Bo Edubuzz360 ‘=> 2.10.6 Composite Primary Loop / Secondary Selective Topology Composite topologies offer excellent flexibility and highest level of reliability. A typical depiction of this topology is shown in the Fig. 2.10.6. Depending upon the configuration, cost, and service quality distribution system may be radial or ring, mesh or the combination of both. Ky Lt Fig. 2.10.8 : Composite primary loop / secondary selective topology i 2.11 Distribution Management System (DMS) A DMS is a collection of applications incorporated to monitor and control the whole distribution network efficiently and reliably. It works as a decision support system to help the control room and field operating engineers with the monitoring and control of the electric distribution system. It helps to enhance the reliability and quality of service in terms of reducing outages. While minimizing outage time, it maintains acceptable frequency and voltage levels, These are the key achievements of a DMS. In order to support proper decision making activities, DMS shall have the following functions (D mwntetncenannnn senior ESEBo Edubuzz360 vies ‘=> 2.11.1 Network Connectivity Analysis (NCA) © Distribution network normally encompasses over a large area and serves power to different customers at different voltage levels. So identifying required sources and loads on a larger GIS / Operator interface is often very hard task. Network connectivity analysis is an operator dependent functionality which helps the operator to fix or locate the preferred network or component in a quicker way. NCA does the necessary investigation and provides display of the feed point of different network loads. «The network is modeled depending upon the condition of all the switching devices such as circuit breaker (CB), Ring Main Unit (RMU) and isolator. After that the prevailing network topology is determined. In addition to that the NCA further helps the operator to know the operating state of the distribution network which indicates the loops and parallels in the network. ‘= 2.11.2 State Estimation (SE) * Power system state estimation is a method where data are telemetered from network measuring points to a central computer which can be formed into a set of reliable data for control and recording purposes. It permits the calculation of margins to operating limits, equipment health and necessary operator actions with high accuracy despite of measurements that are corrupted by noise or could be missing or inaccurate. * In power networks, state estimation absorbs observable data from the field and gives a model of what is actually happening It is achieved by processing the data to indicate inaccurate readings or to estimate missing data. In a distribution network, the data quality that is telemetered will be imperfect because of the presence of noise. Problems in electronic devices and in the communications networks suggest that prior to conducting an analysis, preprocessing of data is compulsory to eliminate the bad data points. This will help to resolve any non-telemetered points and stabilize the telemetry systems. ‘= 2.14.3 Load Flow Applications (LFA) * Load flow study is an essential tool which involves application of numerical analysis to the power system, The chief aim of power flow study is to obtain the details of voltage magnitude, phase angle, real power and reactive power information for each bus in the power system for specified load conditions. After getting this information, real and reactive power flow on each branch as well as generator reactive power output can also be found analytically @ ‘Dowwnloaited from Cdnbuzz 360.com 's vindrodd ~ipp, | Googe Pay}Bo Edubuzz360 ties * Load flow is highly nonlinear problem with a lot of constraints. So numerical methods are applied to obtain a solution which lies within acceptable tolerance. It uses customer type, profile of different loads and other necessary information to correctly distribute the load to each individual distribution transformer. Load flow or Power flow studies are significant for future planning and expansion of power systems as well as in determining the optimal operation of existing systems. ‘=> 2.11.4 Volt / VAR Control (VVC) Volt / VAR Control or VVC implies the process of balancing voltage levels and reactive power (VAR) throughout the power distribution systems. In power system there will be always loads that has reactive components like capacitors and inductors like AC electric motors. This will put additional stress on the grid. It is the reactive nature of the load which will cause them to draw more current than what is actually required. The over drawn current will result in both over-voltage and under-voltage violations. Besides that this will be leading to excessive heating up of equipment like transformers, motors, and conductors. This will unnecessarily demand resizing of equipment to carry the total current. The power system must be able to control reactive power by fixing the limits of reactive power production, absorption and its flow at all levels in the system. A VVC application is very much helpful for the operator to soften such conditions by suggesting required action plans. This plan includes setting of correct tap position and capacitor switching to stabilize the voltage and thus optimize VolUVAR control function for the utility. ‘=> 2.11.5 Load Shedding Application (LSA) Power system is characterized by its long stretches of transmission line and injection points at multiple locations, This complex structure of power system will lead to instabilities and critical failure or unpredicted system conditions. The instabilities usually come into picture because