TRANSMISSION & DISTRUBUTION 18EE43

MODULE 3

MODELLING AND PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES

Classification of lines - short line, medium line and long line - equivalent circuits, phasor
diagram, attenuation constant, phase constant, surge impedance; transmission efficiency and
voltage regulation, real and reactive power flow in lines, Power - circle diagrams, surge
impedance loading, methods of voltage control; Ferranti effect.

CLASSIFICATION
CATION OF LINES

The important considerations in the design and operation of a transmission line are the
determination of voltage drop, line losses and efficiency of transmission. These values are
greatly influenced by the line constants R, L and C of the transmission line. For instance the
voltage drop in the line depends upon the values of above three line constants. Similarly, the
resistance of transmission line conductors is the most important cause of power loss in the
line and determines the transmis
transmission
sion efficiency. In this chapter, we shall develop formulas by
which we can calculate voltage regulation, line losses and efficiency of transmission lines.
These formulas are important for two principal reasons. Firstly, they provide an opportunity
to understand
erstand the effects of the parameters of the line on bus voltages and the flow of power.
Secondly, they help in developing an overall understanding of what is occurring on electric
power system.

CLASSIFICATION OF OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES

A transmission line has *three constants R, L and C distributed uniformly along the whole
length of the line. The resistance and inductance form the series impedance. The capacitance
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existing between conductors for 1-phase line or from a conductor to neutral for a 3phase line
forms a shunt path throughout the length of the line. Therefore, capacitance effects introduce
complications in transmission line calculations. Depending upon the manner in which
capacitance is taken into account, the overhead transmission lines are classified as :

(i) Short transmission lines. When the length of an overhead transmission line is upto
about 50 km and the line voltage is comparatively low (< 20 kV), it is usually considered as a
short transmission line. Due to smaller length and lower voltage, the capacitance effects are
small and hence can be neglected. Therefore, while studying the performance of a short
transmission line, only resistance and inductance of the line are taken into account.
(ii) Medium transmission lines. When the length of an overhead transmission line is about
50-150 km and the line voltage is moderately high (>20 kV < 100 kV), it is considered as a
medium transmission line. Due to sufficient length and voltage of the line, the capacitance
effects are taken into account. For purposes of calculations, the distributed capacitance of the
line is divided and lumped in the form of condensers shunted across the line at one or more
points.
(iii) Long transmission lines. When the length of an overhead transmission line is more
than 150 km and line voltage is very high (> 100 kV), it is considered as a long transmission
line. For the treatment of such a line, the line constants are considered uniformly distributed
over the whole length of the line and rigorous methods are employed for solution. It may be
emphasised here that exact solution of any transmission line must consider the fact that the
constants of the line are not lumped but are distributed uniformly throughout the length of the
line. However, reasonable accuracy can be obtained by considering these constants as
lumped for short and medium transmission lines.

Important Terms

While studying the performance of a transmission line, it is desirable to determine its voltage
regulation and transmission efficiency. We shall explain these two terms in turn.

(i) Voltage regulation. When a transmission line is carrying current, there is a voltage drop
in the line due to resistance and inductance of the line. The result is that receiving end voltage
(VR) of the line is generally less than the sending end voltage (VS ). This voltage drop (Vs
−V R) in the line is expressed as a percentage of receiving end voltage V and is called
voltage regulation.

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The difference in voltage at the receiving end of a transmission line **between conditions of
no load and full load is called voltage regulation and is expressed as a percentage of the
receiving end voltage.

(ii) Transmission efficiency. The power obtained at the receiving end of a transmission line
is generally less than the sending end power due to losses in the line resistance. The ratio
of receiving end power to the sending end power of a transmission line is kknown as the
transmission efficiency of the line

PERFORMANCE OF SINGLE PHASE SHORT TRANSMISSION LINES

As stated earlier, the effects of line capacitance are neglected for a short transmission line.
Therefore, while studying the performance of such a line, only resistance and inductance of
the line are taken into account. The equivalent circuit of a single phase short transmission line
is shown in Fig.

Here, the total line resistance and inductance are shown as concentrated or lumped instead of
being distributed. The circuit is a simple a.c. series circuit.

Let I = load current

R = loop resistance i.e., resistance of both conductors
XL= loop reactance
VR = receiving end voltage
cosφR = receiving end power factor (lagging)
VS= sending end voltage
cosφS= sending end power factor

The *phasor diagram of the line for lagging load power factor is shown in Fig. From the right
angled triangle ODC, we get,

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An approximate expression for the sending end voltage Vs can be obtained as follows. Draw
S perpendicular from B and C on OA produced as shown in Fig. Then OC is nearly equal to
OF

THREE-PHASE
PHASE SHORT TRANSMISSION LINES

For reasons associated

iated with economy, transmission of electric power is done by 33-phase
system. This system may be regarded as consisting of three single phase units, each wire
transmitting one-third
third of the total power. As a matter of convenience, we generally analyse
3phasee system by considering one phase only. Therefore, expression for regulation,
efficiency etc. derived for a single phase line can also be applied to a 33-phase
phase system. Since
only one phase is considered, phase values of 33-phase
phase system should be taken. Thus, Vs and
VR are the phase voltages, whereas R and XL are the resistance S and inductive reactance
per phase respectively.
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Fig (i) shows a Y-connected

connected generator supplying a balanced Y
Y-connected
connected load through a
transmission line. Each conductor has a re
resistance of R Ω and inductive reactance of X Ω.
Fig.( ii) shows one phase separately. The calculations can now be made in the same way as
for a single phase line.

MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINES

In short transmission line calculations, the effects of the line capacitance are neglected
because such lines have smaller lengths and transmit power at relatively low voltages (< 20
kV). However, as the length and voltage of the line increase, the capacitance gradually
becomes of greater importance.
Since medium transmission
ansmission lines have sufficient length (50
(50-150
150 km) and usually operate at
voltages greater than 20 kV, the effects of capacitance cannot be neglected. Therefore, in
order to obtain reasonable accuracy in medium transmission line calculations, the line
capacitance
acitance must be taken into consideration.
The capacitance is uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line. However, in order
to make the calculations simple, the line capacitance is assumed to be lumped or concentrated
in the form of capacitors
itors shunted across the line at one or more points. Such a treatment of
localising the line capacitance gives reasonably accurate results. The most commonly used
methods (known as localised capacitance methods) for the solution of medium transmissions
lines are :(i)
i) End condenser method

(ii) Nominal T method

(iii) Nominal π method.

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Although the above methods are used for obtaining the performance calculations of medium
lines, they can also be used for short lines if their line capacitance is given in a particular
problem.

End Condenser Method

In this method, the capacitance of the line is lumped or concentrated at the receiving or load
end as shown in Fig.This
This method of localising the line capacitance at the load end
overestimates the effects of capacitance. In Fig, one phase of the 33-phase
phase transmission line is
shown as it is more convenient to work in phase instead of line
line-to-line
line values.

Let
I R= load current per phase
R = resistance per phase
XL= inductive reactance per phase
C = capacitance per phase
cosφR= receiving end power factor ( lagging)
VS= sending end voltage per phase

The *phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Fig Taking the rece
receiving
iving end voltage VR as
the reference phasor,

The sending end current Isis

is the phasor sum of load current IR and capacitive current IC i.e.
,

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Limitations Although end condenser method for the solution of medium lines is simple to
work out calculations,
lations, yet it has the following drawbacks :
(i)
i) There is a considerable error (about 10%) in calculations because the distributed
capacitance has been assumed to be lumped or concentrated.
(ii)
ii) This method overestimates the effects of line capacitanc
capacitance.

ii)Nominal T Method

In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the middle point
of the line and half the line resistance and reactance are lumped on its either side as shown in
Fig.Therefore, in this arrangement, full charging current flows over half the line. In Fig. one
phase of 3-phase
phase transmission line is shown as it is advantageous to work in phase instead of
line-to-line
line values.

Let

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IR = load current per phase ;

R = resistance per phase
XL = inductive reactance per phase ;
C = capacitance per phase
cosφR = receiving end power factor ( lagging) ;
VS= sending end voltage/phase
V1 = voltage across capacitor C
The *phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Fig. Taking the receiving end voltage VR as
the reference phasor, we have,

iii) Nominal π Method

In this method, capacitance of each conductor ( i.e., line to neutral) is divided into two
halves; one half being lumped
mped at the sending end and the other half at the receiving end as
shown in Fig. It is obvious that capacitance at the sending end has no effect on the line drop.
However, its charging current must be added to line current in order to obtain the total

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sending end current

Let
IR = load current per phase
R = resistance per phase
XL = inductive reactance per phase
C = capacitance per phase
cosφR = receiving end power factor ( lagging)
VS= sending end voltage per phase
The *phasor diagram
am for the circuit is shown in Fig. Taking the receiving end voltage as the
reference phasor, we have,

LONG TRANSMISSION LINES

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It is well known that line constants of the transmission line are uniformly distributed over the
entire length of the line. However, reasonable accuracy can be obtained in line calculations
for short and medium lines by considering these constants as lumped. If such an assumption
of lumped constants is applied to long transmission lines (having length excess of about 150
km), itt is found that serious errors are introduced in the performance calculations. Therefore,
in order to obtain fair degree of accuracy in the performance calculations of long lines, the
line constants are considered as uniformly distributed throughout the le
length of the line.
Rigorous mathematicaltreatment is required for the solution of such lines. Fig shows the
equivalent circuit of a 3-phase
phase long transmission line on a phase
phase-neutral
neutral basis. The whole line
length is divided into n sections, each section havi
having
ng line constants 1 /n th of those for the
whole line. The following points may by noted :
(i) The line constants are uniformly distributed over the entire length of line as is actually the
case.
(ii) The resistance and inductive reactanc
reactance are the series elements.
(iii) The leakage suspectance
tance (B) and leakage conductance ((G)
G) are shunt
shu elements. The
leakage suspectance
ance is due to the fact that capacitance exists between line and neutral. The
leakage conductance takes into account the energy losses ooccurring
ccurring through leakage over

theinsulators or due to corona effect between conductors. Admittance

(iv) The leakage current through shunt admittance is maximum at the sending end of the line and
decreases continuously as the receiving end of the circuit iiss approached at which point its value is
zero.

FERRANTI EFFECT
A long transmission line draws a substantial quantity of charging current. If such a line is
open circuited or very lightly loaded at the receiving end, the voltage at receiving end may
become greater than voltage at sending end. This is known as Ferranti Effect and is due to the
voltage drop across the line inductance (due to charging current) being in phase with the
sending end voltages. Therefore both capacitance and inductance is responsible to produce
this phenomenon The capacitance (and charging curr
current)
ent) is negligible in short line but
significant in medium line and appreciable in long line. Therefore this phenomenon occurs in
medium and long lines.
Represent line by equivalent π model.

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Line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the rece

receiving end.
OM = receiving end voltage Vr
OC = Current drawn by capacitance = Ic
MN = Resistance drop
NP = Inductive reactance drop
Therefore;
OP = Sending end voltage at no load and is less than receiving end voltage (Vr)
Since, resistance is small compared
ompared to reactance; resistance can be neglected in calculating
Ferranti effect.
From π model,

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i.e.. receiving end voltage is greater than sending end voltage and this effect is called Ferranti
Effect. It is valid for open circuit condition of long line.

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