MODULE-5

GREEN ENERGY
A transition to clean energy is about making an investment in
our future.
-Gloria reuben
Green Energy: Introduction, Fuel cells: Classification of fuel cells – H2; Operating
principles, Zero energy Concepts. Benefits of hydrogen energy, hydrogen
production technologies (electrolysis method only), hydrogen energy storage,
applications of hydrogen energy, problem associated with hydrogen energy.

5.1 Introduction to fuel cell

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy of
a fuel into electrical energy without combustion. It is a type of clean energy
technology that produces electricity without the emissions of greenhouse gases or
air pollutants that are associated with traditional combustion-based power
generation. It consists of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. The anode and
cathode are separated by the electrolyte, which is a material that allows charged
particles to past through it. Fuel is supplied to the anode, and an oxidant (usually
oxygen from the air) is supplied to the cathode. The fuel undergoes a chemical
reaction at the anode, producing electrons and ions. The electrons flow through an
external circuit, producing an electrical current, while the ions pass through the
electrolyte to the cathode. At the cathode, the electrons and ions combine with the
oxidant to produce water and heat

5.2 Classification of fuel cells-H2

Fuel cells can be classified based on several factors, including the type of fuel they
use, the type of electrolyte, and the operating temperature. Here are some common
types of fuel cells that use hydrogen (H₂) as a fuel
1. Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells:These fuel cells use a polymer
electrolyte membrane and operate at relatively low temperatures (usually between
60-80°C) PEM fuel cells are commonly used in transportation applications, such as
powering fuel cell vehicles

2. Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs): These fuel cells use a liquid electrolyte, typically
potassium hydroxide (KOH), and operate at high temperatures (around 90°C).
They have been used in space applications and some stationary power applications.

3. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs): These fuel cells use a solid oxide electrolyte
and operate at high temperatures (usually between 800-1000°C). They are more
efficient than other fuel cell types, but require longer start-up times and have a
shorter lifespan SOPCs are typically used in large stationary power applications.

4. Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs):These fuel cells use methanol as a fuel,
which is directly oxidized at the anode to produce electricity. DM- FCs are
typically smaller and simpler than other fuel cell types and have potential for use in
portable applications

5. Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs):These fuel cells use a phosphoric acid
electrolyte and operate at relatively high temperatures (around 200-220°C) They
are often used in stationary power applications, such as for powering buildings.

These are just a few examples of the different types of fuel cells that use hydrogen
as a fuel. Each type has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the appropriate
choice depends on the specific application and operating conditions

Fuel cells may be classified on the basis of:

1) Temperature range in which they operate:

a) Low temperature 25℃ 𝑡𝑜 100℃

b) Medium temperature 100℃ 𝑡𝑜 500℃
c) High temperature 500℃ 𝑡𝑜 1000℃
2) Type of electrolyte used:

a) Aqueous electrolyte
b) Non-aqueous electrolyte
c) Molten or solid electrolyte
3) Physical state of the fuel:
 a) Gas - hydrogen, lower hydrocarbons
b) Liquid - alcohols, hydrazine, higher hydrocarbons
c) Solid - Metals etc.

The common method used to classify and describe the fuel cells according to
the types of electrolyte used.
5.3 Operating principle of fuel cell
The operating principle of a fuel cell is based on an electrochemical reaction that
converts the chemical energy of a fuel directly into electrical energy, without the
need for combustion. Here are the basic steps involved in the operation of an
alkaline fuel cell

1. Fuel is supplied to the anode of the fuel cell, where it is oxidized in the presence
of a catalyst, typically platinum or a platinum alloy. The most common fuel used in
fuel cells in hydrogen, although other fuels such as methanol or natural gas can
also be used.

2. The oxidation of the fuel at the anode releases electrons und positively charged
hydrogen ions (protons). The electrons flow through an external circuit, producing
an electrical current, while the protons pass through the electrolyte to the cathode.
3. At the cathode, the electrons and protons combine with an oxidant, usually
oxygen from the air, to form water and heat. The cathode is also typically coated
with a catalyst, such as platinum or a platinum alloy, to facilitate the oxygen
reduction reaction.

4. The overall reaction produces electrical energy. Water and heat. The water and
heat are typically released into the environment, although in some cases they may
be recovered for use in other applications, such as space heating or water
desalination.

