NPS 210 – Physics for Engineers

TEMPERATURE and HEAT

Temperature (T) = is a measure of how hot or cold an object is.

= the property that determines whether the system will be in thermal equilibrium with one another
= an indicator of the average thermal energy of the atoms or molecules in a substance

thermal equilibrium = a condition when two objects are placed in thermal contact and no energy flows from one to the
other, and their temperatures do not change

thermal energy = the kinetic energy associated with the random motion of all atoms and molecules in a substance

thermometer = instrument designed to measure temperature

Thermometric scales:
1. Celsius or Centigrade scale = the most common thermometric scale today which is named after Anders Celsius
2. Fahrenheit scale = common in the U.S. which is named after Gabriel Fahrenheit
3. Kelvin or absolute scale = the most important scale in scientific work which is named after Lord Kelvin

0 K = the absolute zero

= the lowest possible temperature attainable by an object where the random motion of particles is at a minimum
0 K = -273 C = - 460 F

freezing point of water = 0 C = 32 F = 273 K (also the melting point of ice)

boiling point of water = 100 C = 212 F = 373 K (also known as the steam point)

Conversion Formulas:
9TC
1 . T F= +32
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2 . T C = [ T F −32 ]
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3 . T K =T C +273
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1 F ∘= C∘
Difference in temperature: T = T2 – T1 Units: C , F, K Conversion: 9
, 1 C = 1 K
THERMAL EXPANSION
Most substances expand when heated and contract when cooled. However, the amount of expansion or contraction varies,
depending on the material.

Thermal expansion = increase in the size of the material due to increase in temperature

1. Linear expansion ( L ) = increase in linear dimension due to rise in temperature

coefficient of linear expansion ( ) = the change in length per unit length per degree rise in temperature
ΔL
α=
Lo ΔT Units: C-1, F-1, K-1
where
L = L - Lo ( L = final length & Lo = original length )
T = Tf – Ti ( Tf = final temperature & Ti = original/initial temperature)

From the equation above:

L = LoT linear expansion

For final or new length:

L = Lo(T + 1 )

2. Areal expansion ( A ) = increase in area of a solid due to rise in temperature

Equation:
A = 2AoT where A = A - Ao
Also,
A = AoT where  = 2
For new area:
A = Ao(2T + 1 ) or A = Ao( T + 1 )
 3. Volume expansion ( V ) = the increase in the volume due to rise in temperature

volume expansivity (  ) = change in volume per unit volume per degree rise in temperature
ΔV
β=
V o ΔT

where V = V - Vo ( V = final volume & Vo = original volume )

Equations:
V = VoT for liquids
and  = 3
V = 3VoT for solids

For volume of liquids that overflows:

Voverflows = Vliquid - Vcontainer

Sample Problems:

1. The steel bed of a suspension bridge is 200 m long at 20 C. If the extremes of temperature to which it might be exposed
are –30 C to + 40 C, how much will it contract and expand? steel = 6.8 x 10-6 /F

2. An iron ring is to fit snugly on a cylindrical iron rod. At 20 C, the diameter of the rod is 6.445 cm and the inside diameter of
the ring is 6.420 cm. To slip over the rod, the ring must be slightly larger than the rod diameter by about 0.008 cm. To what
temperature must the ring be brought if its hole is to be large enough so it will slip over the rod? iron = 12 x 10-6 /C

3. Two concrete roadway slabs 25 m long are accidentally laid without expansion gaps. How high will the slabs buckle up if
their temperature increases from 10 C to 50C? concretel = 13 x 10-6 /C

4. The 70-L steel gas tank of a car is filled to the top with gasoline at 20 C. The car is then left to sit in the sun, and the tank
reaches a temperature of 40 C. How much gasoline do you expect to overflow from the tank? gasoline = 950 x 10-6 /C

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 5. A glass volumetric flask has a capacity of 500 ml at room temperature (25 C). What is its capacity at a temperature of 40 C
if the linear expansivity for the glass is 1.20 x 10-5 / C?

6. A glass flask whose volume is exactly 1000 cm3 at 0 C is completely filled with mercury at this temperature. How much
mercury overflows when the flask is heated to 100 C? glass = 3 x 10-6 /C , mercury = 180 x 10-6 /C

Heat (Q) = the energy that is transferred from one body to another because of difference in temperature which is associated with
the kinetic energy of the random motion of large number of molecules

 Heat flows spontaneously from an object at higher temperature to one at lower temperature.
 Thermal equilibrium = a condition when two objects with different temperatures are kept in contact long enough for their
temperatures to become equal, and there is no further heat flow between them

Units:
1. calorie (cal) = the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1gram of water by 1 Celsius degree
1 kilocalorie (kcal) = 1000 cal
 Sometimes a kilocalorie is called a Calorie, and it is by this unit that the energy value of food is specified.

