Wachemo University

Department: Electromechanical Engineering

Course Title: Strength of Materials)
(MEng3081)
Year: III Semester: I
By: Hailemariam M.

March, 2023
 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

Edition
Fourth
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Chapter one
Introduction to Stress and
Strain
 Basic concepts
 Axial and shear loadings
 Stress- Strain diagrams
 Stress and deformation of members
 Hook’s law

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Concept of Stress
Mechanics of materials is a branch of mechanics that studies the internal
effects of stress and strain in a solid body.

Stress is force of resistance generated by rigid body against deformation.

 Strain is the ratio of change of body to original dimension of rigid body
when external load applied on the body..
The origin of mechanics of materials dates back to the beginning of the 17th
century, when Galileo Galilei performed experiments to study the effects of
loads on rods and beams made of various materials.

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Classification of stress
Normal stress: The intensity of
the force acting normal to ∆A.
Shear stress: The intensity of
force acting tangent to ∆A
Bearing stress: the stress
developed area of contact of two
contacting body.

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Strains
Deformation: Whenever a force is applied to a body, it will tend to change the body’s
shape and size.
Normal strain: If an axial load P is applied to the bar in Fig. below , it will change the bar’s length L0
to a length L.

Shear Strain :Deformations not only cause line segments to elongate or contract, but they also cause
them to change direction.
If we select two line segments that are originally perpendicular to one another, then the
change in angle that occurs between them is referred to as shear strain.

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Axial and Shear loadings

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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Deformations Under Axial Loading

• From Hooke’s Law:

 P
  E  
E AE

• From the definition of strain:



L

• Equating and solving for the deformation,

PL PL
  B/ A   B   
AE AE
• With variations in loading, cross-section or
material properties,
PL
  i i
i Ai Ei

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Axial Loading: Normal Stress

• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially
loaded member is normal to a section cut
perpendicular to the member axis.

• The force intensity on that section is defined as

the normal stress.
F
  lim  ave  P
A0 A A

• The normal stress at a particular point may not be

equal to the average stress but the resultant of the
stress distribution must satisfy
P   ave A   dF    dA
A

• The detailed distribution of stress is statically

indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from statics
alone.

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 Stress-strain diagram
The stress-strain relation of any material is obtained by conducting tension test in the laboratories on
standard specimen.
Different materials behave differently and their behavior in tension and in
compression differ slightly.
 Strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and stresses on the vertical axis
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Structure Free-Body Diagram

• Structure is detached from supports and the loads and reaction

forces are
• indicated
Conditions for static equilibrium:
 M C  0  Ax 0.6 m  30 kN 0.8m 
Ax  40 kN
 Fx  0 Ax  C x
C x  Ax  40 kN
 Fy  0  Ay  C y  30 kN  0
Ay  C y  30 kN

•A y and Cy can not be determined from

these equations

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Component Free-Body Diagram

• In addition to the complete structure, each
component must satisfy the conditions for
static equilibrium
• Consider a free-body diagram for the boom:
 M B  0   Ay 0.8m 
Ay  0
substitute into the structure equilibrium
equation
C y  30 kN

• Results:
A  40 kN  C x  40 kN  C y  30 kN 

Reaction forces are directed along boom

and rod

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Method of Joints
• The boom and rod are 2-force members, i.e.,
the members are subjected to only two forces
which are applied at member ends

• For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel to

to an axis between the force application points,
equal in magnitude, and in opposite directions

• Joints must satisfy the conditions for static

equilibrium which may be expressed in the
form of a force triangle:
→
 B 0
F

FAB  FBC  30 kN
4 5 3
FAB  40 kN FBC  50 kN

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Stress Analysis
Can the structure safely support the 30 kN
load?
• From a statics analysis
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)

• At any section through member BC, the

internal force is 50 kN with a force intensity
or stress of
dBC = 20 mm P 50103 N
 BC    159 MPa
A 31410-6 m 2

• From the material properties for steel, the

allowable stress is
 all  165 MPa
• Conclusion: the strength of member BC is
adequate

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Design
• Design of new structures requires selection of
appropriate materials and component dimensions
to meet performance requirements
• For reasons based on cost, weight, availability,
etc., the choice is made to construct the rod from
aluminum all= 100 MPa) What is an
appropriate choice for the rod diameter?
P P 50103 N
 all  A   500106 m 2
A  all 100106 Pa
d2
A
4

d
4A


4 500106 m 2 
 2.52102 m  25.2 mm
 

• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter is

adequate
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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Centric & Eccentric Loading

• A uniform distribution of stress in a section
infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.

