UNCONVENTIONA MATERIALS

Composite materials – are obtained by combining on a macroscopic or

microscopic scale two or more different materials to create a new material;
components can be physically identified.
Phases :
1. Matrix (continuous phase)
- Provides the shape of the composite piece
- Supports reinforcement material
- Protects reinforcement against external factors
- Transfers effort to reinforcement
- Contributes to properties that depend on both reinforcement and
matrix, such as mechanical strength, brittleness, plasticity, stiffness.
- Redistributes tasks when some reinforcement elements fail

2. Reinforcement (discontinuous phase)

- Provides material strength and stiffness
- Has a dominant role in other properties such as thermal expansion
coefficient and heat transfer
- Improves matrix qualities such as rigidity or elasticity, tensile strength,
compression, bending, wear, fatigue, various other physical or
chemical properties
- Bears most of the external effort, therefore the shape and orientation
of the reinforcement in the composite must be carefully chosen in such
a way that it is optimal to the stresses to which the composite is to be
subjected
Engineered material
Composite combinations are virtually infinite.
Type&classification:
- Matrix based: Organic Polymer Matrix Composite(PMC), metal,
ceramic, carbon, Hybrids
- Reinforcement based: Particle reinforced, Fibre reinforced,
Structural.
Fiber reinforced composites(FRP) – most used in structural self-
supporting applications.
Advantages:
- Low weight
- High specific rigidity
- High specific resistance
- Ansitropy – different characteristics depending on the orientation
direction
- Excellent formability in complex geometries
- Accumulate multiple components in one element, thus reducing the
cost of the assembly
- Easily bonded (specific adhesives)
- Good damping
- Good shock resistance
- Capacity to store and release internal energy
- Low expansion coefficient
- Low electrical conductivity
- Invisible for radar systems (STEALTH)
- Thermal and electrical conductivity (carbon fiber only)
Drawbacks:
- The cost of raw materials
- Lack of universally valid design rules
- Using the same project for metal and composite is rarely possible
- Long development times
- Difficulties of putting into work (manual, slow, environmental problems,
low repeatability)
- Specific assembly organs
- Low ductility (joints are often ineffective and concentrate higher stress
than metals
- Susceptible to attack by solvents
- Thermal operating limits
- Susceptible to defects
- Hidden defects
- Electromagnetic shielding is sometimes required
Fire resilience:
Fire Retardant materials are typically self-extinguishing laminates,
often crafted using chlorinated resins and additives such as Antimony
trioxide. These materials release CO2 when they burn, allowing them to self-
extinguish when the source of the flame is removed.
 In contrast, Fire Resistant materials are more challenging to create and
often involve the use of substances like Phenolic Resins. These materials are
complex to work with, requiring curing with formaldehyde and extensive
post-curing to achieve genuine fire resistance. Additionally, alternative
materials like intumescent layers are gaining proeminence. These layers
expand when exposed to heat, forming a protective barrier that prevents the
spread of flames.
Chemical resistance:
Composite products exhibit excellent durability against various
weathering conditions and remain resilient when exposed to a broad
spectrum of chemicals. The degree of resistance primarily hinges on the
choice of resin utilized in the manufacturing process. With meticulous resin
selection, resistance to nearly all but the most extreme environmental
conditions can be attained. Consequently, composites find widespread
application in crafting chemical storage tanks, pipes, chimneys, ducts, boat
hulls, and vehicle bodies.
Thermal conductivity:
The properties of the matrix also determine the maximum usage
temperature, resistance to moisture and fluids, and thermal and oxidative
stability.
Fiberglass developments has played a pivotal role in the advancement
and manufacturing of specialized meat containers designed to preserve
premium cuts of chilled meat at the precise temperature required for export
markets. These containers are crafted using the Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
method, incorporating unique reinforcement elements and foam inserts.
Design flexibility&Manufacturing economy:
- design limitations are designer limitations
- series manufacturing in molds create complex shapes delivered in one
step
- reduces additional manufacturing processes (welding, painting,
finishing, assembling).
Hand Lay-up:
A contact mold method suitable for making boats, tanks, housings and
building panels for prototypes and other large parts requiring high strength.
Production volume is low to medium.