2. British thermal unit (Btu) = the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1lb of water by 1 F
1 Btu = 252 cal = 0.252 kcal = 778.26 ftlb

 Being energy, heat is also expressed in joule, erg, or foot-pound.

1 cal = 4.186 J the mechanical equivalent of heat established by James Joule

The amount of heat required to change the temperature of a given material is proportional to the mass (m) of the material
and to the temperature change (T). In equation,

Q = mcT where c = the specific heat of the material which is a characteristic of the material

 Each material has its own specific heat. (Listed in table in the book)
 For water, cwater = 1 cal/gC = 1 Btu/lbF = 4190 J/kg K
 For aluminum, caluminum = 0.217 cal/gC =r 0.217 Btu/lbF = 910 J/kg K

In terms of number of moles (n) rather than the mass of the material, m = nM where M is the molecular mass, the amount
of heat becomes,
Q = nMcT and Mc is called the molar heat capacity (C)
Q = nCT

For water, C = 75.4 J/mol K

Calorimetry or Method of Mixtures = the quantitative measurement of heat exchange which is used in the experimental
determination of specific heat of materials

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 calorimeter = a double-walled vessel used to minimize exchange of heat with the surroundings

Mixture equation:
heat lost + heat gained = 0 or Qlost = Qgained

 If the material gains heat, its temperature increases, so Tf > Ti and T is + .

 If the material loses heat, its temperature decreases, so Tf < Ti and T is - .

Latent heat (L) = the heat needed to change the phase of the material or substance

 This heat does not change the temperature of the substance.

Heat of fusion (Lf) = the heat required per unit mass of a solid to change it into a liquid at its melting temperature
Qmelt
Lf = Qmelt =mL f
m
 For ice: Lf = 80 cal/g = 144 Btu/lb = 3.35 x 105 J/kg

Heat of vaporization (Lv) = the heat required per unit mass of a liquid to change it into a gas at its boiling
temperature
Qvsporize
Lv = Qvaporize =mLv
m
 6
For water: Lv = 540 cal/g = 970 Btu/lb = 2.26 x 10 J/kg

Lf and Lv, like c, are determined by calorimetric experiments. The only change needed is the addition of a term giving the
amount of heat required to change the phase.

Sample Problems:
1 How much heat is required to raise the temperature of an empty 20-kg vat made of iron from 10 C to 90 C? What if the
vat is filled with 20 kg of water? cFe = 0.11 cal/g·C.

2. If 200 cm3 of tea at 95 C is poured into a 150-g glass cup initially at 25 C, what will be the final temperature of the mixture
when equilibrium is reached, assuming no heat flows to the surroundings? cglass = 0.18 cal/g·C

3. A 0.150-kg sample of alloy is heated to 540 C. It is then quickly placed in 400 g of water at 10 C, which is contained in a
200-g aluminum calorimeter cup. The final temperature of the mixture is 30.5 C. Calculate the specific heat of the alloy.

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4. A 300-g insulated aluminum calorimeter holds 150 g of water. The water and the aluminum are initially at 35 C. A 200-g
iron block with a temperature of 0 C is added to the water. Calculate the final temperature of the mixture. ciron = 0.11
cal/gC

5. At a party, a 0.50-kg chunk of ice at –10 C is placed in 3.0 kg of “iced” tea at 20 C. At what temperature and in what phase
will the final mixture be? The tea can be considered as water.

6. The specific heat of mercury is 0.033 kcal/kgC. When 1.0 kg of mercury at its melting point of –39 C is placed in a 0.50-kg
aluminum calorimeter filled with 1.2 kg of water at 20 C, the final temperature of the mixture is found to be 16.5 C. What
is the heat of fusion of mercury in kcal/kg.

7. How many joules of heat energy is needed to turn 400 g of ice at –15 C into steam at 150 C?

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 8. Calculate the number of grams of ice at 0 C that must be added to an insulated cup with 250 g of tea at 45 C to cool the
tea to 30 C. Ignore the heat transfer to the cup. The tea is mostly water.