of power system oscillations generated due to faults, peak deficit and protection failures. Distribution load shedding and restoration schemes plays a significant role in control and emergency operation in any utility. It not only reveals the emergency situation but also performs necessary predefined control actions, like opening, closing of noncritical feeders. It determines the sources of injections and performs a tap control at transformer. Generally distribution network is complex and has large area under its control. So, the emergency actions taken will reduce a lot of burden of the distribution network, In a manually controlled system, ‘operator's awareness of system conditions is extremely important. The operators must have the ability to respond to the changing situation. This will mitigate stress level of the system. If the decisions are not fast enough, the problem will grow exponentially and will cause major catastrophic failure Automated load shedding and restoration application instructions will be given by DMS for any utility. These instructions must cover various activities like Under Frequency Load Shedding, checking of limit violation and time of day based load shedding schemes which are manually performed by the operator. @ ‘Downloaded from Eater 360 com's findrold sppCo Edubuzz360 fies ‘=> 2.11.6 Fault Management and System Restoration (FMSR) Reliability and quality of power supply are the deciding parameters which must be ensured by any utility. When the outage time gets reduced, this will improve the overall reliability of any utility and increase the FMSR indices. FMSR is well known for automated switching applications under fault condition which plays an important role in power system stability and reliability. FMSR usually requires two important features. They are switching management and suggested switching plan. The DMS application will receive information about faults from the SCADA system. It processes the information for fault identification and running switching management application. The results are converted to action plans by the applications, The action plan can be authenticated in study mode which is provided by the functionality. The switching management can be either manual or automatic depending on the configuration. ‘=> 2.11.7 Load Balancing Via Feeder Reconfiguration (LBFR) Load balancing via feeder reconfiguration is an important application for utilities where they have multiple feeders feeding a congested area, The operator rearranges the loads to other neighboring parts of the network in order to balance the loads on a network. The Feeder Load Management (FLM) is required to permit the operator to manage energy delivery in the electric distribution system and identify problem sensitive areas. The FLM observes the vital signs of the distribution system and indicates areas of concern so that the distribution operator is warned in advance and can effectively focus his attention where it is most needed. It permits for quicker correction of existing problems and makes possibilities for problem avoidance. This will result in both improved reliability and excellent energy delivery. Many times feeder reconfiguration is also used for loss minimization. Because of many network and operational limitations utility network may be operated to its maximum capability without knowing its consequences of losses occurring. The overall energy losses and losses in revenue due to these operations can be reduced for effective operation. The DMS application utilizes switching management application for this very purpose. The loss minimization problem will be solved by optimal power flow algorithm. ‘=> 2.11.8 Distribution Load Forecasting (DLF) Distribution Load Forecasting (DLF) offers a structured interface for creating, managing and analyzing load forecasts. It is designed to provide both top-down and bottom-up forecasting methodologies. These actions are carried out in the same environment without giving any restrictions on the types of models available. It supports short-term, medium-term, as well as, long-term forecasting. DLF provides data aggregation and forecasting capabilities that is created not only to address today’s requirements but also to address future requirements. DLF has the capability to produce repeatable and accurate forecasts. Gece cetecste ne stmt SEIBo Edubuzz360 ties ‘> 2.12 Volt / Var Control (VVC) VVC governs two important objectives namely distribution substation switching and feeder voltage regulation equipment with the help of capacitor banks. The first one is to reduce the VAR flow on the distribution system and the second one is to maintain voltage at the customer delivery point within required limits. For an effective VVC application in power system it has to be coordinated and combined to optimize the control of both VAR flow and customer voltage. Components of VVC are as follows ‘=> 2.12.1 VAR Control, VAR Compensation, Power Factor Correction Substation and distribution feeder capacitor banks are utilized to reduce the VAR flow which will improve the power factor on the distribution feeder during all load levels. The distribution system losses are reduced because of optimal VAR flow. Ultimately, this reduces load losses on the substation and distribution feeders. ‘=> 2.12.2 Conservation Voltage Reduction (CVR) The distribution feeder voltage regulators and substation transformer load tap changers (LTC) are controlled by CVR. Because of this customer delivery voltage is minimized within specified and safe margins point during peak periods of load at the customer service. So there will be a considerable reduction in load on the substation