)
P(D/W) = -----------------------
F(W/W) + F(D/W)

5. Do the following exercises:

a. If it is raining today (assume a specific date), what is the more likely rainfall condition expected for tomorrow? (Hint:
Solve for P(D/W) vs. P(W/W)
b. What is the most probable sequence of wet and dry days for any 3-day period in the month assigned to you? (Hint:
Solve for the following:
i. No wet days: P(D,D,D) = P(D) x P(D/D) x P(D/D)
ii. One wet day: P(W,D,D) = P(W) x P(D/W) x P(D/D)
P(D,W,D)
P(D,D,W)
iii. Two wet days: P(W,W,D)
P(W,D,W)
P(D,W,W)
iv. Three wet days:P(W,W,W)

c. If a day in the given month is wet, what are the succeeding two more days likely to be?

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d. During the given month, a certain operation requires five rainless days to complete. Is there any advantage in
waiting for the job to start after a dry day?

AENGR 200 – HYDROMETEOROLOGY

LABORATORY EXERCISE NO. 5

DOUBLE MASS ANALYSIS

OBJECTIVES

After performing the exercise, the students should be able to:

1. Test the consistency of a given set of rainfall records for a station
2. Make the necessary adjustments to effect consistent rainfall records

PROCEDURE/ACTIVITIES
1. Consider the following set of rainfall records for Rainfall Station X and for 15 surrounding stations:
=============================================================
ANNUAL PRECIPITATION, in. ANNUAL PRECIPITATION, in.
YEAR --------------------------------------- YEAR -----------------------------------------
STA. X 15-STA. AVERAGE STA. X 15-STA. AVERAGE
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1968 13.4 13.9 1985 13.3 9.6
1969 10.7 9.9 1986 16.3 10.2
1970 10.9 10.1 1987 22.7 15.9
1971 12.0 13.7 1988 13.9 10.9
1972 13.3 13.1 1989 14.7 10.2
1973 14.6 13.2 1990 14.0 10.3
1974 9.0 10.9 1991 11.4 10.2
1975 11.8 11.4 1992 13.8 11.8
1976 9.7 10.2 1993 10.0 9.2
1977 15.4 13.9 1994 10.5 10.2
1978 12.5 13.0 1995 16.7 14.0
1979 11.5 13.1 1996 9.3 8.4
1980 10.9 9.2 1997 18.4 11.5
1981 13.9 10.9 1998 14.1 9.1
1982 14.1 13.2 1999 19.8 13.0
1983 10.4 10.0 2000 17.1 13.1
1984 7.9 8.8 2001 16.0 10.7
=============================================================
3. Determine the consistency of the rainfall record at Station X.
4. Find the year in which a change in rainfall regime is indicated.
5. Compute the mean annual precipitation for Station X for the entire 34-yr period without adjustment
6. Do the necessary adjustment/correction in the precipitation data of Station X to make the record comparable with the more recent
records.
7. Repeat Activity 5 for Station X with the data adjusted for the change in precipitation regime.
DOUBLE MASS ANALYSIS

PURPOSE

To test the consistency of the precipitation record at a station

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TEST PROCEDURE

Compare its accumulated annual or seasonal precipitation with the concurrent accumulated values of mean precipitation for a group of
surrounding stations (or base stations).

A | 1990
C | Slope = 0.74
C | 1980
U S | 1975
M . T | 1970
For A |
P T | 1960
R I |
E O | 1950 Slope = 1.19
C N | 1945
I |
P X | 1940
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
ACCUM. MEAN PRECIP. FOR SURROUNDING STATIONS

A change in slope (the graph is described by two line segments of different slopes) would indicate inconsistent precipitation records.
The point where the two line segments meet represents the time/year when a change in precipitation regime occurs.

To make the record of the latter years consistent with the more recent records, each of the precipitation records before the change in
precipitation regimes occurs is adjusted by the ratio of the slopes of the two segments of the double mass curve, i. e.
Slope, latter period
Adjustment Factor = ------------------------
Slope, recent record

Which for the sample exercise is equal to:

= 0.74 / 1.19

Remember:
● The consistency of the record for each of the base stations should be tested, and those showing inconsistent records should be
dropped before other stations are tested or adjusted.
● Considerable caution should be exercised in applying the double mass technique. The plotted points always deviate about a mean
line, and changes in slope should be accepted only when marked or substantiated by other evidence.

FACTORS CAUSING INCONSISTENT RECORD

Changes in
● Gage location
● Instrument exposure
● Instrumentation
● Observational procedure
Changes in meteorological cause would not lead to inconsistent records, as all base stations would be similarly affected.

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