The efficiency and performance of a fuel cell depend on several factors,

including the type of fuel cell, the type of fuel, the operating temperature, and the
design of the cell. Fuel cells are typically more efficient than traditional
combustion-based power generation technologies, with efficiency levels ranging
from around 40-60% for most fuel cell types. In addition, fuel cells produce
electricity with lower emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants than
traditional power generation technologies, making them an attractive option for
clean energy production.

MATERIALS USED FOR FUEL CELL:

The major components of the fuel cell are electrolyte and electrodes.

Electrolyte: The electrolyte used in any fuel cell must satisfy the following
requirements as it is the most important material:

It should have high conductivity to ions.

The ions formed must be able to move freely through an electrolyte.
The electrolyte should remain stable during the operation of the cell.
It should be electrically non-conductive.
It should have low permeability of fuel and oxygen.
It must have high resistance to dehydration.
It must be mechanically stable.
It should be easily available at low cost.

The different electrolytes used in different cells are already discussed.

(2) Electrodes: This being the important component for the successful operation of
the fuel cell, the materials used should fulfill the following
characteristics:

It should have high electrical conductivity.

It should not react with electrolyte to prevent corrosion.
It must be able to resist high temperature.
It should also act (possible) as a catalyst to convert hydrogen and oxygen
molecules into their ions easily and rapidly.

(3) The cell used: The cell used in practice should fulfill the following
requirements:

It should give high conversion efficiency(> 60%).

It should not create any form of pollution.
It must adopt any type of fuel available.
It should give high response to the load variations.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELL:

Advantages:

The maintenance cost is low compared to conventional systems as numbers of

working parts are very few.
The space required is less as power density is high. Therefore, it can be located
at the point of use.
It is silent in operation as there are no moving parts.
The conversion efficiency is high (60% 𝑡𝑜 70%) compared to conventional
systems (40% 𝑡𝑜 50%) . It can be further improved to (75% 𝑡𝑜 85%) if co-
generation system is used with high temperature fuel cell.
Its response to load is very good.
There is no pollution from the system to the atmosphere if hydrogen is used as a
fuel.
The transmission losses are nil if used at the point of requirement.
Large cooling water is not required as it is necessary in conventional steam
power plants.
In addition to electric power, fuel cell plants also supply hot water, space heat
and steam. Fuel cells have co-generation capabilities.
 Fuel cells can operate at land-fill and waste water treatment plants where
methane gas is produced. Fuel cells can also operate on waste gases at
breweries and gases generated from sledge.

Potential areas of co-generation systems where fuel cells can be effectively

installed are sugar, paper, cotton, textile mills and refineries which will enhance
system efficiency.

Disadvantages:

The capital cost of the cell (Rs./kW) is high.

The life period is short (maximum 10,000 hrs) because of degrading of
electrodes.
There are chances of explosion if hydrogen is used as fuel.
There must be continuous supply of fuel and oxidant. it should be refilled
if used in conventional automobiles.
5.4 Zero energy concepts
Zero energy concepts refer to the design and construction of buildings that use
renewable energy sources and energy-efficient technologies to generate as much
energy as they consume over the course of a year. The goal of zero energy
concepts is to reduce reliance on traditional energy sources and minimize the
environmental impact of buildings.

Here are some of the key features of zero energy buildings.

1. Renewable energy sources: Zero energy buildings typically incorporate

renewable energy sources such as solar panels, wind turbines, or geothermal
systems to generate electricity or heat.

2. Energy-efficient design: Zero energy buildings are designed to minimize

energy consumption by optimizing insulation, air sealing, and ventilation systems
to reduce heating and cooling needs. Energy-efficient lighting, appliances, and
equipment are also used to reduce energy consumption

3. Energy storage: Zero energy buildings often include energy storage systems
such as batteries or thermal storage to store excess energy generated by renewable
sources for use during periods of low production
4. Building automation: Building automation systems can be used to control
heating, cooling, and lighting systems to optimize energy use and reduce waste

5. Passive solar design: Passive solar design techniques can be used to optimize
the use of natural sunlight for heating and lighting

6. Water conservation: Zero energy buildings often incorporate water

conservations measures such as low-flow fixtures, rainwater harvesting, and
graywater recycling to reduce water consumption

Zero energy concepts are becoming increasingly popular as a way to reduce the
environmental impact of buildings and reduce energy costs over the long term.
While the upfront costs of designing and constructing zero energy buildings can be
higher than traditional buildings, the savings from reduced energy consumption
and energy bills can often offset these costs over the life of the building.