• A uniform distribution of stress is only

possible if the concentrated loads on the end
sections of two-force members are applied at
the section centroids. This is referred to as
centric loading.

• If a two-force member is eccentrically

loaded, then the resultant of the stress
distribution in a section must yield an axial
force and a moment.

• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded

members cannot be uniform or symmetric.
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Fourth
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Rod & Boom Normal Stresses

• The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.
• At the rod center, the average normal stress in the
circular cross-section (A = 314x10-6m2) is BC = +159
MPa.

• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-sectional

area occurs at the pin centerline,
A  20 mm 40 mm  25mm   300106 m 2

P 50103 N
 BC,end    167 MPa
A 300106 m 2

• The boom is in compression with an axial force of 40

kN and average normal stress of –26.7 MPa.

• The minimum area sections at the boom ends are

unstressed since the boom is in compression.

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Fourth
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Pin Shearing Stresses

• The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B,
and C,
2
 25mm  6 2
A  r  
2
  49110 m
 2 

• The force on the pin at C is equal to the

force exerted by the rod BC,
P 50103 N
 C,ave    102 MPa
6
A 49110 m 2

• The pin at A is in double shear with a

total force equal to the force exerted by
the boom AB,
20 kN
 A,ave  P   40.7 MPa
A 491106 m 2

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Fourth
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Pin Bearing Stresses

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the boom AB,

we have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b    53.3MPa
td 30 mm 25mm 

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the bracket,

we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b    32.0MPa
td 50 mm 25mm 

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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Stress on an Oblique Plane

• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle  with the normal plane.

• From equilibrium conditions, the

distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.

• Resolve P into components normal and

tangential to the oblique section,
F  P cos V  Psin 

• The average normal and shear stresses on

the oblique plane are
  F  P cos  P cos 2 
A A0 A0
cos
Psin   P sin cos
 V 
A A0 A0
cos
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Fourth
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Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
  P cos 2    P sin cos
A0 A0

• The maximum normal stress occurs when the

reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
m  P   0
A0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,
 m  P sin 45 cos 45  P   
A0 2A0

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Fourth
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Stress Under General Loadings

• A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into
two segments by a plane passing
through Q

• The distribution of internal stress

components may be defined as,
F x
 x  lim
A0 A

V yx Vzx
 xy  lim  xz  lim
A0 A A0 A

• For equilibrium, an equal and

opposite internal force and stress
distribution must be exerted on
the other segment of the member.

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Fourth
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

State of Stress
• Stress components are defined for the planes
cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For
equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are
exerted on the hidden planes.
• The combination of forces generated by the
stresses must satisfy the conditions for
equilibrium:
 Fx   Fy   Fz  0
Mx  My  Mz  0
• Consider the moments about the z axis:
 M z  0   xy Aa   yx Aa
 xy   yx
similarly,  yz   zy and  yz   zy

• It follows that only 6 components of stress

are required to define the complete state of
stress
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Sample Problem

SOLUTION:
• Apply a free-body analysis to the bar
BDE to find the forces exerted by
links AB and DC.
• Evaluate the deformation of links
The rigid bar BDE is supported by two AB and DC or the displacements of
links AB and CD. B and D.

Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70 • Work out the geometry to find the

GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500 deflection at E given the deflections
mm2. Link CD is made of steel (E = 200 at B and D.
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of
(600 mm2).
For the 30-kN force shown, determine the
deflection a) of B, b) of D, and c) of E.