HEAT TRANSFER

Mechanisms of heat transfer:

1. Conduction = is the direct communication of molecular disturbance through a substance by means of collisions of
neighboring molecules which is evident in solids

The rate of conduction depends upon:

a. time of follow (t)
b. area through which heat flows (A)
c. kind of material (k)

d.
( ΔT
)
temperature gradient L = the difference in temperature per unit distance
In equation:
dQ ΔT T −T
H= =k  A  =kA H C
dt L L heat current in conduction

where k = the thermal conductivity that expresses how well a material conducts heat
A = area measured at right angles to the direction of the flow of heat

ΔT
Q=k  A t
So the amount of conductive heat: L the amount of heat transferred by conduction
For a compound material, assume a steady flow of heat. This means that the rate of conduction per unit area in one
material is the same as the rate of conduction per unit area in the second material. That is, the heat currents in the two materials are
equal. In equation,
Q1 Q2
H 1 = H 2 or =
t1 A 1 t2 A 2
conductors = are substances for which k is so large so can conduct heat rapidly
insulators = are substances for which k is small so can conduct heat poorly

2. Convection = is the process by which heat is transferred by the mass movement of molecules from one place to another
= evident in liquids and gases

Types of convection:
a. forced convection = motion fluids caused by mechanical force like pump or blower
examples: moving air due to electric fans, boiling water, etc.

b. natural convection = fluids move freely without the aid of any kind of mechanical force
examples: land breeze and sea breeze

dQ
H= =h A  ΔT
The rate of convection: dt where h = the film coefficient or convective coefficient
T = Tfluid – Tsurface

The amount of convective heat: Q=h At ΔT the amount of heat transferred by convection

3. Radiation = a heat transfer through space which does not require a material medium for the process

Examples: Heat coming from the sun. (Heat traverses through space from sun to earth.)
Heat coming from the heated filament of an electric lamp.

Note: All bodies radiate since they possess heat. They continuously radiate heat to their surroundings and receive heat
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 from their surroundings.

dQ
H = =e σ  A T 4
The rate of radiation: dt Stefan-Boltzmann Equation

where  = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4

e = a characteristic of a material called emissivity ( 0 < e < 1)
A = area of the radiating body
T = temperature of the radiating body in Kelvin

blackbody = one that absorbs all the radiation which falls upon it ( e =1 )

“A good absorber of heat is also a good emitter of heat.”

Since a blackbody radiates and receives heat, the net flow rate of radiation:
dQ
H net = =e σ  A ( T 41 −T 42 )
dt
where T1 = temperature of the radiating body
T2 = temperature of the surroundings

Sample Problems:

1. A major source of heat loss from a house is through the windows. Calculate the rate of heat flow through a glass window
2.0 m x 1.5 m in area and 3.3 mm thick, if the temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces are 15.0 C and 14.0 C,
respectively.
kglass = 0.96 W/m·K.

2. Heat is conducted through a compound wall composed of parallel layers of two thermal conductivities, 0.32 and 0.14
cal/cm2sC/cm, and of thicknesses, 3.6 and 4.2 cm, respectively. The temperatures of the outer surfaces of the wall are
96 C and 8 C. Find the temperature in the interface and the temperature gradient in each section of the wall.

3. A woman rides a bicycle at a speed of 4 m/s in still air with a temperature of 30 C. Her skin temperature is 35 C and her
surface area is 1.4 m2. If one-half of her skin is exposed to air, what is the rate of convective heat loss from her skin? h = 24
W/m2C

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4. A person blows 35 C air across the top of a bowl of soup with a temperature of 90 C. The air moves at a speed of 3 m/s,
and the top area of the soup is 80 cm 2. ( h = 26 W/m2C). Estimate the convective heat-loss rate of the soup. How much
heat is lost in 15 minutes?

5. What is the rate of radiative heat transfer from a tungsten filament 20 cm long and 0.010 mm in diameter when the
filament is kept at 2500 K in an evacuated bulb? The tungsten radiates at 30% of the rate of a blackbody at the same
temperature.

6. A thin square steel plate, 10 cm on a side, is heated in a blacksmith’s forge to a temperature of 800 C. If the emissivity is
0.60, what is the total rate of radiation of energy?

7. The total surface area of the human body is 1.2 m 2 and the surface temperature is 30 C = 303 K, find the total rate of
radiation of energy from the body. If the surroundings are at a temperature of 20 C, what is the net rate of heat loss from
the body by radiation? The emissivity of the body is very close to unity, irrespective of skin pigmentation.

8. One side of an iron plate 5 cm thick and having a cross section of 5000 cm 2 is at 140 C and the other side is at 110 C.
Thermal conductivity of iron is 0.115 cal/cm2sC/cm. How much heat is transferred per second?

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