Benefits of hydrogen energy

The three basic benefits of hydrogen energy are as follows:

Use of hydrogen greatly reduces pollution: - when hydrogen is combined with

oxygen in a fuel cell, energy in the form of electricity is produced. This electricity
can be used to power vehicles. As a heat source, and for many other uses. The
advantage of using hydrogen as an energy carrier is that when it combines with
oxygen, the only by-products are water and heat. No greenhouse gases or other
particulate are produced by the use of hydrogen fuel cell

Hydrogen can be produced locally from numerous sources: Hydrogen can be

produced either centrally, and then distributed, or onsite where it will be used.
Hydrogen gas can be produced from methane, gasoline, biomass, coal or water.
Each of these sources brings with it different amounts of pollution, technical
challenges and energy requirements.

A sustainable production system if hydrogen is produced from electrolysis of

water. Electrolysis is the method of separating water into hydrogen and oxygen.
Renewable energy can be used to power electrolyzes to produce hydrogen from
water. Using renewable energy provides a sustainable system that is independent
of petroleum products and is non pollution. Some of the renewable energy sources
used to power electrolyzes are wind, hydro and solar. After the hydrogen is
produced in an electrolyser it can be used in a fuel cell to produce electricity. The
by-product of the fuel cell process is water and heat. If fuel cells operate at high
temperatures the system can be set up as a co-generator with the waste energy used
for heating.

Hydrogen production technology, (electrolysis method only)..

The choice of production methods will vary depending on the availability of
resource, the quantity of hydrogen required, and the required purity of hydrogen.
Major classifications are

1. Thermo chemical production technology

2. Electrolytic production technology

3. Photolytic production technology

Electrolytic production technology

Another way to produce hydrogen is by electrolysis. Electrolysis separates the

elements water-H and oxygen (0) by charging water with an electrical current.
Adding an electrolyte like salt improves the conductivity of the water and increases
the efficiency of the process. The charge breaks the chemical bond between the
hydrogen and the Oxygen and splits apart atomic components, creating charged
particles called ions. The ions form at two poles: the anode which is positively
charged, and the cathode, which is negatively charged. Hydrogen gathers at the
cathode and the anode attracts Oxygen.

Electrolysis is the process of producing hydrogen and oxygen from water in an

electrochemical cell. Two types of electrochemical methods, alkaline or proton
exchange membrane (PEM) are used in commercially available equipment
commonly referred to as electrolyzer.

An alkaline electrolyser immerses the two electrodes, the cathode and the anode,
into an aqueous alkaline electrolyte, typically a solution of sodium or potassium
hydroxide, and a voltage is applied across the electrodes. The resulting migration
of ions in solution results in the production of hydrogen at the cathode and oxygen
at the anode according to the following equation:
Cathode reaction
4𝐻2 𝑂 + 4𝑒 − → 2𝐻2 + 4𝑂𝐻 −
Anode reaction
4𝑂𝐻 − → 𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 4𝑒 −

In a PEM electrolyzer, the mobile ion is a proton in an electrolyte that is a proton-

conducting polymer membrane. In this case, the reactions at the electrodes are as
follows:

Cathode reaction
4𝐻+ + 4𝑒 − → 2𝐻2
Anode reaction
2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝑂2 + 4𝐻+ + 4𝑒 −

Currently, the best conversion efficiency (i.e., overall system

efficiency for converting electrical power to power stored as hydrogen) for
commercial electrolyzer is approximately 70%.
Water electrolysis
Until the 1950s, water electrolyzer was in widespread use for hydrogen (or
oxygen) production. Currently, electrolysis provides only a small percentage of the
world's hydrogen, most of which is supplied to applications requiring small
volumes of high purity hydrogen (or oxygen, such as for breathing atmospheres for
submarines). There is significant renewed interest in the use of electrolyzer to
produce hydrogen as a fuel for automotive applications, with a number of refueling
stations installed around the world. In addition, research continues in the
integration of intermittent renewable resources (PV and wind) with electrolyzer for
producing hydrogen that has to be used as a fuel or for energy storage.

Steam electrolysis

Steam electrolysis is a variation of the conventional electrolysis

process. Some of the energy needed to split the water is added as heat instead of
electricity, making the process more efficient than conventional electrolysis. At
2,500°C, water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen. This heat could be
provided by a solar energy concentrating device to supply the heat. The problem
here is to prevent the hydrogen and oxygen from recombining at the high
temperatures used in the process.
Hydrogen energy storage
when compared to the electrical energy, the development of safe, reliable,
compact and cost effective hydrogen storage technologies is one of the most
technically challenging barriers to the widespread use of hydrogen as a usable form
of energy. To be competitive with conventional vehicles, hydrogen powered cars
must be able to travel more than 450kms between fills. This is a challenging goal
because hydrogen has physical characteristics that make it difficult to store in large
quantities without taking up a significant amount of space.