and distribution feeder is made possible, Sometimes during base loading period CVR may also be incorporated to enhance voltage stability. ‘=> 2.12.3 Integrated Volt / VAR Control (IVVC) IVVC is the integration of VAR flow and CVR to minimize losses in the distribution feeder. It also controls the voltage profile of feeder. This will reduce system losses and may improve the quality of voltage supplied to the customer. Other additional benefits may include frequency of capacitor bank maintenance is reduced and capacitor bank troubleshooting is minimized. ‘= 2.12.4 Volt / VAR Optimization (VVO) VVO deals with the capability to optimize the objectives of VAR loss minimization and reduction in load with voltage constraints by means of optimization algorithms and well- crafted control objectives. These objectives are restrained by various constraints through decision making process either in a centralized way or decentralized way. In the coming years, with the increase in distributed generation, smaller plants that are placed nearer to the end customer will help to reduce electrical losses. At every level of the transmission and GD mnepenceteren seamen ESSEBo Edubuzz360 ies distribution system electrical losses cannot be avoided due to the presence of electrical impedance which includes both resistance and reactance of the equipment. So electrical losses occur starting from the step-up transformers which are located at the power plants and the transmission and distribution grid down to the delivery points where customer are connected, Generally VAR flow happens in the system due to flow of current through equipment on the system which is inductive in nature, such as transformers and transmission lines, and also by the nature of load. To reduce the VAR flow in the system, capacitance in the form of capacitor banks are connected to the system ‘=> 2.12.5 Volt / VAR Optimization and the Smart Grid * As the power system is faced by complexities differing radically, VVO helps the distribution organizations to function their systems within their limits. These complexities include increase in renewable generation placed at distribution voltage levels. The essential data sharing between the enterprise applications is enabled by smart grid. For example, customer revenue meters will inform about voltage readings from AMI systems will be shared with a centralized master VVC. This will benefit the customer by monitoring the lowest customer service point voltages and make sure that the voltage profile from the substation to the customer is as stable as possible. * With the presence of distributed energy sources (DER) and the incorporation of consumer demand management, the combination of VVO with the control and optimization of these resources in the distribution system is becoming a new challenge in smart grid. The very fast growth of renewable generation and energy storage system in the future years with smart grids will introduce huge challenges. But it will also provide opportunities for VVO in a greater extent. Nondispatchable distributed renewable energy resources like wind and PV are discontinuous and hard to predict in their operation. The tendency to reach overvoltage conditions will increase because of them in the distribution system. This means that the controllable voltage and VAR resources on the distribution system must be controlled as often as possible and with more accuracy in order to equal the varying output profile of the renewable energy sources. “—™ 2.13 Fault Detection, Isolation and Service Restoration * Fault Detection Identification and Restoration (FDIR) is one of the important technologies whose aim is to identify the fault occurrence, record the occurrence, and determine the fault location, Finally it helps in the restoration process, It is an integration of advanced DMS and OMS systems, as well as a close combination of feeder level assets with the DMS. FDIR systems will also use automated switching like reclosers, sectionalizers and switches. @ ‘Dowaloaded from CAnbuz1360.com 's Yindrold vip CazBo Edubuzz360 jes This will help to reduce the number of customers affected by a fault. The FDIR system is tightly connected with the DMS so that measured values from the shunt capacitors, reclosers, and sectionalizers are available to find the location of the fault. In addition to that, automatic operation of switches, reclosers, and sectionalizers is made possible which further reduces the time length of the outage. The result is that the system operates with reclosers and sectionalizers in the face of fault occurrence and the time required to identify and locate the fault is reduced by 30 % * From the analysis of FDIR the following conclusions and observations can be made The chief benefit of the incorporated FDIR is power system reliability increases, The peak load or annual energy consumption is not affected 2. When the FDIR is coordinated with reclosers, sectionalizers, DMS and OMS, it becomes one of the most fruitful ways to increase the reliability of a distribution feeder 3. Only when the power system is having low reliability, coordination of FDIR is mandatory. Generally, two technology components are needed to provide FDIR capabilities. These are software algorithms and field devices. Field devices have sensors and switches, The sensors search for issues on the network, while switches are utilized to control the power flow in the network. Algorithms are the mathematical tools that guide the switching operations when isolating equipment on the network. Switching operations proposed by software algorithms must be applied by an automatic system or human operator. Fig. 2.13. l(a) shows a