A pigmented gel coat is first applied to the mold by spray gun for a
high-quality surface. When the gel coat has become tacky, fiberglass
reinforcement (usually mat or cloth) is manually placed on the mold.
Catalysts and accelerators are added to the resin to cure without external
heat. The amounts of catalyst and accelerator are dictated by the working
time necessary and overall thickness of the finished part. The base resin is
applied by pouring, brushing or spraying. Squeegees or rollers are used to
consolidate the laminate, thoroughly wetting the reinforcement with the
resin, and removing entrapped air. Layers of fiberglass mat or woven roving
and resin are added for thickness. The laminate may be cored or stiffened
with PVC foam, balsa and honeycomb materials to reduce weight and
increase panel stiffness
Major Advantages:
Simplest method offering low-cost tooling, simple processing and a
wide range of part sizes. Design changes are readily made. There is a
minimum investment in equipment. With good operator skill, good
production rates and consistent quality are obtainable.
Spray-up
A low-to-medium volume, open mold method similar to hand lay-up in
its suitability for making boats, tanks, tub/shower units and other simple
medium to large size shapes such as truck hoods, recreational vehicle panels
and commercial refrigeration display cases. Greater shape complexity is
possible with spray-up than with lay-up.

Fiberglass continuous strand roving is fed through a combination

chopper and spray gun. This device simultaneously deposits chopped roving
and catalyzed resin onto the mold. The laminate thus deposited is densified
with rollers or squeegees to remove air and thoroughly work the resin into
the reinforcing strands. Additional layers of chopped roving and resin may be
added as required for thickness. Cure is usually at room temperature or may
be accelerated by moderate application of heat. As with hand lay-up, a
superior surface finish may be achieved by first spraying gel coat onto the
mold prior to spray-up of the substrate. Woven roving is occasionally added
to the laminate for specific strength orientation. Also, core materials are
easily incorporated.
Major Advantages:
 Simple, low-cost tooling, simple processing; portable equipment
permits on-site fabrication; virtually no part size limitations. The process may
be automated.

Filament Winding
A process resulting in a high degree of fiber loading to provide
extremely hightensile strengths in the manufacture of hollow, generally
cylindrical products such aschemical and fuel storage tanks and pipe,
pressure vessels and rocket motor cases

Continuous strand reinforcement is utilized to achieve maximum

laminate strength. Reinforcement is fed through a resin bath and wound onto
a suitable mandrel (preimpregnated roving may also be used). Special
winding machines lay down continuous strands in a predetermined pattern to
provide maximum strength in the directions required. When sufficient layers
have been applied, the wound mandrel is cured at room temperature or in an
oven. The molding is then stripped from the mandrel. Equipment is available
to perform filament winding on a continuous basis.
Major Advantages:
The process is a continuous operation that can be readily automated. It
is adaptable to shapes with small cross-sectional areas and uses low-cost
reinforcement.
Very high strengths are possible due to the length of the stock being
drawn. There is no practical limit to the length of stock produced by
continuous pultrusion

Pultrusion
Continuous strand fiberglass roving, mat or cloth is impregnated in a
resin bath, then drawn through a steel die, which sets the shape of the stock
and controls the fiber/resin ratio. A portion of the die is heated to initiate the
cure. A pulling device establishes production speed.

Major Advantages
The process affords the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any
fiberglass reinforced plastic manufacturing practice and provides the highest
degree of control over uniformity and fiber orientation.
Filament wound structures can be accurately machined. The process
may be automated when high volume makes this economically feasible.
The reinforcement used is low in cost. Integral vessel closures and
fittings may be wound into the laminate.
Vacuum Bagging
Mechanical properties of open-mold laminates can be improved with a
vacuum assist technique. Entrapped air and excess resin are removed to
produce a product with a higher percentage of fiber reinforcement

A flexible film is placed over the completed lay-up, its joint sealed, and
a vacuum drawn. A bleeder ply of fiberglass cloth, non-woven nylon,
polyester cloth or other absorbent material is first placed over the laminate.
Atmospheric pressure eliminates voids in the laminate, and forces excel resin
and air from the mold. The addition of pressure further results in high fiber
concentration and provides better adhesion between layers of sandwich
construction. When laying non-contoured sheets of PVC foam or balsa into a
female mold, vacuum bagging is the technique of choice to ensure proper
secondary bonding of the core to the outer laminate.
Major Advantages:
Vacuum bag processing can produce laminates with a uniform degree
of consolidation, while at the same time removing entrapped air, thus
reducing the finished void content.
 Structures fabricated with traditional hand lay-up techniques can
become resin rich, especially in areas where puddles can collect. Vacuum
bagging can eliminate the problem of resin rich laminates.
Additionally, complete fiber wet-out can be accomplished when the
process is done correctly. Improved core-bonding is also possible with
vacuum bag processing

SCRIMP
SCRIMP stands for “Seemann Composites Resin Infusion Molding
Process.” The SCRIMP process is performed under a high vacuum, whereby
all of the air is removed from constructed, pre-cut or preformed dry
reinforcement materials.