1. Compressed Gas and Liquid Hydrogen Storage Tanks.

Hydrogen has a very high energy content by weight (about three times more
than gasoline), but it has a very low energy content by volume (liquid hydrogen is
about four times less than gasoline). This makes hydrogen a challenge to store.
Liquefied hydrogen is denser than gaseous hydrogen, and thus, it contains more
energy in a given volume. Similar sized liquid hydrogen tanks can store more
hydrogen than compressed gas tanks, but it takes energy to liquefy hydrogen.
However, the tank insulation required to prevent hydrogen loss adds to the weight,
volume and costs of liquid hydrogen tanks.
2. Materials-based Storage
Hydrogen can be stored in materials by following different processes. It can
be stored on the surfaces of solids (by adsorption absorption process). Or within
solids (by absorption process).
In adsorption process, hydrogen attaches to the surface of a material either as
hydrogen molecules (H,) or hydrogen atoms (H). This is also referred to as surface
adsorption storage.
In absorption process, hydrogen molecules dissociate into hydrogen atoms that are
incorporated into the solid lattice framework. This is also known as intermetallic
hydride storage. This method may make it possible to store larger quantities of
hydrogen in smaller volumes at low pressure and at temperatures close to room
temperature. Finally, hydrogen can be strongly bound within molecular structures,
as chemical compounds containing hydrogen atoms in the form of compressed gas
or cryogenic liquid.

Methods of Hydrogen Energy Storage

 Based on the above mentioned processes, methods of hydrogen energy
storage may be classified as follows:

1 Compression
The hydrogen can be compressed into containers or underground reservoirs. This is
a relatively simple technology, but the energy density and efficiency (65%-70%)
are low. Further, problems have occurred with the mechanical compression.
However, this is, at present, the most common form of hydrogen storage for
the transport industry, with the hydrogen compressed to approximately 700 bar
(the higher the storage pressure, the higher the energy density). However, the
energy required for the compression is a major drawback.

2. Liquefied Hydrogen.
The hydrogen can be liquefied by pressurizing and cooling. Although the
energy density is improved it is still four times less than conventional petrol.
Further, keeping the hydrogen liquefied is very energy intensive, as it must be kept
below 20.27K

3 Metal Hydrides

Certain materials absorb molecular hydrogen such as nanostructure carbons

and clathrate hydrate. By absorbing the hydrogen in these materials, it can be
easily transported and stored. Once required the hydrogen is removed from the
parent material. The energy density is similar to that obtained for liquefied
hydrogen. The extra material required to store the hydrogen is a major problem
with this technique, as it creates extra costs and mass. This is still a relatively new
technology, and therefore, with extra development, it could be a viable option,
especially if the mass of material is reduced. Carbon-based absorption can achieve
higher energy densities but it has higher costs and even lesser demonstrations. Both
the metal-hydride and carbon-based absorption use thermal energy. This thermal
heat could be got from the waste heat of other processes to improve overall
efficiency.

Each storage technique is in the early stages of development, and hence, there is no
optimum-method at present, with research being carried out in each area. Scientists
are investigating several different kinds of materials, including metal hydrides,
adsorbent materials, and chemical hydrides, in addition to identifying new
materials with potential for favorable hydrogen storage attributes. Hydrogen
storage in materials offers great promise, but additional research is required to
better understand the mechanism of hydrogen storage in materials under practical
operating conditions and to overcome critical challenges related to it.

USE OF HYDROGEN ENERGY

Aside from the production of hydrogen, the everyday use and acceptance of
hydrogen must be carefully introduced. Today, hydrogen is being used to power
commercial buses both by internal combustion engines burning a combination of
hydrogen and other fuels and solely by hydrogen used in fuel cells. Hydrogen is
used in many commercial applications from welding metal to dying fabrics for
making electronics, plastics, and fertilizers. When a renewable economically viable
production process of hydrogen can be achieved the advantages will be spread out
to many industries. Some of the proving grounds for various production methods
can be locally developed to provide hydrogen for these industries.