typical 11 KV distribution network, When there is a fault on the network at the location shown in the Fig. 2.13.1 (a), CBlis opened by the over - current protection element in TED1.This opening action will bring an outage at loads L1 to LS. Since there are no automated operations of components in the network, this demands human intervention for supply restoration. Supply restoration is normally started by receiving phone calls from affected customers in the area where outage has occurred, Now, the electricity supplier is reported about the loss of power supply to the customer. After receiving these calls, a restoration crew is dispatched to the area. But it will take more time for the crew to locate the fault and manually isolate it by opening SD3 and SD4, Now CBI is closed to restore the supply to LI, L2 and L3. The normally open point (NOP) is closed to restore the supply to LS. Load L4 will not have supply until the fault is cleared. © A larger degree of automation may be introduced by making use of reclosers with RTUs, with communication infrastructure between them as shown in the Fig. 2.13.1 (b), In this scheme, an agent is brought into picture who gathers data from all the intelligent devices in @ ‘Downloaded from Cdmbuzz360.com 's Android +App C=Bo Edubuzz360 jes im 2.15 High-Efficiency Distribution Transformers © India is currently experiencing 23 percentage transmission and distribution losses, We struggle to reduce these losses which are made possible by incorporating energy efficient equipment LV winding (400/230 V) HV winding (10 kV) Fig. 2.15.1 : High efficiency distribution transformer * Because of the presence of a large number of distribution transformers in electric power system and their long lifetime, even small increase in the efficiency of these units will end up in very good energy savings. The representational diagram of the high efficiency distribution transformer and its amorphous core is shown in the Figs. 2.15.1 and 2.15.2 respectively. A significant increase in energy efficiency of distribution transformers is obtained by minimizing no-load loss (iron or core loss) of the transformer. The use of amorphous metal in distribution transformers has an advantage of allowing both liquid filled and dry type transformers with highly reduced no-load loss. Fig. 2.15.2 : Amorphous Ribbon or core Fig, 2.15.3 depicts the efficiency level of high efficiency distribution transformer with respect to international standard HD 428 types of load testing with amorphous core materials. It can be easily observed from the picture that these transformers give an efficiency ranging from 97.98 to 99.58 even under 50 % of loading, @ ‘Dowaleaded from Eduburs360.com 's vindroid “App CaBo Edubuzz360 ses 10.00% 99.50% PPS ELE LES SIE ESSER SSESS —#— NEMA TP-1 [80 Hz] USA, Can —¥— Japan top runner [50 Hz. 40% load] —— HD 428 BA" 2 10 420 cor 2 110 428 cAmat += India proposed MEPS (9 atar) Fig. 2.15.3 : Comparison of international standard efficiencies at 50 % of load. ‘C-AMDT’ refers to an amorphous-core transformer with HD 428 C-class of load losses. ‘=> 2.15.1 No Load Losses of Amorphous Ribbon or Core C1 1. Hysteresis Loss : When a magnetic field is applied, the random molecular structure of amorphous metal produces less friction than silicon steel. This unique property of amorphous materials allows ease of magnetization and demagnetization. This will significantly lessen hysteresis losses. C1 2. Eddy Current Loss : Amorphous metals are of very thin laminations and have high resistivity, This will reduce the eddy current losses as compared to silicon steel. When compared with standard liquid filled transformers, the amorphous metal core transformers have a significant no-load loss reduction up to 70 %. An amorphous metal transformer (AMT) is a unique kind of energy efficient transformer installed on electric grids. The magnetic core of this transformer is constructed with a ferromagnetic amorphous metal, The unique material is an alloy of iron with boron, silicon, and phosphorus combination and having a foil thickness of 25 pm. The magnetic susceptibility of these materials is very high and it has very low coercivity and high electrical resistance. The high resistance and thin foils will produce low losses by eddy currents when subjected to alternating magnetic fields. The only downside of amorphous alloys is that they have a lower saturation induction and give a stronger magnetostriction compared to conventional iron-silicon electrical steel. (Omen seine SEEBo Edubuzz360 wes ‘=> 2.15.2 Amorphous Metal Transformer Benefits © The following are the benefits of amorphous ribbon core transformers 1, Energy saving can be improved up to 75 % over conventional silicone steel core CO, SO emission of hazardous gasses is reduced significantly Fossil fuel consumption is reduced 2, 3 4, Fast and easy repair due to modular construction 5. Temperature rise in the core is reduced 6. Overloading capacity is higher because of lesser heat generation due to lower losses, im 2.16 Phase Shifting Transformer (PST) * Phase shifters are largely used in power systems for controlling the magnitude and direction of the active power flow. The typical representation of PST is shown in the Fig, 2.16.1, By injecting a voltage in series with the line the control of the magnitude and direction of real power flow on the line is achieved. This will also change the phase angle of the receiving end voltage. A variable series voltage is obtained by a tap changer which acts on the regulating winding. It is then injected by the booster winding across the series winding. Series winding Booster winding Exciting winding Regulating winding