After this material is compacted by atmospheric pressure, a resin

matrix is introduced to completely encapsulate all the materials within the
vacuumized volume. The main difference between SCRIMP and vacuum-
bagged prepreg is that with the SCRIMP method, the fabrics, preforms and
cores are placed in the mold dry, prior to the application of any resin and a
high vacuum is used to both compact the laminate and also to draw and
infuse the resin into the composite.
Major Advantages
There is virtually no void content due to the high vacuum, also the
accurate placement of cores and selective reinforcements is enhanced by
the ability to inspect the orientation of all components of the composite
under vacuum without time constraints
Much lower tooling cost due to one half of the tool being a vacuum
bag, and less strength being required in the main tool.
In addition, cored structures can be produced in one operation

Autoclave Molding
A pressurized autoclave (effectively a pressurized oven) is used for curing
high quality components at elevated temperatures under very controlled
conditions. A greater laminate density and faster cure can be accomplished
with the use of an autoclave.

Most autoclaves are built to operate above 95°C, which will process the
120 to 175°C epoxies used in aerospace applications. The autoclaves are
usually pressurized with nitrogen or carbon dioxide to reduce the fire hazard
associated with using shop air. Most autoclaves operate at 100 psi under
computer control systems linked to thermocouples embedded in the
laminates
Major Advantages
Very precise quality control over the curing cycle can be accomplished
with an autoclave. This is especially important for high temperature cure
aerospace resin systems that produce superior mechanical properties.
The performance of these resin systems is very much dependent on
the time and temperature variables of the cure cycle, which is closely
controlled during autoclave cure

Resin Transfer Molding

Most successful production resin transfer molding (RTM) operations are

now based on the use of resin/catalyst mixing machinery using positive
displacement piston-type pumping equipment to ensure accurate control of
resin to catalyst ratio. A constantly changing back pressure condition exists
as resin is forced into a closed tool already occupied by reinforcement fiber.
The basic RTM molding process involves the connection of a meter, mix and
dispense machine to the inlet of the mold. Closing of the mold will give the
predetermined shape with the inlet injection port typically at the lowest point
and the vent ports at the highest.
Major Advantages
The close-mold process produces parts with two finished surfaces.
By laying up reinforcement material dry inside the mold, any
combination of materials and orientation can be used, including 3-D
reinforcements.
Part thickness is also not a problem as exotherm can be controlled.
Carbon/epoxy structures up to four inches thick have been fabricated using
this technique

Compression Molding
A high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for molding complex,
high-strength fiberglass-reinforced plastic parts. Fairly large parts can be
molded with excellent surfacefinish. Thermosetting resins are normally used

Matched molds are mounted in a hydraulic or mechanical molding

press. A weighed charge of sheet or bulk molding compound, or a “preform”
or fiberglass mat with resin added at the press, is placed in the open mold. In
the case of preform or mat molding, the resin may be added either before or
after the reinforcement is positioned in the mold,depending on part
configuration. The two halves of the mold are closed, and heat (110 to
160°C) and pressure (150 to 2000 psi) are applied. Depending on thickness,
size, and shape of the part, curing cycles range from less than a minute to
about five minutes. The mold is then open and the finished part is removed.
Typical parts can be: automobile front ends, appliance housings and
structural components, furniture, electrical components, business machine
housings and parts
Major Advantages
Highest volume and highest part uniformity of any thermoset molding
method. The process can be automated.
Great part design flexibility, good mechanical and chemical properties
obtainable.
Inserts and attachments can be molded in. Superior color and finish
are obtainable, contributing to lower part finishing cost. Subsequent
trimming and machining operations are minimized
Mechanical Failure Mechanisms

Splitting
If many fibres run in one direction and adhesion in a transversal
direction with respect to the fibres is somehow inadequate, a composite can
split relatively easily.
Splitting causes cracks to occur in the composite. It can be caused by
inplane-bending, compression loading or by wedge effect in a bearing or
connection.
To prevent splitting is recommended to orient fibres layer by layer in
different directions.
Delamination
Delamination resembles splitting. In this case, however, the tear is
formed between two plies in the plane of the laminate. This form of failure
can easily occur, since shear stress between plies can be high and if no
reinforcement between the layers is provided.
It appears when two plies have very different stiffness values(sandwich
materials).
 An effective remedy is avoiding differences in stiffness between plies.
Buckling
Macroscopic or Euler buckling represents a structural failure that can
manifest in lengthy, slender compression elements, irrespective of the
material employed.
Enhancing resistance to macroscopic buckling can be achieved by
utilizing a more rigid material or structure.
Fatigue
If alternating loads are repeated frequently enough, they can
eventually cause damage. Fatigue occurs in many materials. In composites,
the failure mechanism is quite different than in steel.
An important difference with other materials is that composite
materials lose part of their stiffness under the influence of fatigue. Fatigue
loads with an average tensile stress or compression stress can cause creep
(in the case of constant loads) or stress relaxation(pre-tensioning or constant
displacement)
Fatigue can be avoided by adapting materials and fibre orientation to
the load or by adding more layers.