Hydrogen can be used as a mobile source of power for transportation by

being compressed and stored in small tanks for applications similar to gasoline or
propane.
The following are the two superior ways of using hydrogen energy:
1. Internal combustion engine (1CE): It is expected that the 1CE will act as a
transition technology while fuel cells are improving, because the modifications
required to convert an ICE to operate on hydrogen are not very significant.
2. Fuel cell (FC): It is expected to be the generator of choice for future hydrogen-
powered energy applications owing to its virtually emission-free, efficient, and
reliable characteristics. A fuel cell converts stored chemical energy, in this case
hydrogen, directly into electrical energy.

APPLICATIONS OF HYDROGEN ENERGY

Hydrogen and fuel cells have a wide range of applications for use almost anytime
and anywhere.

1 At Home Sector
Fuel cells are ideal for residential zones. They are virtually silent with no moving
parts and provide reliable power 24/7. In addition, a fuel cell, which is large
enough to power an entire home, is about the size of a traditional AC unit. Fuel
cells already power thousands of homes in Japan and are beginning to power
similarly in the United States.
2 At Work Sector
Fuel cells can be produced in stacks large enough to power the large office
buildings, but only occupy the area of couple of parking spaces. Again, fuel cells
are a great fit in this situation, as they are noiseless, environmentally friendly, and
efficient. Distributed power from fuel cells does not rely on transmission lines, and
thus eliminates the need for backup power generators.

3 At Transport and Industrial Sectors

Fuel cells are just as mobile as human beings. Fuel cells can power cars,
buses, airplanes, cell phones, laptops, and more. With nearly 10 times the lifespan
of batteries on a single charge, fuel cells can keep powered no matter where the
road takes the transport vehicles.

Hydrogen is an ideal replacement for fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural
gas in furnaces, internal combustion engines, turbines, and jet engines. Today,
environmental pressures are concentrating on the hydrogen research and the
development efforts to utilize hydrogen as an alternative fuel to power our mobility
and transportation needs. In electrified vehicles for example, it is used to run fuel
cells that convert hydrogen efficiently (back) to electricity The application
spectrum of fuel cells is vast. They have the potential to replace conventional
power generators such as combustion engines or even large batteries in cars, buses,
forklift truck (FLTs), submarines, and backup and power plants.

ADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN ENERGY

1. Uncoupling of primary energy sources and utilization.

2. Hydrogen is a gas: thus. It is easier to store than to store electricity

3 Hydrogen can be obtained from any primary energy source including renewable
energy source

4 Decentralized productions is possible Hydrogen is viewed as capable of

providing services where electricity is not available in particular as a fuel for
vehicles and energy storage in remote areas.
5. Very efficient when used in fuel cells
6. Very good experience of hydrogen as a chemical reactant (ammonia methanol
and oil refining)
7. Very good safety records (for a specific range of applications)
DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN ENERGY
1 Poor overall energy efficiency when produced from electricity made with fossil
fuels.
2 Very low density and poor specific volume energy density.
3. Need for high pressures and very low temperatures if stored in the liquid phase.
4. Specific safety problems and poor public acceptance (Hindenburg syndrome and
Apollo Challenger space shuttle).
5 No existing infrastructures for transport, distribution, and storage.
6. Rather high cost (till today).

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH HYDROGEN ENERGY

The serious problems that are affecting the development of hydrogen for
household and transport applications are as follows:

1. Hydrogen storage: The concerns surrounding the storage of hydrogen are a

major issue it must be stored at extremely low temperatures and high pressure. A
container capable of withstanding these specifications is larger than a standard gas
tank. Hydrogen storage could be viewed as a problem by consumers.

2. High reactivity of hydrogen: Hydrogen is extremely reactive. It is combustible

and flammable. The Hindenburg disaster, where a hydrogen-filled blimp exploded
and many people die has caused a fear of hydrogen

3. Cost and methods of hydrogen fuel production: Current production of

hydrogen takes a lot of energy. If one has to burn fossil fuels to make hydrogen,
what has really been gained? New, clean energy technology or hydrogen
production methods will need to be developed for hydrogen vehicles to make sense.

4. Consumer demand: Another problem for hydrogen fuel is consumer demand

and the cost to change all gasoline filling stations and vehicle production lines into
hydrogen. The major transport companies will not start to produce hydrogen
vehicles until there is consumer demand. Why would a person pay for an
expensive hydrogen vehicle?

5. Cost of changing the infrastructure: To accommodate hydrogen equipment

and appliances.