Fig. 2.16.1 : Phase shifting transformer A typical PST will be capable of providing variable phase angle shift up to 20°. However, changing the phase angle of the injected voltage through the taps takes time because of the slowly operating nature of phase shifting transformers. When PST uses mechanical taps, this can only be applied for very limited works with slow requirements under steady state system conditions. Quadrature booster is a unique form of transformer used to control the @ ‘Downloaded from Edabuzz360.com 's vindrold app CaanBo Edubuzz360 es real power flow on three-phase electricity transmission networks. It is shown in the Fig, 2.16.2. For an alternating current transmission line, power flow through the line is directly proportional to the sine of the phase angle difference between sending and receiving end voltages. Series transformer u u 2 2 us 3 ‘Shunt transformer Fig. 2.16.2: Quadrature booster transformer (PST) * Where parallel circuits with varying capacity is installed between two points in a transmission grid whether an overhead line and an underground cable, direct handling of the phase angle permits control of the division of power flow between the paths, while preventing overload. Quadrature boosters thus help to relieve overloads on heavily loaded circuits and changing the power flow paths through more favorable paths. A phase shifting transformer usually consists of two separate transformers, A shunt unit and a series unit. The shunt unit windings will be connected across the phases. If its output voltage is proportional to, and in phase with, the primary-side phase voltage then series transformer will produce a change in voltage magnitude. On the other hand, shunt transformer can be installed so that its output voltages proportional to the primary-side phase-to-phase voltage. The output voltage phasor diagram of PST is shown in the Fig, 2.16.3. Since the line voltage between two phases in a three-phase system is always in quadrature with the voltage of third phase, the series transformer will bring a negligible change in voltage magnitude but a large change in voltage angle. Decne ene SEBo Edubuzz360 Fig. 2.16.3 : Output voltage phasor of PST “> 2.17 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) One of the serious challenges this world is facing is environmental concern regarding the consumption of fossil fuels. Consequently, consumption of more renewable resources and promotion of a clean transport system such as the use of Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) has become the forefront of the new energy policies. However, the invention of PHEVs in the automobile industries raises concerns about power system stability in the network. The typical representation of PHEV is shown in the Fig. 2.17.1. A series of PHEV studies in UK with respect to the aggregate load profile of PHEVs energy consumption resulted in different price scenarios. The results indicate that under the fixed rate and time of use in the current grid, the extra load of the PHEV increases the consumption profile and also generates new critical points. So, excess standby capacity becomes mandatory to satisfy the peak demand even for a short period of time. Alternatively, when the consumers do not pay the price depending on the true cost of supply, then those who utilize less in peak hours will subsidize the ones who utilize more. This is a critical point in the use of PHEV with respect to regulatory issues. However, smart grids can cope up with PHEYs without raising technical and regulatory problems. This positive consequence is the outcome of demand response to the real time pricing. When analyzed with respect to technical issues, PHEVs load can be shifted to the late evening and the hours of minimum demand. When welfare analysis is considered, real time pricing generates no deadweight losses. Because of this the demand response will limit the spot market clearing price. @ ‘Downloaded from Cdubuss360.com 's Androl vip C=Bo Edubuzz360 ies ‘=> 2.17.1 Vehicle-To-Grid Technology (V2G) Because of smart grid, the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) concept has become reality. The V2G incorporation permits PHEVs to act as resources to the grid. There are several potential applications for V2G technology. During peak hours if the demand for power in the grid exceeds the supply, then PHEVs will be able to supply peak power. There are also many applications in which the vehicles help to balance the power in feed prediction error of renewable energy generators, Even PHEVs sometimes provide ancillary services to the power grid in order to stabilize the network. — Exhaust system Internal combustion engine “ Fuel filer (spark ignited) Power electronics controller DCC converter Thermal system moa or Fuel tank (gasoline) ’ ~ Traction battery pack Battery (auxilary) Fig. 2.17.1 : Ford Class B - PHEV ‘=> 2.17.2 Merits of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle * The following are considered as the advantages of PHEV 1. The fuel consumption is reduced from 30% to 60%, reduces fuel consumption. 2. Due to the application of battery and charging abilities of PHEV, greenhouse gases produced by the vehicle are minimized Since battery is largely used for the movement of the vehicle, fuel consumption cost is reduced. Even though initial cost of buying is relatively higher, in the long run compared to regular cars PHEV is economical 4. PHEV has several energy generators and motors which are smaller in size and lesser in weight. Therefore this reduces fuel consumption without interfering with the performance of the vehicle @ ‘Downloaded from CAstburz360.com 's “Androld “App zz