Impact damage
In laminates, the tendency is for the material to bounce back, even if
cracks and delamination exist deeper within the laminate.
In case of impact the inspection, maintenance, and potential repair
purposes must be accessible to both sides of the laminate.
Creep and stress relaxation
While glass fiber and most carbon fibers exhibit low sensitivity to
creep, aramid fibers are prone to creep due to their polymeric nature, similar
to many resins. The adverse effects of creep can be mitigated through
careful material selection and consideration in the design process.
In composites where fibers bear the load, minimizing stress on the
resins, creep is generally minimal. Examples include unidirectional (UD)
laminates. However, in laminates and structures where the resin absorbs a
significant portion of the load (e.g., laminates with fibers in the load
direction, bonding, out-of-plane loading, etc.), it is important to account for
the effects of creep. Elevated temperatures or environmental influences can
substantially impact creep behavior.
Osmosis
Osmosis, in the context of composites, refers to the absorption of
water by the resin, potentially leading to damage. When exposed to moisture
over an extended period, most resins tend to absorb water, resulting in a
weight increase of several percentages. While water absorption is reversible
through drying, the damage incurred is not always reversible.
Polyester resin, in particular, is susceptible to damage from water
absorption. On a molecular scale, water molecules accumulate between
polymer chains, disrupting bonding and creating additional space filled by
water. Over time, this can lead to visible blisters filled with a sourish smelling
liquid. Repairing such damage requires sanding, polishing, or applying a new
resin layer.
Osmosis, combined with cracks in the resin due to factors like fatigue
or UV damage, can indirectly cause damage when water expands upon
freezing. Therefore, it is crucial to prevent damage from moisture exposure,
as repairs may be challenging. Prevention is key, and using resins with low or
no sensitivity to osmosis, such as vinylester, iso-polyester, or epoxy, can
help mitigate water damage. Alternatively, applying an outer layer of one of
these resins, often in the form of a gel coating, proves effective in preventing
osmosis damage. It's worth noting that almost all thermoplastics are
insensitive to moisture, except for polyamide (nylon).

UV damage
UV damage typically has minimal impact on most fibers as they are shielded
by the surrounding resin. However, the color and gloss of the resin itself can
undergo changes over time due to UV radiation, particularly if the product is
not kept clean. Fortunately, the influence of UV radiation on the strength and
stiffness properties of a composite is generally limited. This limitation arises
because any damage is typically confined to the first millimeter of the
surface layer.
Erosion
In applications where a surface comes into contact with an abrasive
medium, erosion is a potential concern. Water, at sufficiently high speeds,
can exhibit abrasive properties, as demonstrated in processes like waterjet
cutting, which is effective for machining composites. Examples of erosion-
prone areas include the wheel casings of motor vehicles or the tips of
helicopter blades. Initially, damage is typically confined to the surface, but
the structural properties may be compromised if underlying plies are
affected. Assessing sensitivity to erosion through testing can provide
valuable insights, although the diversity of testing methods can make result
comparison challenging. The application of thermoplastic protection strips
often serves as a practical measure to mitigate erosion damage.
Temperature and fire damage
In many composites, especially the matrix material, is sensitive to high
temperatures and fire. Above the glass transition temperature, the matrix
becomes rubbery, and at even higher temperatures, it may melt (if
thermoplastic) or burn. This compromises the bonding between fibers,
leading to rapid failure, especially in compression-stress-dominant
structures.
In many composites, especially the matrix material, is sensitive to high
temperatures and fire. Above the glass transition temperature, the matrix
becomes rubbery, and at even higher temperatures, it may melt (if
thermoplastic) or burn. This compromises the bonding between fibers,
leading to rapid failure, especially in compression-stress-dominant
structures.
For enhancing the fire resistance of composite materials :
1. Implementing chlorine or bromine compounds(raise the material
ignition temperature) – environmental unfriedly method
2. Mixing resin with aluminium trihydrite (ATH) (endothermic reaction at
180degree, extract heat from environment) – the by-product of
reaction is water which contributes to fire-retarding effect.
3. Appling thick solid laminates(prolongs time it takes for a thick laminate
to burn)
Sandwich Structures
Upper and lower layers are separated from each other at a fixed
distance by an intermediate, connecting layer that is generally less strong
and rigid, and in all cases very light. (It can be used air, foams, balsa wood)
A sandwich structure is many cases analogous to the commonly used
“I-beam” or H-profile. In these cases the flanges absorb the moment of
inertia and most normal stresses.
Skins
- the skins provide the stiffness and strength in the plane of the
laminate and include the most important normal stresses
 - the skins absorb contact forces and serve as a fixing element
Core
- keeps the skins at a distance, so that they can fulfil their structural
function well
- dissipates most shear stresses caused by transverse forces
- supports the skins against buckling
- takes care of acoustic and, for example, thermal insulation
Bending
Thanks to its structure, a sandwich panel is relatively light for given
stiffness and strength. This makes it suitable for spans(floors, bridges) and as
an anti-buckling panel.
The impact properties of a sandwich panel can be good, since much
energy dissipation can occur in the deformation and failure of the core. On
the other hand, implementing joints in sandwich panels is not easy. Inserts
are commonly used to this end.
The production of curved sandwich panels is not easy. In addition to
flat core panels, grooved core materials are also used. These can bend more
easily.
Calculation of Bending rigidity and Shear stress
When calculating the stresses in a sandwich structure, the theory
associated with an assembled beam is often used. For this purpose, the
bending rigidity D of the whole bar must be determined.
If shear deformation is not taken into consideration, you are likely to
calculate too small a deflection relative to reality.
That would result in non-conservative designs (and thus be hazardous)