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Solution
SOLUTION: Displacement of B:
Free body: Bar BDE  B  PL
AE
 60103 N 0.3m 

50010-6 m2 70109 Pa 
 514106 m
 B  0.514 mm 
MB  0
Displacement of D:
0  30 kN  0.6 m  FCD  0.2 m
PL
D 
FCD  90kN tension AE
MD  0 90103 N 0.4m 
0  30 kN  0.4 m  FAB  0.2 m

60010-6 m2 200109 Pa 
FAB  60 kN compression  300106 m

 D  0.300 mm 

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Solution
Displacement of D:
BB BH


DD HD
0.514 mm  200 mm  x
0.300 mm x
x  73.7 mm

EE  HE
DD HD
E 
400  73.7 mm
0.300 mm 73.7 mm
 E  1.928 mm

 E  1.928 mm 

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Static Indeterminacy
• Structures for which internal forces and reactions
cannot be determined from statics alone are said
to be statically indeterminate.

• A structure will be statically indeterminate

whenever it is held by more supports than are
required to maintain its equilibrium.

• Redundant reactions are replaced with

unknown loads which along with the other
loads must produce compatible deformations.

• Deformations due to actual loads and redundant

reactions are determined separately and then added
or superposed.
  L R  0

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Example 2
SOLUTION:
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the applied
loads with the redundant constraint released,
P1  0 P2  P3  600103 N P4  900103 N

A1  A2  400106 m 2 A3  A4  250106 m 2
L1  L2  L3  L4  0.150 m

P L 1.12510 9
L   i i 
i Ai Ei E

• Solve for the displacement at B due to the redundant

constraint,
P1  P2  RB

A1  400106 m 2 A2  250106 m 2
L1  L2  0.300 m

δR  
Pi Li


1.95103 RB
i Ai Ei E
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Solution
• Require that the displacements due to the loads and due to
the redundant reaction be compatible,
  L R  0
9  3 
  1.12510  1.9510 RB  0
E E
RB  577 103 N  577 kN

• Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the reaction at B

 Fy  0  R A  300 kN  600 kN  577 kN
RA  323kN

RA  323kN
RB  577 kN

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Fourth
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Relation Among E,  and G

Hook’s Law states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is proportional to the
strain produced by the stress.
This means the ratio of the stress to the corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic limit. This
constant is known as Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of Rigidity or Elastic Moduli.

• An axially loaded slender bar will elongate in the axial

direction and contract in the transverse directions.
• An initially cubic element oriented as in top figure will deform
into a rectangular parallelepiped. The axial load produces a
normal strain.
• If the cubic element is oriented as in the bottom figure, it will
deform into a rhombus. Axial load also results in a shear strain.
• Components of normal and shear strain are related,

 1  
E
2G

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Fourth
Beer • Johnston • DeWolf

Thermal Stresses
• A temperature change results in a change in length or
thermal strain. There is no stress associated with the
thermal strain unless the elongation is restrained by
the supports.
• Treat the additional support as redundant and apply
the principle of superposition.
PL
 T   T L  P 
AE
  thermal expansion coef.
• The thermal deformation and the deformation from
the redundant support must be compatible.
  T   P  0  T L  PL  0
AE
P   AE T 

  P  E T 
A
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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Poisson’s Ratio

• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:


x  x  y   z  0
E

• The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),
y  z  0

• Poisson’s ratio is defined as

lateral strain y 
   z
axial strain x x

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 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Generalized Hooke’s Law

• For an element subjected to multi-axial loading,

the normal strain components resulting from the
stress components may be determined from the
principle of superposition. This requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small

• With these restrictions:

 x  y   z
x   
E E E
  
y   x  y  z
E E E
  
z   x  y  z
E E E

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 Exercise
Two solid cylindrical rods AB and BC are welded together at B and
loaded as shown. Knowing that d1=30 mm and d2=50 mm, find the average normal stress at the midsection of
(a) rod AB, (b) rod BC. 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝝈𝑨𝑩 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟗𝑴𝒑𝒂, 𝝈𝑩𝑪 = −𝟗𝟔. 𝟖𝑴𝒑𝒂
 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

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Factor of Safety

Structural members or machines Factor of safety considerations:

must be designed such that the • uncertainty in material properties
working stresses are less than the • uncertainty of loadings
ultimate strength of the material.
• uncertainty of analyses
FS  Factor of safety • number of loading cycles
• types of failure
u ultimate stress
FS   • maintenance requirements and
 all allowablestress
deterioration effects
• importance of member to integrity of
whole structure
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine function

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Individual Assignment-I (Within one week)

Write a summary on the elastic theories of
failure. Also justify the importance and
limitations of factor of safety.

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