Buckling
As stated, sandwich panels are very suitable as structural elements
that can absorb compressive loads in the plane.
The calculation of the buckling resistance is not considered here but
depends on the constraints (the manner of clamping), the stiffness values of
the skins and core, and the resistance against bending.
Composites assemblies
Adhesive joints
 - The quality relies heavily on effective preparation and design.
- Skilled workmanship and proper pre-treatment results in strong
bonding
- Correct application of the adhesive following manufacturer’s
instructions (preparation, - temperature and humidity, mixtures, cure time,
conditions, etc)
- A well-designed adhesive joint ensures that the adhesive primarily
experiences shear loading (tensile strength is generally lower than shear
strength)
- Prevent peel stresses by appropriate design
- An effective adhesive joint is characterized by parallelism and
symmetry in respect to the action of applied forces.
- Always bear in mind the deformed state of the joint
A cohesive ('cohesion') fracture occurs in the thickness of the
adhesive. The cohesion strength is determined by the type of adhesive,
possible curing shrinkage, the porosity of the adhesive layer due to solvent
evaporation (if any), voids, homogeneity and correct ratio of the components
(for mixed 'two-component' adhesives). Nevertheless, most important is the
thickness of the adhesive layer and the appropriate joint design.
Mechanical joints
- In the case of mechanical joints, no adhesive is used. Mechanical joints
are generally of the 'pin-loaded hole' joint type.
- Undoubtfully, making holes in a composite structure has
consequences.
- Pin will rest against the hole edge and exercise surface pressure on it.
Screw or bolt thread that rests against a hole edge will damage the
hole edge.
- The reason for this is that metals show plastic deformation at the edge
of a hole. This may result in increased elongation, but not in increased
stress levels within the material. This plastic behaviour hardly ever
occurs with composites.

Failure modes:
Tensile fracture in the net cross section as a result of stress
concentration;
 Failure due to bearing pressure. This is the most favourable type of
fracture (the most 'forgiving'). The strength can be raised by supporting the
laminate in the thickness direction. Washers can be used to achieve this
Fatigue fracture. On the contact surface between bolt and hole, the
fibers fail very locally on pressure. As a result, the bolt fit is partially lost and
redistribution of the load over the bolted joint occurs;
Shear fracture. This type of fracture can be prevented by increasing
the end distance and adding fibres in the ±45º direction;
Creep. The pretensioning in a bolt can decrease through stress
relaxation in the laminate. This can have a negative influence on the quality
of the joint
Threaded connections
For fibre-reinforced polymers, a threaded joint can be made, just as for
wood and soft materials, where the pitch and thread height are fairly high
The strength and detachability of such a joint can be considerably
improved through the use of insert
Hybrid joints
An obvious combination is that of adhesive and mechanical means.
In this case, the mechanical joint provides the contact force for the
adhesive (shorter production times) and the adhesive can compensate for
manufacturing tolerances or making the joint liquid- or gas-tight.
Injection bolts permit the space between the bolt thread and the hole
edge to be filled after installation of the joint, preventing the thread from
'eating' into the composite and provide major advantages with respect to
fatigue.